# Ndu languages

The Ndu languages are the best known family of the Sepik languages of East Sepik Province in northern Papua New Guinea. Ndu is the word for 'man' in the languages that make up this group. The languages were first identified as a related family by Kirschbaum in 1922.
Along with the Arapesh languages, Ndu languages are among the best documented languages in the Sepik basin, with comprehensive grammars available for many languages.
A diagnostic innovative feature in the Ndu languages is the replacement of the proto-Sepik pronoun *wun ‘I’ with proto-Ndu *an ~ *na.

## Languages

Abelam is the most populous language, with about 45,000 speakers, though Iatmül is better known to the outside world. There are eight to twelve Ndu languages; Usher (2020) counts nine:
* Ngala
* Ndu proper
    Iatmul, Manambu, Yelogu (Yalaku), Abelam (Ambulas), Boiken–Koiwat, Gaikundi, Sos Kundi (Sawos Kundi)
Also sometimes distinguished are Keak (close to Iatmul or Sos Kundi), Kwasengen (or Hanga Hundi, close to Ambulas), Burui (close to Gai Kundi), and Sengo.

## Phonology

Most Sepik and neighboring languages have systems of three vowels, /ɨ ə a/, that are distinct only in height. Phonetic [i e u o] are a result of palatal and labial assimilation of /ɨ ə/ to adjacent consonants. The Ndu languages may take this reduction a step further: In these languages, /ɨ/ is used as an epenthetic vowel to break up consonant clusters in compound words. Within words, /ɨ/ only occurs between similar consonants, and seems to be explicable as epenthesis there as well, so that the only underlying vowels that need to be assumed are /ə/ and /a/. That is, the Ndu languages may be a rare case of a two-vowel system, the others being the Arrernte and Northwest Caucasian languages. However, contrasting analyses of these same languages may posit a dozen vowel monophthongs.
For Ndu languages, the glottalized low vowel /a̭/ is often written as /aʔa/. This does not signify /a/ followed by a glottal stop and another /a/.

## Morphology

Ndu languages mark first and second person possessors with -n, and third person possessors with -k.

### Ambulas

wunɨ-nə
1SG-POSS
mbalɨ
pig
wunɨ-nə mbalɨ
1SG-POSS pig
‘my pig’
ndɨ-ku
3SG-POSS
mbalɨ
pig
ndɨ-ku mbalɨ
3SG-POSS pig
‘his pig’

### Manambu

wun-(n)a
1SG-POSS
maːm
older.sibling
wun-(n)a maːm
1SG-POSS older.sibling
‘my elder sister’
ndɨ-kɨ-ndɨ
3SG-POSS-M.SG
yaːmb
road
ndɨ-kɨ-ndɨ yaːmb
3SG-POSS-M.SG road
‘his road’
Ndu languages make use of the general locative case suffix -mb (-m in Manambu):

### Ambulas

kwalɨ
neck
kambɨlɨ-mbə
river-LOC
kwalɨ kambɨlɨ-mbə
neck river-LOC
‘at the source of the river’

### Manambu

ŋgu-aːm
water-LINK.LOC
ŋgu-aːm
water-LINK.LOC
‘in water’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
Ndu languages have two dative-type case markers, with the forms and meanings varying across languages:
* -t (-r in Manambu): allative meaning (‘to’ or ‘toward’)
* -k: benefactive (beneficiary or recipient) meaning
Examples of dative case markers in Ambulas and Manambu:

### Ambulas

ndu
man
mbɨrɨ
PL
takwə
woman
mbɨr-ət
PL-ALL
ndu mbɨrɨ takwə mbɨr-ət
man PL woman PL-ALL
‘toward the men and women’
ɲjɨmba
work
yə-kwə
do-PRS
ndu-kɨ
man-BEN
ɲjɨmba yə-kwə ndu-kɨ
work do-PRS man-BEN
‘for the men who work’

### Manambu

ar-aːr
lake-LINK.ALL
yi-tɨk
go-1DU.SBJ.IMP
ar-aːr yi-tɨk
lake-LINK.ALL go-1DU.SBJ.IMP
‘Let’s both go to the lake.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
a-ndɨ
that-M.SG
ɲɨnɨk
child.LINK.BEN
a-ndɨ ɲɨnɨk
that-M.SG child.LINK.BEN
‘for that child’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
Dative case markers are also used to mark animate objects of transitive verbs, which is a Sepik-Ramu areal feature. An example of the Ambulas allative case marker -t:
wunɨ
1SG
ɲan-ɨt
child-ALL
kenək-kwə
scold-PRS
wunɨ ɲan-ɨt kenək-kwə
1SG child-ALL scold-PRS
‘I’m scolding the child.’

## Proto-language
### Pronouns

Reconstructed proto-Ndu pronouns by Foley (2005):
    sgdupl 1 *wɨn*an*nan 2m *mɨn *mpɨr *ŋkɨwr 2f *ɲɨn 3m *ntɨ *ntəy 3f *lɨ
Note that there is a gender distinction for first-person pronouns.

### Lexicon

A phonological reconstruction of proto-Ndu has been proposed by Foley (2005). Lexical reconstructions from Foley (2005) are listed below. The homeland of proto-Ndu is located just upstream of Ambunti.
    Proto-Ndu reconstructions by Foley (2005) glossproto-NduManambuIatmulAbelamSawosBoikenNgala one*nəknəkkɨtanekkɨtaknapənək man*ntɨwntiwntɨwntɨwtɨwriw water*ŋkɨwŋkɨwŋkɨwŋkɨwŋkɨwkɨwŋkɨw rain*maytwarmaykmacwirɨmacɲmac fire*yayayayahwɨypaya sun*ɲaɲəɲaɲaɲaɲa moon*mpapmɨwmpapɨwmpwapmpapmɨwpwapwəkamwɨ house*ŋkəywɨyŋkəyŋkəyŋkaykəyŋkəy breast*mɨwɲmɨwɲmɨpəmɨwɲəmwɨyɲmɨwɲ tooth*nɨmpɨyɨwknɨmpɨynɨmpɨynɨmpɨynɨmpɨy bone*apəapavəapəyapəampɨ tongue*tɨkŋatɨkalɨrtɨkattɨkŋalɨntɨkŋalɨtɨkan eye*mɨyRmɨyrmɨynɨymɨynɨymɨynɨymɨyl nose*tam(w)ətamtamətamətamətamwə leg*manmanmanmanmanmanrawɨ ear*wanwanwanwanwan tree*mɨymɨymɨymɨymɨymɨy name*cɨcɨcɨɨycɨcɨ pig*mp(w)almparmpakmpalɨpwalɨmpwal dog*wac, *waracwarəwacəwarəpyəp snake*kampwəykampaykampwəykampwəyhampwəymapwɨcɨ mosquito*kɨvɨykɨvɨykɨvyəkwɨyəmɨkɨycɨcɨvyə see*vɨvɨvɨvɨvɨtəyf eat*kɨkɨkɨkəhəkɨ go*yɨyɨyɨyɨyɨyɨyɨ come*yayayayayaya sit*rərɨrɨrərəyəlkɨy stand*rap(m)rapraprapmrapm