# Dagur language

The Dagur, Daghur, Dahur, or Daur language, is a Mongolic language, as well as a distinct branch of the Mongolic language family, and is primarily spoken by members of the Daur ethnic group.
There is no written standard in use, although a Pinyin-based orthography has been devised; instead the Dagur make use of Mongolian or Chinese, as most speakers know these languages as well. During the time of the Qing dynasty, Dagur was written with the Manchu alphabet.

## Distribution

Dagur is a Mongolic language consisting of five dialects:
* Amur Dagur in the vicinity of Heihe (original homeland). About 400 people.
* Nonni Dagur on the west side of the Nonni River from south of Qiqihar up to Morin Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner. Speakers of Nonni Dagur are usually grouped into the following 4 dialects:
** Morin Daba Dagur, in Morin Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner (Moli Daba) of Hulun Buir League, Inner Mongolia
** Butha (Buteha) (Northern) Dagur, immediately south of Morin Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner
** Tsitsikar (Southern) Dagur, in Tsitsikar (Qiqihar) City and surrounding areas
** Mergen Dagur or Nenjiang Dagur, in Nenjiang County (formerly Mergen County) of Heilongjiang Province
* Hailar Dagur to the south-east of Hailar in Ewenki Autonomous Banner
* Sinkiang Dagur in Xinjiang in the vicinity of Tacheng

## Phonology

Dagur phonology is peculiar in that some of its dialects have developed a set of labialized consonants (e.g. /sʷar/ 'flea' vs. /sar/ 'moon'), while it shares palatalized consonants with most Mongolian dialects that have not been developed in the other Mongolic languages. It also has /f/, which is, however, limited to loan words. Word-final short vowels were lost and historically short vowels in non-initial syllables have lost phoneme status. Dagur is the only Mongolic language to share this development with Mongolian (i.e. Mongolian proper, Oirat, Buryat). Due to the merger of /ɔ/ and /ʊ/ with /o/ and /u/, vowel harmony was lost. According to Tsumagari (2003), vowel harmony is still a productive synchronic phonotactic aspect of Dagur in which initial syllable long vowels are divided into "masculine" (back), "feminine" (front), and neutral groups. Likewise, suffixal long vowels must agree in harmonic group with the root.

### Vowels

    Dagur vowels (Chuluu 1994) Front Central Back short long short long short long Close i iː u uː Mid e eː ə əː ɔ ɔː Open a aː

### Consonants

Dagur consonants (Chuluu 1994) :
| | | Labial | Labial | Labial | Alveolar | Alveolar | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Postalveolar | Velar | Velar | Velar |
| | | plain | lab. | pal. | plain | lab. | pal. | plain | lab. | plain | lab. | pal. |
| Stop/ Affricate | voiceless | p | | | t | tʷ | tʲ | tʃ | tʃʷ | k | kʷ | kʲ |
| Stop/ Affricate | voiced | b | | bʲ | d | dʷ | dʲ | dʒ | dʒʷ | ɡ | | ɡʲ |
| Fricative | Fricative | f | | | s | sʷ | | ʃ | | x | xʷ | xʲ |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | mʷ | mʲ | n | | nʲ | | | ŋ | | |
| Trill | Trill | | | | r | | rʲ | | | | | |
| Lateral | Lateral | | | | l | | lʲ | | | | | |
| Semivowel | Semivowel | | | | | | j | | | | w | |

## Writing system

| Letters | Contextual forms | Contextual forms | Contextual forms | Transliteration | Transliteration | International Phonetic Alphabet |
| Letters | Initial | Medial | Final | Latin | Cyrillic | International Phonetic Alphabet |
| ᠠ | ᠠ‍ | ‍ᠠ‍ | ‍ᠠ ‍ᠠ᠋ | a | а | /a/ |
| ᠡ | ᠡ‍ | ‍ᠡ‍ | ‍ᠡ ‍ᠡ᠋ | e | э | /ə/ |
| ᠢ | ᠢ‍ | ‍ᠢ‍ | ‍ᠢ | i | и | /i/ |
| ᠣ | ᠣ‍ | ‍ᠣ‍ | ‍ᠣ | o | о | /ɔ/ |
| ᠦ | ᡠ‍ | ‍ᡠ᠊᠋‍ | ‍᠊ᡠ | u | у | /u/ |
| ᠨ | ᠨ‍ | ‍ᠨ‍ ‍ᠨ᠋‍ | ‍ᠨ ‍ᠨ᠎ | n | н | /n/ |
| ᠩ | — | ‍ᠩ‍ | ‍ᠩ | ng | нг | /ŋ/ |
| ᠪ | ᠪ‍ | ‍ᠪ‍ | ‍ᠪ | b | б | /b/ |
| ᡦ᠊ | ᡦ᠊‍ | ‍᠊ᡦ᠊‍ | — | p | п | /p/ |
| ᡥ᠊ | ᡥ᠊‍ ‍ᡭ᠊᠎ | ‍᠊ᡥ᠊ ‍᠊ᡭ᠊᠎ | — | h | х | /x/ |
| ᠬ | ᠬ ‍ᠺ᠊᠎ | ‍ᠬ‍ ‍᠊ᠺ᠊᠎ | ‍ᠬ | k | к | /k/ |
| ᡤ᠊ | ᡤ᠊ ‍ᡬ᠊᠋‍ | ‍ᡤ᠊‍ ‍᠊ᡬ᠊᠋‍ | ‍‍ᠭ᠎ | g | г | /g/ |
| ᠮ | ᠮ‍ | ‍ᠮ‍ | ‍ᠮ | m | м | /m/ |
| ᠯ | ᠯ‍ | ‍ᠯ‍ | ‍ᠯ | l | л | /l/ |
| ᠰ | ᠰ‍ | ‍ᠰ‍ | ‍ᠰ | s | с | /s/ |
| ᡧ᠊ | ᡧ᠊‍ | ‍᠊ᡧ᠊‍ | ‍᠊ᡧ | x | ш | /ʃ/ |
| ᠲ | ᠲ‍ | ‍ᠲ‍ | ‍ᠲ | t | т | /t/ |
| ᡩ᠊ | ᡩ᠊‍ | ‍᠊ᡩ᠊‍ | ‍ᡩ᠊ | d | д | /d/ |
| ᠴ | ᠴ‍ | ‍ᠴ‍ | ‍‍ᠴ | q | ч | /t͡ʃ/ |
| ᠵ | ᠵ‍ | ‍ᠵ‍ | ‍‍‍ᠵ | j | ж | /d͡ʒ/ |
| ᠶ | ᠶ‍ | ‍ᠶ‍ | ‍ᠶ | y | й | /j/ |
| ᠸ | ᠸ‍ | ‍᠊ᠸ᠊‍ | ‍᠊ᠸ | w | в | /w/ |
| ᠷ | ᠷ‍ | ‍ᠷ‍ | ‍ᠷ | r | р | /r/ |

## Grammar

Dagur has a pronominal system that distinguishes between first person plural inclusive /bed/ and exclusive /baː/ and, even more archaic, it distinguishes between third person singular /iːn/ and plural /aːn/. While the phoneme /t͡ʃ/ (< *t͡ʃʰ) has been retained, the second person singular pronoun has become /ʃiː/ nevertheless, resembling a more thorough sound change in Khorchin Mongolian. The second person plural is retained as /taː/. The genitive and accusative have fused in some variants, becoming –ji, and the ablative may assume the form of the instrumental case. The old comitative has been lost, while the innovated comitative is the same as in Mongolian. In addition, several other cases have been innovated that are not shared by Mongolian, including a new allative, -maji.
Dagur has a fairly simple tense-aspect system consisting of the nonpast markers -/bəi/ and (marginally) -/n/ and the past forms -/sən/ and (marginally) /la/ and the non-finite imperfective marker -/d͡ʒa/-. These may be inflected for person. The attributive particle forms are limited to –/ɡʷ/ (< Written Mongolian -γ-a) for imperfective aspect and future tense, -sən (< -γsan) for perfective aspect, -/ɡat͡ʃ/ (< -gči) for habituality (instead of -daγ which used to fulfil this function) and -/mar/ for potential and probable actions. It has acquired a highly complex converbal system containing several innovations. Notably, -mar which is a participle in Mongolian serves as a converb as well.

### Grammatical case suffix table

| Case | Marker | Note | Example | Meaning |
| Genitive | -ei | Added to words ending in a consonant (except j, q, x) | битегей biteg + ei → bitegei | of the book |
| Genitive | -ei | Added to words ending in a consonant (except j, q, x) | хелегей heleg + ei → helegei | |
| Genitive | -ei | Added to words ending in a consonant (except j, q, x) | адусей adus + ei → adusei | |
| Genitive | -ei | Added to words ending in a consonant (except j, q, x) | аолэй aol + ei → aolei | of the mountain |
| Genitive | -ii | Added to words ending in j, q, x | кайчий kaiq + ii → kaiqii | of shears |
| Genitive | -ii | Added to words ending in j, q, x | оржий orj + ii → orjii | |
| Genitive | -ii | Added to words ending in j, q, x | тульший tulx + ii → tulxii | |
| Genitive | -i | Added to words ending in a short vowel | морий mori + i → morii | of the horse |
| Genitive | -i | Added to words ending in a short vowel | новуй nowu + i → nowui | of the dog |
| Genitive | -i | Added to words ending in a short vowel | дангай danga + i → dangai | of smoke |
| Genitive | -yi | Appended to words ending in long vowels and diphthongs | акааий akaa + yi → akaayi | older brother's |
| Genitive | -yi | Appended to words ending in long vowels and diphthongs | касооий kasoo + yi → kasooyi | of iron |
| Genitive | -yi | Appended to words ending in long vowels and diphthongs | даоий dao + yi → daoyi | of the song |
| Accusative | Same as genitive case | Same as genitive case | Same as genitive case | Same as genitive case |
| Locative | -d | Added to the stem (if ending in a consonant d, t, k, s, j, q, x add an appropriate vowel before -d) | ширээд xiree + d → xireed | on the desk |
| Locative | -d | Added to the stem (if ending in a consonant d, t, k, s, j, q, x add an appropriate vowel before -d) | хорвуд horwu + d → horwud | in/on the cabinet |
| Locative | -d | Added to the stem (if ending in a consonant d, t, k, s, j, q, x add an appropriate vowel before -d) | тосод tos + d → tosod | in the oil |
| Instrumental | -aar, -eer, -oor | Added to words ending in consonants (except j, q, x) according to vowel harmony | сарпаар sarp + aar → sarpaar | using chopsticks |
| Instrumental | -aar, -eer, -oor | Added to words ending in consonants (except j, q, x) according to vowel harmony | лэкээр lek + eer → lekeer | |
| Instrumental | -aar, -eer, -oor | Added to words ending in consonants (except j, q, x) according to vowel harmony | топоор topoor + oor → topooroor | using an axe |
| Instrumental | -ier | Added to words ending in j, q, x | онкиэр onq + ier → onqier | using a knife |
| Instrumental | -ier | Added to words ending in j, q, x | оржиэр orj + ier → orjier | |
| Instrumental | -ar, -er, -or | Added according to vowel harmony to words ending in short vowels | дангаар danga + ar → dangaar | using smoke |
| Instrumental | -ar, -er, -or | Added according to vowel harmony to words ending in short vowels | галиэр gali + er → galier | using fire |
| Instrumental | -ar, -er, -or | Added according to vowel harmony to words ending in short vowels | мориэр mori + er → morier | using a horse |
| Instrumental | -ar, -er, -or | Added according to vowel harmony to words ending in short vowels | новуор nowu + or → nowuor | using a dog |
| Instrumental | -yaar, -yeer | Added according to vowel harmony to words ending in long vowels and diphthongs | чолоояар qoloo + yaar → qolooyaar | using a stone |
| Instrumental | -yaar, -yeer | Added according to vowel harmony to words ending in long vowels and diphthongs | касоояар kasoo + yaar → kasooyaar | using iron |
| Ablative | Same as instrumental case | Same as instrumental case | The ablative form is sometimes -aas, -ees, -oos, -ies, -as, -es, -os, -yaas, -yees. | The ablative form is sometimes -aas, -ees, -oos, -ies, -as, -es, -os, -yaas, -yees. |
| Comitative | -tii | Added to the word stem | акаатий akaa + tii → akaatii | together with older brother |
| Comitative | -tii | Added to the word stem | эвээтий ewee + tii → eweetii | together with mom |
| Terminative | -qaar, -qeer | Added to the word stem according to vowel harmony | соочаар soo + qaar → sooqaar | up to the armpits |
| Terminative | -qaar, -qeer | Added to the word stem according to vowel harmony | сакчаар sak + qaar → sakqaar | up to the ankles |

### Personal reflexive relationship suffixes

| Pronoun | Number | Marker | Example | Meaning |
| 1st | Singular | mini | жакмини jakmini | my stuff/thing |
| 1st | Singular | mini | хороомини horoomini | my finger |
| 1st | Plural (exclusive) | -maani | себмаани sebmaani | our teacher |
| 1st | Plural (inclusive) | -naani | себнаани sebnaani | our teacher |
| 2nd | Singular | -xini | васкалшини waskalxini | your clothing |
| 2nd | Plural | -taani | гэритаани geritaani | your home |
| 3rd | Singular | -ini | агини agini | his brother |
| 3rd | Singular | -yini | экээйини ekeeyini | his sister |
| 3rd | Plural | -inaani | этэвуйнаани eteewuinaani | their grandmother |
| 3rd | Plural | -yinaani | ачайинаани aqaayinaani | their father |

### Imperative verb suffixes

| Pronoun | Number | Volitional | Imperative | Prohibitive |
| 1st | Singular | -яа -yaa | | -гаан, -гээн -gaan, -geen |
| 1st | Singular | -яа -yaa | | -гаамини -gaamini |
| 1st | Singular | -яа -yaa | | -гэмини -geemini |
| 1st | Plural (exclusive) | -яа -yaa | | -гаамани -gaamaani |
| 1st | Plural (exclusive) | -яа -yaa | | -гээмани -geemaani |
| 1st | Plural (inclusive) | -яа -yaa | | -гааннаани -gaannaani |
| 1st | Plural (inclusive) | -яа -yaa | | -гээннаани -geennaani |
| 2nd | Singular | -гаание -gaanie | (word stem) | -гааншини -gaanxini |
| 2nd | Singular | -геение -geenie | (word stem) | -гээншини -geenxini |
| 2nd | Plural | -гаантие -gaantie | -ту -tu | -гаантаани -gaantaani |
| 2nd | Plural | -геентие -geentie | -ту -tu | -геентаани -geentaani |
| 3rd | Singular & plural | | -тгай -tgai | -гаанини -gaanini |
| 3rd | Singular & plural | | -тгай -tgai | -гээнини -geenini |

### Declarative verb suffixes

| Time | Suffix | Example | Meaning |
| Present future tense | -bei | идбей (иден) idbei (iden) | (he) will eat |
| Present future tense | -n | яобей (явун) yaobei (yawun) | (she) will go |
| Past tense | -sen | идсен idsen | (she) ate |
| Past tense | -sen | яосен yaosen | (he) went |

### Pronouns' verb suffixes
#### Present future tensse

| Pronoun | Number | Marker | Example | Meaning |
| 1st | Singular | -wei(-w) | Би харивей. Bi hariwei(hariw). | I return. |
| 1st | Singular | -nbi | Би харинби. Bi harinbi. | I return. |
| 1st | Plural (exclusive) | -waa | Баа хариваа. Baa hariwaa. | We return. |
| 1st | Plural (exclusive) | -nbaa | Баа харинбаа. Baa harinbaa. | We return. |
| 1st | Plural (inclusive) | -wdaa | Бид харивдаа. Bid hariwdaa. | We return. |
| 1st | Plural (inclusive) | -ndaa | Бид хариндаа. Bid harindaa. | We return. |
| 2nd | Singular | -beixi(-bxi) | Ши харибейши. Xi haribeixi. | You return. |
| 2nd | Singular | -nxi | Ши харинши. Xi harinxi. | You return. |
| 2nd | Plural | -beitaa (-btaa) | Таа харибейтаа. Taa haribeitaa (haribtaa). | You return. |
| 2nd | Plural | -ntaa | Таа харинтаа. Taa harintaa. | You return. |

#### Past tense

| Pronoun | Number | Marker | Example | Meaning |
| 1st | Singular | -senbi | Би харисенби. Bi harisenbi. | I returned. |
| 1st | Plural (exclusive) | -senbaa | Баа харисенбаа. Baa harisenbaa. | We returned. |
| 1st | Plural (inclusive) | -sendaa | Бид харисэндаа. Bid harisendaa. | We returned. |
| 2nd | Singular | -senxi | Ши харисенши. Xi harisenxi. | You returned. |
| 2nd | Plural | -sentaa | Таа харисентаа. Taa harisentaa. | You returned. |

### Adverb suffixes

| Suffix | Notes | Example | Meaning |
| -j | Indicates parallel actions | Ийчиж ужсенби. iiqij ujsenbi. | I went to see (it). |
| -jie (dii) | Indicates that two actions are performed simultaneously | Саожие (дий) усвулжьжабей. Saojie (dii) uswuljjabei. | (She) sits while talking. |
| -aar, -eer, -oor | Indicates that the behavior occurred successively | Гараар ирсэн. Garaar irsen. | (He) came out. |
| -aar, -eer, -oor | Indicates that the behavior occurred successively | Энкуер яосэн. Enkuer yaosen. | (She) ate it. |
| -jii | Signifies the end of the act | Ужьжий яосэн. Ujjii yaosen. | (He) left after reading (it). |
| -jii | Signifies the end of the act | Иджий яо! Idjii yao! | Let's eat and (then) go. |
| -n ...-n | Indicates behaviors that occur together | Гуйн кариен яосэн. Guin karien yaosen. | (He) jumped and bounced away. |
| -mkii,-mklii | Indicates that the behavior occurs immediately | Мадемький (мэдемький) ичсэн. Medemkii (medemklii) iqsen. | (She) went as soon as (she) knew it. |
| -mder | Indicates that the behavior occurs immediately | Медемдерь (меднмкьлий) ичсэн. Medemder (medemklii) iqsen. | (She) went as soon as she knew it. |
| -wueter | Indicates readiness | Елвуетерь медсен. Elwueter medsen. | (She) will know as soon as (he) says it. |
| -aajaar, -eejeer (-eejaar), -oojaar | Indicates simultaneous act | Бариежаараа алдсэн. Bariejaaraa aldsen. | (He) grabbed it and let it go. |
| -rsaar, rseer | Indicates continuation and recurrence of behavior | Элерсеерь араан болсен. Elerseer araan bolsen. | How many times have you said it? |
| -aas, -ees, -oos | Express the condition of the behavior | Элеесшини укубей. Eleesxini ukubei. | If you say so, I'll give it to you. |
| -tgai q | Indicates concessive act | Учийкэн аатгай чукаатий. Uqiiken aatgai qukaatii. | Small but wise. |
| -worg, -wuar | Indicates the act to follow | Хийвуерь тортсен. Hiiwuer tortsen. | (She) decided to do (it). |
| -gaanie, -geenie | Expresses purpose | Уйгеени игсен. Uigeenie igsen. | (He) went to see (it). |
| -tel | Indicates behavioral boundaries | Яотельмини аасен. Yaotelmini aasen. | (He'll) be there until (she) leaves. |
| -tlaa(-tlaanie), tlee(-tleenie) | Expresses choice | Элтлеение хиисехдь уль денген. Eltleenie hiisehd ul dengen. | It's better to do (so). |
| -maak(-maaken), meek(-meken) | Indicates the proximity of behavior | Ванамаак (ванамаакен) болсен. Wanamaak (wanamaaken) bolsen. | (It's) about to fall. |

### Personal pronouns

| | 1st Person | 1st Person | 1st Person | 2nd Person | 2nd Person | 3rd Person | 3rd Person |
| | singular | plural | plural | singular | plural | singular | plural |
| | singular | exclusive | inclusive | singular | plural | singular | plural |
| Nominative | бий bii | биэде biede | баа baa | ший xii | таа taa | инг ing | аанг aang |
| Genitive | миний minii | биэдний biednii | мааний maanii | шиний xinii | тааний taanii | иний inii | ааний aanii |
| Dative | намд namd | биэдендэ biedende | маандэ maande | шамд xamd | таандэ taande | ямд (инд) yamd (ind) | аандэ aande |
| Accusative | намий namii | биэдний biednii | мааний maanii | шамий xamii | тааний taanii | ямий yamii | ааний aanii |
| Ablative | намаасэ namaase | биэденаас biedenaas | маанаас maanaas | шамаасэ xamaase | таанаас taanaas | ямаас yamaas | аанаас aanaas |
| Instrumental | намаарэ namaare | биэдэнаар biedenaar | маанаар maanaar | шамаарэ xamaare | таанаар taanaar | ямаар yamaar | аанаар aanaar |
| Comitative | намтий namtii | биэдентий biedentii | маантий maantii | шамтий xamtii | таантий taantii | ямтий yamtii | аантий aantii |

## Lexicon

It is estimated that out of Dagur's entire language vocabulary, over half is Mongolic in origin. Additionally, while Dagur has over 50% common Mongolic vocabulary, it has borrowed 5 to 10% of its words from Chinese, as well as 10% of its words from Manchu, and a small number vocabulary borrowed from Evenki and Russian – leaving about 20% vocabulary that is specific to Dagur only.

### Middle Mongol words

Dagur retains quite a few archaic Mongolic words, and although they are not commonly found in the modern Mongolic languages, they do appear in Middle Mongol sources, like the Hua-Yi yiyu and The Secret History of the Mongols. These words include:
* tergul ~ terwul (тэргул ~ тервул) ‘road’ (in Mongol *jam)
* najir (нажийр) ‘summer’ (Mongol *jun)
* xeky (хэкый) ‘head’ (Mongol *tologai)
* sorby (сорбый) ‘staff’ (Mongol *tayag)
* kasoo (касоо) ‘iron’
* saur (саур) ‘spade’
* ogw (огв) ‘brain’
* basert (басерть) ‘kidney’
* twalcig (твалциг) ‘knee’
* kataa (катаа) ‘salt’
* warkel (варкэль) ‘clothes’
* el- (эл-) ‘to say’ (cf. Mongol *kele-)

### Numerals

All basic numerals are of Mongolic origin.
| | English | Classical Mongolian | Dagur (Hailar) | Dagur (Qiqihar) |
| 1 | One | Nigen | Нэкэн Neken | Neke |
| 2 | Two | Qoyar | Хойир Hoir | Hoyir |
| 3 | Three | Ghurban | Гуарбан Guarban | Guarbe |
| 4 | Four | Dorben | Дурубун Durbun | Durbu |
| 5 | Five | Tabun | Таавун Taawun | Taawu |
| 6 | Six | Jirghughan | Жиргөө Jirwoo | Jirgoo |
| 7 | Seven | Dologhan | Долөөн Doloon | Doloo |
| 8 | Eight | Naiman | Найман Naiman | Naime |
| 9 | Nine | Yisun | Йсэн Isen | Yise |
| 10 | Ten | Arban | Харбан Harban | Harbe |