# Dusun language

Central Dusun, also known as Bunduliwan (Dusun: Boros Dusun), is an Austronesian language and one of the more widespread languages spoken by the Dusun (including Kadazan) peoples of Sabah, Malaysia.

## History

What is termed as Central Dusun (or simply Dusun) and Coastal Kadazan (or simply Kadazan) are deemed to be highly mutually intelligible to one other; many consider these to be part of a single language.
The language was among many other Sabahan vernacular languages suppressed under Mustapha Harun's assimilationist enforcement of Bahasa Malaysia across the state. Under the efforts of the Kadazandusun Cultural Association Sabah, in 1995, the central Bundu-Liwan dialect was selected to serve as the basis for a standardised "Kadazandusun" language. This dialect, spoken in the Bundu and Liwan valleys of the Crocker-Trusmadi ranges (now parts of the present-day districts of Ranau, Tambunan and Keningau), was selected as it was deemed to be the most mutually intelligible when conversing with other "Dusun" or "Kadazan" dialects.

## Phonology

The phonemes in Central Dusun and Coastal Kadazan are as follows:

### Consonants

Central Dusun consonants :
| | | Labial | Alveolar | Dorsal | Glottal |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | n | ŋ | |
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | k | ʔ |
| Plosive | voiced | b | d | ɡ | |
| Fricative | Fricative | | s | | h |
| Rhotic | Rhotic | | r | | |
| Approximant | Approximant | w | l | j | |
Robinson specifies that /r/ in Tindal Dusun is a flap [ɾ].
Coastal Kadazan consonants :
| | | Labial | Alveolar | Dorsal | Glottal |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | n | ŋ | |
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | k | ʔ |
| Plosive | voiced | b | d | ɡ | |
| Implosive | Implosive | ɓ | ɗ | | |
| Fricative | voiceless | | s | | h |
| Fricative | voiced | v | z | | |
| Approximant | Approximant | | l | | |
[x] occurs as an allophone of /k/ in word-medial position.
Tangit and MBDK note that Coastal Kadazan consonants correspond to the following consonants found in other varieties:
| Central Dusun consonant | Coastal Kadazan cognate | Example |
| /r/ | /l/ | CD ralan, CK lahan "road" |
| /r/ | /∅/ | CD boros, CK boos "word" |
| /l/ | /h/ | CD loyou, CK hozou "song" |
| /w/ | /v/ | CD awasi, CK avasi "good" |
| /j/ | /z/ | CD agayo, CK agazo "big" |

### Vowels

Kadazandusun is usually said to have four vowels /a i u o/. According to Tingit, /o/ in Central Dusun is less rounded than in Coastal Kadazan and is sometimes represented with ⟨e⟩.

## Orthography

Dusun is written using the Latin alphabet using 21 characters (the letters C, E, F, Q, and X are used in loanwords):
A B D G H I J K L M N O P R S T U V W Y Z
These characters together are called Pimato.
Diphthongs: ⟨aa⟩ ⟨ai⟩ (sometimes pronounced /e/) ⟨ii⟩ ⟨oi⟩ ⟨uu⟩
Some combinations of vowels do not form diphthongs and each vowel retains its separate sound: ⟨ao⟩ ⟨ia⟩ ⟨iu⟩ ⟨ui⟩ ⟨ue⟩. In some words ⟨aa⟩ is not a diphthong, and this is indicated by an apostrophe between the two vowels: a'a.

## Grammar
### Personal pronouns

Tindal Dusun has a Philippine-type focus system of syntax that makes one particular noun phrase in a sentence the most prominent. This prominent, focused noun phrase does not need to be the subject or the agent of the clause. In clauses with pronouns, the verbal morphology and the pronoun both indicate focus. If the verb carries actor focus morphology, the actor of the clause will therefore be a nominative pronoun (or, rarely, an emphatic pronoun). Any other noun phrase in the clause will necessarily take pronouns from a different set, as only one noun phrase can be in focus in any given clause.
Tindal pronouns :
| Gloss | Nominative | Genitive | Oblique | Emphatic |
| 1sg | oku | ku | doho | joho |
| 2sg | ko | nu | diaʔ | jaʔ |
| 3sg | isio | disio~dow | isio | isio |
| 1in | toko | toko | toko | jatiʔ |
| 1ex | jahaj~jahɛː | dahɛː | dahɛː | jahɛː |
| 2pl | jokow | dokow | jokow | jokow |
| 3pl | joloʔ | dioloʔ | joloʔ | joloʔ |
Kadazandusun pronouns :
| Gloss | Emphatic | Nominative | Genitive | Oblique |
| 1sg | yoku | oku | ku | doho |
| 1du | yato/iyahai | kito/iyahai/ikoi | dato/dahai | dato/dahai |
| 1pl | yotokou | tokou | tokou | dotokou |
| 2sg | ika/ia' | ko/ika/ia' | nu | dia'/dika |
| 2pl | ikoyu | kou | dikoyu | dikoyu |
| 3sg.m | isio | isio | disido/dau | disido/dau |
| 3sg.f | isido | isido | dosido/dau | dosido/dau |
| 3pl | yolo | yolo | diolo | diolo |
"The "emphatic" pronouns are used alone or preposedly, either as answers or to stress the pronoun.

#### Examples

Ika
You(emph)
i
[personal]
Kinomulok?
Kinomulok
Ika i Kinomulok?
You(emph) [personal] Kinomulok
Are you Kinomulok?
I
[personal]
Kinomulok
Kinomulok
oku
I
I Kinomulok oku
[personal] Kinomulok I
I am Kinomulok.
Isai
Who
ko?
you(non-emph)
Isai ko?
Who you(non-emph)
Who are you?
I
[personal]
Tolimu
Batholomew
oku
I
I Tolimu oku
[personal] Batholomew I
I am Bartholomew.
Ika
You
mongoi.
go
Ika mongoi.
You go
You go.

### Sentence structure

A typical Dusun sentence is VSO.
Poposidang
dry
oku
I
parai.
rice
Poposidang oku parai.
dry I rice
I dry rice.
It is, however, possible for a grammatically correct Dusun sentence to be SVO.
Oinsanan
all
tangaanak
children
sikul
school
nonuan
given
do uniform.
uniform
Oinsanan tangaanak sikul nonuan {do uniform.}
all children school given uniform
All students have been given uniforms.

## Vocabulary

Numerals :
| English | Dusun |
| one | iso |
| two | duo |
| three | tolu |
| four | apat |
| five | limo |
| six | onom |
| seven | turu |
| eight | walu |
| nine | siam |
| ten | hopod |
| hundred | hatus |
| thousand | soriong |
To form numbers such as fifty or sixty, a multiplier is combined with a positional unit (tens, hundreds, thousands etc.), using no.
tolu
three
no
already
hopod
ten
tolu no hopod
three already ten
thirty
Separate units are combined with om.
soriong
1000
om
and
turu
seven
no
already
hatus
100
om
and
duo
two
no
already
hopod
ten
om
and
siam
nine
soriong om turu no hatus om duo no hopod om siam
1000 and seven already 100 and two already ten and nine
one thousand, seven hundred and twenty nine
Months :
| English | Dusun |
| January | Milatok |
| February | Mansak |
| March | Gomot |
| April | Ngiop |
| May | Mikat |
| June | Lumahas |
| July | Madas |
| August | Magus |
| September | Manom |
| October | Gumas |
| November | Milau |
| December | Momuhau |
The Dusun name of the months derive from the traditional cycle of paddy harvesting.
Days of the week :
| English | Dusun | Dusun |
| English | Dusun name | Numerical |
| Monday | Tontolu | Tadau koiso |
| Tuesday | Mirod | Tadau koduo |
| Wednesday | Madsa | Tadau kotolu |
| Thursday | Tadtaru | Tadau kaapat |
| Friday | Kurudu | Tadau kolimo |
| Saturday | Kukuak | Tadau koonom |
| Sunday | Tiwang | Tadau koturu/minggu |
The names for the days of the week are mostly based on a simple numerical sequence, which is commonly used for media and newspapers. The names of Dusun days as part of the seven-day week derive from the life cycle of a butterfly.
Interrogatives :
| English | Dusun |
| what | nunu/onu |
| who | isai |
| where | hombo/nonggo |
| when | soira |
| why | okuro |
| how | poingkuro |
| how many | piro/songkuro |

## Dialects

Central Dusun language survived by three main dialect groups.
Liwanic : Liwan, Inobong Dusun
Bunduic : Tindal, Bundu, Sinulihan, Tagahas-Tibabar, Gobukon-Luba
Ulu Sugut Dusun : Tinagas, Talantang, Tuhawon
All Central Dusun dialects are 100% mutually intelligible when conversing.

## Examples
### Genesis 1:1–5

1 $^1$ Tontok di timpuun i' om wonsoyo' no dii Kinorohingan do tawan om pomogunan. $^2$ Aiso' po suang do pomogunan, om aiso' o poimpasi; om noolitan di rahat dot opuhod, om odondom o kotuongo'. Nga' mintongkopi' Rusod do Kinorohingan do hiri'd soibau di waig. $^3$ Om pimboros noh Kinorohingan do poingkaa, "Nawau no," ka – om haro noddi o tanawau. $^4$ Om kokito noh Kinorohingan dot osonong i tanawau, om potongkiado' no dau i tanawau do mantad id totuong. $^5$ Om pungaranai noh Kinorohingan do "Dangadau" i tanawau, om "Dongotuong" i totuong. Om korikot no sosodopon om korikot nogiddi kosuabon – iri no tadau do koiso'.

## Citations

* ↑ "Demographic Statistics, First Quarter 2024". Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Archived from the original on 22 June 2024. Retrieved 22 June 2024.
* ↑ Central Dusun at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
* ↑ Bating, Henry (2008). Bahasa Kadazandusun dan Pembakuan [The Kadazandusun Language and Standardization]. Kursus Pemantapan Profesionalisme Bahasa Kadazandusun (in Malay). IPG Keningau. pp. 1–11.
* ↑ Lent, John A. (1974). "Malaysia's guided media". Index on Censorship. 3 (4): 66. doi:10.1080/03064227408532375.
* ↑ "Official Language & Dialects". Kadazandusun Cultural Association Sabah. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
* ↑ Lasimbang, Rita; Kinajil, Trixie (2004). "Building Terminology in the Kadazandusun Language". Current Issues in Language Planning. 5 (2): 131–141. doi:10.1080/13683500408668253.
* ↑ Miller, Carolyn (1993). "Kadazan/Dusun Phonology Revisited". In Boutin, Michael E.; Pekkanen, Inka (eds.). Phonological Descriptions of Sabah Languages: Studies from Ten Languages: Bonggi, Ida'an, Kadazan/Dusun, Kalabuan, Kimaragang, Labuk-Kinabatangan Kadazan, Lotud, Tagal, Tatana', Tombonuwo. Sabah Museum Monograph, Vol. 4. Kota Kinabalu: Sabah State Museum. pp. 1–14.
* ↑ Robinson, Laura C. (2005). A Sketch Grammar of Tindal Dusun (PDF). Working Papers in Linguistics, 36(5). University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 October 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
* 1 2 Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia (2008). Puralan Boros Kadazandusun id Sikul (in Central Dusun). Putrajaya: Bahagian Pembangunan Kurikulum.
* ↑ Komoiboros Dusun Kadazan [Duzunkadazan Dictionary]. Malaysia: Mongulud Boros Dusun Kadazan. 1994. pp. 29–30.
* ↑ Minah Sintian (2019). Struktur Binaan Ayat Bahasa Kadazandusun dan Bahasa Melayu: Satu Pengenalan [Kadazandusun and Malay Language Structural Sentence Construction: An Introduction]. Paper presented at the Seminar Antarabangsa Susastera, Bahasa dan Budaya Nusantara (SUTERA) 2019, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Pusat Penyelidikan Langkawi UKM, 1–2 August 2019 (in Malay) – via ResearchGate.
* 1 2 Price, Daniel Charles (2007). Bundu Dusun Sketch Grammar (in English and Central Dusun). Crawley: University of Western Australia.
* 1 2 Joseph Yabai, @ Jausip (18 August 2016). "Ondomo do tikid tadauwulan tulun Kadazandusun" [Memorize the calendar of the Kadazandusun]. Utusan Borneo (in Central Dusun). Retrieved 22 December 2021 – via PressReader.
* ↑ Buuk do Kinorohingan: Habar dot Osonong (in Central Dusun). Petaling Jaya: Pertubuhan Bible Malaysia. 2007. ISBN 978-983-030-117-4.