# Pidjanan languages

The Pidjanan languages are a subgroup of Arawakan languages of northern South America.

## Names

The term Pidjanan was coined by Sérgio Meira (2019) from Wapishana pidan ‘people’, as can be seen in the ethnonyms Wa-pishana and Mao-pidian.
They are referred to as Mapidianic in Glottolog 4.3, and as Rio Branco by Nikulin & Carvalho (2019: 270).

## Languages

According to Meira (2019), the Pidjanan languages are:
* Pidjanan
** Mawayana (Mapidian, Maopidian), spoken by a dozen elderly people living in ethnic Waiwai and Tiriyó villages in Brazil and Suriname
** Wapishana, spoken by over 6,000 people on both sides of the Guyana-Brazil border
** ? Atorad (Atorai)
Wapishana is more conservative, while Mawayana has innovated more from Proto-Pidjanan.
Ramirez's (2020) classification is:$^{:36}$
* Pidjanan
** Mawayana
** Wapishanan
**** Wapishana
**** Atorai
**** Parawana
**** Aroaqui
Parawana and Aroaqui are closely related, and may be the same language.

## Proto-language

Proto-Pidjanan has been reconstructed by Meira (2019).

### Phonology

Proto-Pidjanan consonant phonemes:
    Labial Alveolar Palatal Retroflex Velar Glottal Plosive *p*t*k*ʔ Implosive *ɓ*ɗ*ɗʲ Affricate *ʦ,*ʧ Fricative *s*ʐ Tap/Flap *ɾ*ɽ Nasal *m*n*ɲ Approximant *w(*j)
Proto-Pidjanan vowel phonemes:
    Front Central Back Close *i*ɨ*u Open *a

### Morphology

Proto-Pidjanan person-marking prefixes:
    pronounProto-PidjananMawayanaWapishana 1S *nu-n-ũ- 2S *pɨ-ɨ-pɨ- 3S.MASC *(ɾ)ɨ-ɾɨ-ɨ- 3S.FEM *(ɾ)u-u-u- 3S.COREF *pa-a-pa- 1P *wa-wa-wa- 2P *ɨ-ɨ-pɨ- 3P *nV-na--ĩ
Proto-Pidjanan person-marking suffixes:
    pronounProto-PidjananMawayanaWapishana 1S *-na-na-n, -na 2S *-pV-i-p, -pa 3S.MASC *-(ɽ)ɨ-sɨ-ʐɨ 3S.FEM *-(ɽ)u-ʐu 1P *-wi-wi 2P *-wiko-wiko 3P *-nu-nu-ʐɨ
The functions of person markers (verbs in the -ɲɨ ‘realis’/‘present’ form).
    personal marker functionProto-PidjananMawayanaWapishana A and O on transitives *nu-ɾuʔita-ɲɨ-ɽɨ ‘I hit him’n-ɾite-sɨũ-ʐuʔita-nɨ-ʐɨ SA on active intransitives *(ɾ)ɨ-siʔuka-ɲɨ ‘he walks’ɾɨ-sukeɨ-ʧiʔika-n SO on stative intransitives *wɨɽa(-ɲɨ)-ɽɨ ‘he is red’usa-sɨɨ-wɨʐa(-n) arguments on adpositions *(ɾ)ɨ-(i)tɨma ‘with him’ɾi-ʃimaɨ-tɨma possessors on nouns *nu-kɨnɨ ‘my song’n-kɨnɨũ-kɨnɨ
Nominal possession possessed and non-possessed forms.
    possession markerProto-PidjananMawayanaWapishana Possession marker *-nɨ (e.g., *wa-maɾija-nɨ ‘our knife’)wa-maɾe-nɨwa-marija-n Possession marker zero *(ɾ)ɨ-ʦaɓa ‘his seat’ɾiʔ-isaɓaɨ-taɓa Non-possessed status *(i)ʦaɓa-i ‘seat’isaɓetaɓa-i

### Lexicon

Unless indicated otherwise, the Mawayana and Wapishana data below is from Sérgio Meira's field notes, as cited in Meira (2019).
Meira's Mawayana data is from Marurunau, Guyana, and his Wapishana data is from Mapuera (a village that is mostly ethnic Waiwai), Nhamundá-Mapuera Indigenous Area, Pará State, Brazil. The other sources are:
* Howard (1985-1986)
* Carlin (2006)
* Carlin (no date)
* WLP (2000)
* Silva, Silva & Oliveira (2013)
* WLP (2001)
    no.glossProto-PidjananMawayanasource (Mawayana)Wapishanasource (Wapishana) 1açaí palm*waɓuwaɓuwaɓuWLP (2000) 2acouchy*aɗuɾiaɗuɾiaɗuɾiWLP (2000) 3ant sp.*kukikuki ‘saúva’kuki ‘leafcutter ant’ 4armadillo sp.*mVɾuɾV ?muɾuɾa ‘armadillo sp.’maɾuɾu ‘giant armadillo’ 5armpit*kisapuɾɨ-keːsuɨ-kiʃapu 6as (essive)*niːni ‘(change) into’Carlin (2006)niː ‘future’, ‘essive’ 7bacaba palm*mapɨɽɨmɨsɨmapɨʐaWLP (2000) 8banana*sɨːɽɨsɨsɨɓasɨːʐɨWLP (2000) 9bat*tamaɾɨwatamaɾɨwatamaɾɨuWLP (2000) 10bathe (to)*kawakaw-eCarlin (no date)ũ-kau-pa-nSilva, Silva & Oliveira (2013) 11beads*kasuɾuːkasuɾukaʃuɾuːWLP (2000) 12bee / honey*maːɓamaɓamaːɓa 13belt*ɽantawɨɨ-ɾantawɨɗaʐaːɗawiWLP (2000) 14bird*kutɨʔɨɽakuʧɨsakutɨʔɨʐa 15bird sp. 1*anaɾauanaɾu ‘socó (heron sp.)’anaɾau ‘marrecão (duck sp.)’Silva, Silva & Oliveira (2013) 16bird sp. 2*ma(ɾ)atɨmaːtɨ ‘jacu bird’maɾatɨ ‘unidentified bird’WLP (2000) 17bird sp. 3*kaɾapakaɾahpaɗa ‘arahka’Carlin (no date)kaɾapa ‘aracuã’WLP (2001) 18bite (to)*a(ɾ)uːtaɾ-autʃa-na ‘he bit me’Carlin (2006)aɾuːta-nSilva, Silva & Oliveira (2013) 19black*puɗɨuɗɨ-ɾepuɗɨ-ʔuWLP (2000) 20blow (to)*puːtaɾ-uʧ-eHoward (1985-1986)ɨ-puːta-nWLP (2000) 21Brazil nut*minaɨminɨ ‘peanut’, ‘Brazil nut’minaɨWLP (2000) 22breast*ɗɨɲɨɾiː-ɗɨɨ-ɗɨnɨWLP (2000) 23buriti palm*ɗʲɨwɨjɨwɨ ‘buriti’ɗʲɨwɨ ‘ité fruit’WLP (2000) 24burn (to)*kaʔawakaw-e ‘burn (intr.)’kaʔawa-n ‘burn (intr.)’WLP (2000) 25butterfly*ʦamaʦamasamasamatamtamWLP (2000) 26caiman sp.*atuɾɨaʧuɾɨatuɾɨ ‘small caiman’ 27cajá fruit*ɽuːɓaɾuɓaʐuːpSilva, Silva & Oliveira (2013) 28canoe*kanawakanawakanawaWLP (2000) 29capybara*kasukasukaʃuWLP (2000) 30child*kuɾai-kuɾenukuɾaiɗaunaː 31child / egg*ɗaɲiɾiː-ɗe, ɾiː-ɗesiɨ-ɗani 32cicada*wamuwomuwamuSilva, Silva & Oliveira (2013) 33claw / nail*ɓaɗʲiɾɨ-ɓaɗʲiɨ-ɓaʐiWLP (2000) 34coati*kuaɗjɨkaɗɨkuaʧiWLP (2000) 35cockroach*ɓasaɾawaɓasaɾawaɓaʃaɾauWLP (2000) 36comb*mauCimutiɓamaudiWLP (2000) 37corn*maɽikimaɾikimaʐikiWLP (2000) 38curassow*pawisiawisipawiʃiSilva, Silva & Oliveira (2013) 39deer sp.*kusaɾakusaɾa ‘deer, small’kuʃaɾa ‘deer, bush’ 40die (to)*mawa-maw-ɗamawa-ka, mau-ka-nWLP (2000) 41dry*maːɾamaɾa-ɓa-sɨHoward (1985-1986)maːɾa-nWLP (2000) 42eagle sp.*kuku-kukuɗa ‘hawk sp.’kukui ‘harpy eagle’WLP (2000) 43earthworm*paɽaɾuaɾaɾupaʐaɾuWLP (2000) 44eat (to)*ɲikaɾ-ĩkapɨ-nikaWLP (2000) 45elbow*patuɾiɾiː-ɸaʧuɾiɨ-patuɾiWLP (2000) 46electric eel*kaʦumikatumikasumiWLP (2000) 47fan*awaɾibawiɾiɓe, n-wiɾiɓaawaɾiɓa-iWLP (2000) 48father*Caɾɨ-taɨ-daɾɨ 49fire*tikaɽiʃikaɾitikaʐi 50fish*kupaɨkuwɨkupaɨ 51fish sp. 1*ɽiːtaɾiʧe ‘traíra’ʐiːtaɓa ‘fish sp.’WLP (2000) 52fish sp. 2*aʧimaɾaatimaɾa ‘trairão’aʧimaɾa ‘fish sp.’WLP (2000) 53fish sp. 3*kuɾɨɽɨkuɾɨsɨ ‘surubim’kuɾɨʐɨ ‘surubim’WLP (2000) 54flat area*ɗaːɾaɗaɾa ‘grass(land)’ɗaːɾa ‘a flat barrier’WLP (2000) 55flower*sɨwɨɾɨ-sɨwɨHoward (1985-1986)ɨ-suːsuWLP (2000) 56from*(ɾ)ikiaʔu-ɾiki ‘from there’Carlin (2006)ikiWLP (2000) 57fruit*(a)kaɾɨ-kaɨ-akaWLP (2000) 58give (to)*taːɾɨ-ʧ-e-sɨHoward (1985-1986)ɨ-taː-n 59grandmother*(ʃ)Vːɽu ?wa-ʃuɾuɨʔ- ɨːʐuWLP (2000) 60hair*iCiɾ-iʃiɾamaɨ-iʃiWLP (2000) 61hand*kaʔɨɾɨ-kɨɓaɨ-kaʔɨ 62heart*ɲɨkɨɲɨjaɾiːʔ-ĩkĩjãɨ-ɲɨkɨnɨːWLP (2000) 63hit (to)*ɽuʔitaɾita-ka-nu ‘hit each other’Howard (1985-1986)ɨ-ʐuʔita-n ‘he hit’WLP (2000) 64house*paɲi-aĩkupaniɓa ‘outside’, paniːnum ‘entrance, door, doorway’WLP (2000) 65I*nnunnuũɡaɾɨWLP (2000) 66if / when*anaanaCarlin (2006)anaWLP (2000) 67iguana*suwanasuwanaɗasuwanWLP (2000) 68inajá palm*puk- ?ukatɨ ‘inajá’pukuɾidi ‘kokorite palm’WLP (2000) 69ingá tree*kuɾamikuɾami ‘ingá’kuɾami ‘ingá do mato’Silva, Silva & Oliveira (2013) 70intestines*ukuɾi(ɾi)ɾ-ukuɾiɾiɨ-ukuɾi 71knee*kuɗuɾuɾiː-kuɗuɾuɨ-kuɗuɾu 72knife*maɾijamaɾemaɾiː, ɨ-maɾija-n 73language*paɾaɾiːʔ-aɾaɨ-paɾada-nWLP (2000) 74leaf*anaɓaɾ-anaɓaɨ-anaɓaWLP (2000) 75left hand*asVɓa-asuɓaɗʲanu ‘right hand’Howard (1985-1986)aʃaɓaɾuSilva, Silva & Oliveira (2013) 76leg / shin*(i)taɓaɾiː-ʃaɓa ‘leg, shin’ɨ-taɓaʔu ‘leg’ 77louse*nnainninai 78macaw sp.*(k)aɽaɾuaɾaɾu ‘yellow macaw’kaʐaɾɨ ‘yellow macaw’WLP (2000) 79manioc*kaɲɨɽɨkaːsɨ, kãːsɨkanɨʐɨWLP (2000) 80manioc press*(ɲ)iːɽu- ?isuneniːʐuWLP (2000) 81meat food*wɨɲɨwĩ, ɾɨ-wɨnɨHoward (1985-1986)wɨnɨ-i, ɨ-wɨnɨWLP (2000) 82medicine*-ʦaɾaɾɨ-ɨtaɾaɨ-kasaɾaWLP (2000) 83monkey sp. 1*ɾuːmuɾumu ‘spider monkey’ɾuːmi ‘spider monkey’ 84monkey sp. 2*ʦɨɓɨɾɨtɨɓɨɾɨ ‘howler monkey’sɨɓɨɾɨ ‘howler monkey’ 85monkey sp. 3*puwatɨotʃɨ ‘capuchin monkey’puwatɨ ‘capuchin monkey’ 86monkey sp. 4*(i)ʧaɨmaːʧɨma ‘tamarin monkey’ʧaɨmaː ‘black tamarin’Silva, Silva & Oliveira (2013) 87moon*kaɨɽɨkɨsɨkaɨʐɨ 88mosquito sp.*miʦumitumisu 89mother*Caɾuɾiː-taɾuɨ-daɾu 90murumuru*ɓɨɾɨɓɨɾɨ ‘murumuru palm’ɓɨɾɨ ‘palm (unidentified)’WLP (2000) 91nose*(i)ɗiɓaɾɨ-tiɓaɨ-iɗiɓa 92old man*tɨɲa(u)ɾɨnautauɾɨnutɨnaɾɨnau 93opossum sp.*waːʦawata ‘opossum sp.’waːsa ‘opossum, woolly’WLP (2000) 94other*ɓaʔuɾVnuɓuɾunuHoward (1985-1986)ɓaʔuɾan, ɓaʔuɾanɨ-aɓaWLP (2000) 95papaya*maʔapajamaɓajamaʔapaiWLP (2000) 96parrot sp.*waɾuwaɾuwaɾuWLP (2000) 97partner*miɲa- ?ɾiː-meːɾawaɨ-minaɨɗaʔɨWLP (2000) 98path*ɗɨnapuɗɨnuɗɨnapuWLP (2000) 99payment*winipaɾi-winaɨ-winipaWLP (2000) 100peccary sp. 1*ɓakɨɾaɓakɨɾa ‘collared peccary’ɓakɨɾɨ ‘collared peccary’ 101peccary sp. 2*Ciʧaɾita ‘white-lipped peccary’ɓiʧa, ɓiʧi ‘white-lipped peccary’ 102person*piɗaɲaɗʲe, ɗʲeːpiɗan, piɗana-nWLP (2000) 103pet*ɨɽaɾ-ɨsaHoward (1985-1986)ɨʔ-ɨʐaWLP (2000) 104red*wɨɽausa-sɨwɨʐa-ʔuWLP (2000) 105rib*aɾaɗɨ(ɗɨ)ɾiːʔ-aɾaɗɨɨ-aɾaɗɨɗɨ, ɨ-aɾaɗɨʔɨ 106rope*iɲuʔijũwiinuʔi, inuɓi ‘hammock rope’WLP (2000) 107salt*ɗɨwɨɗɨwɨɗɨwɨWLP (2000) 108sand*kaːtɨkaʧɨHoward (1985-1986)kaːtɨWLP (2000) 109seat*(i)ʦabaisaɓe, ɾiːʔ-isaɓataɓa-i, ɨ-taɓaWLP (2000) 110see (to)*tVkaɾi-ʧikaɨ- tɨka-pa-n 111shaman*maɾɨnawɨmaɾɨnawɨmaɾɨnauWLP (2000) 112shoulder / arm*(i)ʦawaɗaɾiː-sawaɗa ‘arm’ɨ- tawaɗa ‘shoulder’ 113sieve*manaɾɨmanaɾɨmanaɾɨ ‘cassava sifter’WLP (2000) 114skin / bark*maɗaɾiː-maɗaɨ-maɗaWLP (2000) 115sky*Vkaɽiɨkaɾiaukaʐi 116sloth sp.*awɨawɨawɨSilva, Silva & Oliveira (2013) 117small*suɗi ?ʃiɗʲiɗʲa-ɾe ‘small, narrow’Howard (1985-1986)suɗi 118smoke*isa-ise-sɨHoward (1985-1986)iʃa-n ‘cloud’ 119song*kɨnɨkɨni, ɾiː-kɨnɨkɨnɨ-i, ɨ-kɨnɨW5 120spider*(s)uːwauwaɓasuːwa 121stone*kɨɓakɨɓakɨɓa 122sun*kamuːkamukamuː 123sweet potato*kaCɨɽɨːkatɨkaːʐɨːWLP (2000) 124tapir*kuɗuikuɗikuɗui 125tell (to)*kɨwaːɗaɾɨ-kɨwaɗ-e-sɨ ‘he tells it’kuwaːɗa-n ‘tell’WLP (2000) 126termite*maɽimaɾiɓamaʐiWLP (2000) 127thin*miCa-metaɗaHoward (1985-1986)miɗaʔɨWLP (2000) 128thornbush*CawɨɽɨtawɨsɨkawɨʐɨWLP (2000) 129throat*kuɾukuɾuɾiː-kuɾukuɾukuɾukuɾu-n ‘larynx’WLP (2000) 130tick*kuCVCVɓakunuriɓakuɾinaɓa 131timbó liana*ukuuku ‘timbó liana’uku ‘poison for fish’ 132tinamou sp.*mamimami ‘tinamou sp.’mami ‘bird sp.’Silva, Silva & Oliveira (2013) 133toad sp.*tuɾuɾuɓatʃuɾuɾuɓatuɾuɾuɓaWLP (2000) 134tobacco*ʦumatumasuːma 135tongue*ɲiɲuɓaɾɨ-jũjũɓaɨ-ninuɓa 136tortoise*wɨɾVuːɾɨwɨɾaɗa 137toucan sp.*ʧaːkuitakwe ‘toucan sp.’ʧaːkui ‘toucan sp.’ 138tree / wood*atamɨnaaʧamɨnaatamɨn, atamɨnɨ 139tree trunk*kaɗɨ-ɾɨ-kaɗɨɨ-kaɗɨnaːWLP (2000) 140trumpeter*namVʧɨnamɨtɨ ‘jacamim’namaʧi ‘gray trumpeter’WLP (2000) 141tucumã palm*sawaɾasawaɾa ‘tucumã’ʃawaɾaɨ ‘unidentified palm’WLP (2000) 142vulture sp.*kuɾumukuɾumu ‘vulture sp.’kuɾɨm ‘bird sp.’WLP (2000) 143walk*siʔuka ?ɾu-sukatʃiʔika-nWLP (2000) 144water*wɨnɨunɨ, uːnɨwɨnɨ 145we*waɨnauweʔawɨnuwaɨnauWLP (2000) 146what / who*kakakan, kanumWLP (2000) 147wind*awaɾɨawaɾɨawaɾɨWLP (2000) 148with*(i)tɨmari-ʃimaɨ-tɨmaWLP (2000) 149woman*ɽɨnaɾɨnaɾuʐɨna

## Vocabulary

100-word Swadesh list for Mawayana and Wapishana:
    no.glossMawayanaWapishana 1Innuũgaɾɨ 2you (sg.)ipɨgaɾɨ 3we (incl.)weʔawɨnuwaɨnau 4thistiʔawɨɾɨʔɨ 5thataɾuwɨɾɨʔɨ 6whokakanum 7whatkakanum 8notʧika, ma-sɨaunaː 9allmeke-nuipai 10manyɾea-nuiɾiɓa-ʔu 11oneaɓõ(i)jaɓaɨɗaʔapa 12twoaɗakaɗʲaʔɨtam 13bigtawɾe-ɾeɨɗaɾɨ-ʔu 14longkɨʔu-ɾeʐaʔaɓaʔɨ 15smallʃiɗʲiɗʲa-ɾesoɗi 16womanɾɨnaɾuʐɨna 17manasɨnaɗaunajuɾa 18personɗʲepiɗan 19fishkuwɨkupaɨ 20birdkuʧɨsakutɨʔɨʐa 21dogjimaɗaaɾimaɾaka 22louseNninai 23treeitiɓaɾiatamɨn 24seedɾɨ-suɨ-ɨːɗa 25leafɾ-anaɓaɨ-anaɓa 26rootɾɨ-ʧaɓaɗaɨ-iʃitaɓaʔu 27barkɾiː-maɗaɨ-maɗa 28skinɾiː-maɗaɨ-maɗa 29meatwĩwɨnɨ-i 30bloodɾiː-sɨkɨwɨɗaiʐa-i 31boneɾiː-kɨɓɨɨ-niwaʔɨʐi 32greaseɾitikiwin-iː 33eggɾiː-ɗeɨ-ɗani 34hornɾ-õʃĩɗaɨ-uʐuː 35tailɾɨ-tunaɗʲɨu 36featherɾ-iʃiɓakɨtɨɓa 37hairɾ-iʃiɾamaɨ-iʃi 38headɾɨ-kɨwɨɨ-ʐuwaɨ 39earɾiː-siɗʲaɨ-tain 40eyeɾ-osoɨ-awɨn 41noseɾɨ-tiɓaɨ-iɗiɓa 42mouthɾ-umiɗʲaɨ-ɗaku 43toothɾɨ-ʔuɨ-ɨɗaku 44tongueɾ-ĩjũjũɓaɨ-ninuɓa 45clawɾɨ-ɓaɗʲiɨ-ɓaʐi 46footɾɨ-ɾuɓaɨ-kidiɓa 47kneeɾiː-kuɗuɾuɨ-kuɗuɾu 48handɾɨ-kɨɓaɨ-kaʔɨ 49bellyɾ-ijikaɨ-tuɓa 50neckɾiː-ɾewɨɨ-kanaɨ 51breastɾiː-ɗɨɨ-ɗɨnɨ 52heartɾiːʔ-ĩkĩjãɨ-ɲɨkɨnɨː 53liverɾɨ-ʃuɓaɨ-kɨɓaː 54drinkkuɾa-sɨɨ-tɨʐa-n 55eatɾ-ĩkaɨ-nɨka-n 56biteawʧa-sɨɨ-aɾuta-n 57seeɾɨ-ʧika-sɨɨ-tɨka-pa-n 58hearɾɨ-kɨmɨd-e-sɨɨ-abata-n 59knowɾɨ-ɾud-e-sɨɨ-aitapa-n 60sleepa-tũwaɨ-daʔawɨ-n 61diemawɗaɨ-mau-ka-n 62killɾu-kuɗaɨ-ʐuwia-n 63swimʧokwa-sɨɨ-nɨota-n 64flymaɾ-e-sɨɨ-ʐɨʔɨta-n 65walkɾu-sukaɨ-ʧiʔika-n 66comejaɗ-eɨ-waʔati-n 67lieʧukuɗ-e-sɨɨ-waʃatina-n 68sititaɗ-e-sɨɨ-sakanata-n 69standkaʧɨmɨʧ-e-sɨɨ-kadiʃita-n 70giverɨ-ʧ-e-sɨɨ-taː-n 71sayɾɨ-m-eɨ-kia-n 72sunkamukamuː 73moonkɨsɨkaɨʐɨ 74starsiwaɾuwiʐi 75wateru(ː)nɨwɨnɨ 76rainu(ː)nɨwɨnɨ 77stonekɨɓakɨɓa 78sandkaʧɨkaːtɨ 79earthʃimaɾiimiʔi 80cloudekaɾi ɾita-ɾeiʃaʔɨʐi 81smokeisesɨtikaʐi ʃan 82fireʃikaɾitikaʐi 83ashʃikaɾuɓapaɾitiɓi 84burn (intr.)kaw-eɨ-kaʔawa-n 85pathɗɨnuɗɨnapu 86mountainɾɨnɨmiɗɨkɨu 87redusa-sɨwɨʐa-ʔu 88greenʧɨha-ɾekuʔuɾi-ʔu 89yellowʧɨha-ɾeupaɾita-ʔu 90whitekɨse-ɾeɓaɾaka-ʔu 91blackuɗɨ-ɾepuɗɨ-ʔu 92nighttɨɓokoʔaaiwakaʔan 93hotɗʲiʧa-sɨwi(ː)ʧa-ʔu 94coldɾika-ɾewaɗiɗi-ʔu 95fulletaɗapaida-n 96newwiʧakaɾipaʔina-ʔu 97goodwĩja-ɾekaiman 98roundajɓɨɓɨ-ɾekaɗaʐaɗa-ʔu 99drymaɾaɓa-sɨmaːɾa-n 100nameɾɨ-ɾenkaɨʔ-ɨː