# Vikinghøgda Formation

The Vikinghøgda Formation is a geologic formation in Svalbard, Norway. It preserves fossils dating back to the Early Triassic (Griesbachian-Spathian) period. It is split into three members, from oldest to youngest: the Deltadalen Member (Induan), Lusitaniadalen Member (Smithian), and Vendomdalen Member (Spathian). The formation can be found in central Spitsbergen (Sassendalen, Dickson Land, James I Land), southern Spitsbergen, as well as the smaller islands of Barentsøya and Edgeøya. The type locality is positioned in the vicinity of Vikinghøgda and Sticky Keep, two low peaks along the southeast edge of Sassendalen (Sassen Valley) in Spitsbergen. The two upper members of the Vikinghøgda Formation were previously grouped together as the Sticky Keep Formation.

## Subunits

The Vikinghøgda Formation is formed by fine-grained marine sediments, such as mudstones, shales, siltstones, and fine sandstones. There is a trend of finer sediments, deeper waters, and higher organic content through the formation. Though fossils are only abundant in the middle part (Lusitaniadalen Member) of the formation, index fossils can be found throughout the whole formation. The Vikinghøgda Formation is one of the better records of Early Triassic chronostratigraphy in the Boreal realm, owing to a combination of continuous sedimentation, distinctive index fossils, palynomorph stratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy, and trace metal cyclostratigraphy.

### Deltadalen Member

The Deltadalen Member is named after the small stream valley which runs between Vikinghøgda and Sticky Keep. The member consists of about 70 meters of silty shales and fine sandstones, lying above the eroded surface of the Permian-age Kapp Starostin Formation. Some of the sandstone beds may be glauconitic or hummocky, and calcareous nodules may be present. Fossils are rare and restricted to these nodules, though they include a variety of silicified ammonoids, conodonts, bivalves, and gastropods. Some index fossils have biostratigraphic significance, such as the ammonoid Otoceras boreale and the conodonts Neogondolella carinata and Neospathodus svalbardensis. These species constrain the member to the Induan stage, between the early Griesbachian and early Dienerian substages. The sandiest intervals can be found at the base and the top of the member. The depositional environment is reconstructed as a shallow marine setting influenced by storms and nearby deltaic sediments.
The Deltadalen Member has been equated with two other Induan-age formations in its vicinity: the Vardebukta Formation (exposed in western and southern Spitsbergen) and the Havert Formation (under the Barents Sea).
A 2020 study reported that the Permian-Triassic boundary occurs near the start of the Deltadalen Member. This was supported by several lines of evidence. The conodont Hindeodus parvus, which defines the base of the Triassic, was reported from a sediment layer 4.1 meters above the base of the member. An overlying tephra bed was dated to 252.13 ± 0.62 Ma via U-Pb radiometric dating, an age which is congruent with other reported estimates for the boundary.

### Lusitaniadalen Member

The Lusitaniadalen Member is named after a glacier on the western flank of Vikinghøgda. The member is about 90 meters thick, mostly composed of laminated silty mudstones. Sandstone beds are less common, though when they occur, they are hummocky. Fossiliferous calcareous nodules are abundant in the sandstone-bearing layers, encasing well-preserved fossils of both invertebrates and vertebrates. The ammonoid index fossils Euflemingites romunderi and Wasatchites tardus indicate that the Lusitaniadalen Member was deposited during the Smithian substage of the Olenekian stage. The most common ammonoid is Arctoceras. Fish and amphibian fossils have also been found in this member, particularly at the "Fish Niveau" bonebed. This horizon also produced the oldest known ichthyopterygian reptile fossil. The depositional environment corresponds to a deeper and calmer conditions, indicative of a major transgression (sea level rise) affecting the continental shelf.
The Lusitaniadalen Member has been equated with the Iskletten Member of the Tvillingodden Formation (in western Spitsbergen) and the lower part of the Klappmyss Formation (under the Barents Sea). It has also been previously described as the Iskletten Member of the Sticky Keep Formation.

### Vendomdalen Member

Dark shale (laminated mudstone) dominates the 90-meter-thick Vendomdalen Member, though silty yellowish dolomitic beds also occur. Very large dolomite nodules or lenses, some over a meter in width, can also be found in this member. However, fossil-bearing concretions are rarer and more deformed than in the Lusitaniadalen Member. Fossils include abundant bivalves and Spathian ammonoid index fossils, such as Bajarunia euomphala, Keyserlingites subrobustus, and Parasibirites elegans. Marine reptile and fish bonebeds also occur in the Vendomdalen Member, the two most prominent being the older "Grippia Niveau" and younger "Lower Saurian Niveau". The Vendomdalen Member corresponds to the deepest part of the continental shelf, with high organic matter deposition and no influence from storm events.
The Vendomdalen Member has been equated with the Kaosfjellet Member of the Tvillingodden Formation (in western Spitsbergen) and the upper part of the Klappmyss Formation (under the Barents Sea). It has also been previously described as the Kaosfjellet Member of the Sticky Keep Formation.

## Paleobiota
### Tetrapods

Tetrapod remains occur in several horizons of the Vikinghøgda Formation. The fossils belong to ichthyosauriform and possibly sauropterygian reptiles and temnospondyl amphibians.

#### Reptiles

| Color key Taxon Reclassified taxon Taxon falsely reported as present Dubious taxon or junior synonym Ichnotaxon Ootaxon Morphotaxon | Notes Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; crossed out taxa are discredited. |
Reptiles of the Vikinghøgda Formation :
| Taxon / Genus | Species | Subunit | Notes | Images |
| Cymbospondylus | C. sp. | Vendomdalen Member (Lower Saurian Niveau) | A large basal ichthyosaur | Grippia longirostris |
| Reptilia | indet. | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | An indeterminate reptile fossil (SVT 203) previously referred to Grippia longirostris. Postcranial proportions differ from all known ichthyosauromorphs, and may instead suggest affinities with Helveticosaurus or placodonts. | Grippia longirostris |
| Grippia | G. longirostris | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | A small basal ichthyopterygian | Grippia longirostris |
| Ichthyopterygia | indet. | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau), Vendomdalen Member | Indeterminate ichthyopterygian remains. Pelagic-adapted ichthyopterygian fossils from the Lusitaniadalen Member are the oldest known from Svalbard and the world. | Grippia longirostris |
| Isfjordosaurus | I. minor | Vendomdalen Member (Lower Saurian Niveau) | An enigmatic ichthyosauromorph, possibly a hupehsuchian or basal ichthyopterygian | Grippia longirostris |
| Merriamosaurus | M. hulkei | Vendomdalen Member (Lower Saurian Niveau) | An ichthyopterygian based on forelimb fossils, initially described under the preoccupied name Rotundopteryx hulkei. Most likely a junior synonym of Pessopteryx nisseri. | Grippia longirostris |
| Omphalosaurus | O. nisseri | Vendomdalen Member (Lower Saurian Niveau) | Weathered jaw fragments and other omphalosaurid-like fossils of uncertain validity, some of which have also been named as O. merriami or referred to Pessopteryx nisseri. | Grippia longirostris |
| Omphalosaurus | O. sp. | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia and Lower Saurian Niveaus) | Some fossils referred to Omphalosaurus appear to legitimately belong to the genus. | Grippia longirostris |
| Pessopteryx | P. nisseri | Vendomdalen Member (Lower Saurian Niveau) | A large shastasaurid-like ichthyosaur, previously utilized as a chimera encompassing various ichthyopterygian fossils from the Lower Saurian Niveau. | Grippia longirostris |
| Quasianosteosaurus | Q. vikinghoegdai | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | A medium-sized ichthyopterygian | Grippia longirostris |
| Svalbardosaurus | S. crassidens | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | A dubious tetrapod based on large teeth initially referred to ichthyosaurs, but more likely belonging to temnospondyl amphibians. | Grippia longirostris |

#### Amphibians

| Color key Taxon Reclassified taxon Taxon falsely reported as present Dubious taxon or junior synonym Ichnotaxon Ootaxon Morphotaxon | Notes Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; crossed out taxa are discredited. |
Temnospondyls of the Vikinghøgda Formation :
| Taxon / Genus | Species | Subunit | Notes | Images |
| Aphaneramma | A. rostratum | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A long-snouted lonchorhynchine trematosaurid | Aphaneramma |
| Boreosaurus | B. thorslundi | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A brachyopid or rhytidosteid | Aphaneramma |
| Lyrocephaliscus | L. euri | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A trematosaurine trematosaurid, formerly known as Lyrocephalus. | Aphaneramma |
| Peltostega | P. erici | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A rhytidosteid | Aphaneramma |
| Platystega | P. depressa | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A trematosaurine trematosaurid | Aphaneramma |
| Tertrema | T. acuta | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A relatively short-snouted trematosaurid, possibly a lonchorhynchine | Aphaneramma |
| Sassenisaurus | S. spitzbergensis | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | Possibly an early capitosaur | Aphaneramma |

### Fish

A diverse fish assemblage has been described from the late Smithian (early Olenekian) aged "Fish Niveau" (Lusitaniadalen Member, lower part of the "Sticky Keep Member") and other horizons, including lungfish, coelacanths, ray-finned fish, and hybodont sharks. Most taxa were described by Erik Stensiö. The lists below are based on Kogan & Romano and Bratvold et al.

#### Lobe-finned fish

| Color key Taxon Reclassified taxon Taxon falsely reported as present Dubious taxon or junior synonym Ichnotaxon Ootaxon Morphotaxon | Notes Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; crossed out taxa are discredited. |
Sarcopterygii of the Vikinghøgda Formation :
| Taxon / Genus | Species | Subunit | Notes | Images |
| Ceratodus | C. sp. | Vendomdalen Member (below Lower Saurian Niveau) | Tooth plate of a lungfish | Ceratodus |
| Axelia | A. robusta | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A coelacanthid coelacanth | Ceratodus |
| Axelia | A. elegans | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A coelacanthid coelacanth | Ceratodus |
| Mylacanthus | M. lobatus | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A coelacanthid coelacanth, quite similar to Axelia. | Ceratodus |
| Mylacanthus | M. spinosus | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A coelacanthid coelacanth, quite similar to Axelia. | Ceratodus |
| Sassenia | S. tuberculata | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A rhabdodermatid coelacanth | Ceratodus |
| Sassenia | S.? guttata | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A rhabdodermatid coelacanth? Dubious generic attribution. | Ceratodus |
| Sassenia | S. sp. | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A rhabdodermatid coelacanth | Ceratodus |
| Scleracanthus | S. asper | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A coelacanth, quite similar to Axelia. | Ceratodus |
| Wimania | W. sinuosa | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A relatively large coelacanthid coelacanth | Ceratodus |
| Wimania | W.? multistriata | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A coelacanth | Ceratodus |
| Wimania | W.? sp. | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A coelacanth | Ceratodus |

#### Ray-finned fish

| Color key Taxon Reclassified taxon Taxon falsely reported as present Dubious taxon or junior synonym Ichnotaxon Ootaxon Morphotaxon | Notes Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; crossed out taxa are discredited. |
Actinopterygii of the Vikinghøgda Formation :
| Taxon / Genus | Species | Subunit | Notes | Images |
| Acrorhabdus | A. bertili | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A ptycholepid | Saurichthys |
| Acrorhabdus | A. asplundi | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A ptycholepid | Saurichthys |
| Acrorhabdus | A. latistriatus | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A ptycholepid | Saurichthys |
| Birgeria | B. aldingeri | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A birgeriid.The material was originally referred to B. mougeoti, the type species of Birgeria, but was later ascribed to its own species | Saurichthys |
| Birgeria | B. sp. | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A partial skull of a large Birgeria | Saurichthys |
| Bobasatrania | B. nathorsti | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A large bobasatraniform that was originally referred to as Platysomus nathorsti | Saurichthys |
| Boreosomus | B. arcticus | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A ptycholepid and the type species of Boreosomus, which was originally described as Acrolepis arctica by Arthur Smith Woodward | Saurichthys |
| Boreosomus | B. reuterskioldi | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A ptycholepid | Saurichthys |
| Boreosomus | B.? scaber | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | | Saurichthys |
| Pteronisculus | P. gyrolepidoides | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A poorly known rhadinichthyid or turseoid, It was originally described as Glaucolepis gyrolepidoides, but later referred to the genus Pteronisculus because the genus name Glaucolepis is preoccupied | Saurichthys |
| Pygopterus | P. degeeri | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A pygopterid. Pygopterus is one of the genera of ray-finned fish that crossed the Permian-Triassic boundary | Saurichthys |
| Saurichthys | S. elongatus | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) and possibly in beds slightly above it | A saurichthyiform with a slender, elongated rostrum | Saurichthys |
| Saurichthys | S. hamiltoni | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A saurichthyiform | Saurichthys |
| Saurichthys | S. ornatus | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A saurichthyiform. This species is known primarily from skull remains | Saurichthys |
| Saurichthys | S. ornatus? | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A saurichthyiform. Based on one specimen that shows the postcranium and which has a different scale pattern than S. ornatus | Saurichthys |
| Saurichthys | S. wimani | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A saurichthyiform. Based on a specimen preserving the skull and anteriormost body portion that was originally described as "Belonorhynchus" wimani by Arthur Smith Woodward. A later found postcranium was referred to this species | Saurichthys |
| Saurichthys | S. sp. | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A saurichthyiform | Saurichthys |
| Teffichthys | T. woodwardi | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau) | A perleidiform. It was originally described as Colobodus altilepis by Arthur Smith Woodward but later referred to as Perleidus woodwardi (the species name was changed to avoid confusion with the type species of Perleidus, P. altolepis). The Early Triassic species of Perleidus were later ascribed to a different genus, Teffichthys | Saurichthys |

#### Cartilaginous fish

Chondrichthyan remains are predominantly known from the Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau). Several species listed below are also present in the nearby Vardebukta Formation, of Dienerian (late Induan) age.
| Color key Taxon Reclassified taxon Taxon falsely reported as present Dubious taxon or junior synonym Ichnotaxon Ootaxon Morphotaxon | Notes Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; crossed out taxa are discredited. |
Chondrichthyes of the Vikinghøgda Formation :
| Taxon / Genus | Species | Subunit | Notes | Images |
| Acrodus | A. gaillardoti | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | An acrodontid hybodontiform shark. Only known from isolated teeth | Hybodus |
| Acrodus | A. lateralis | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | An acrodontid hybodontiform shark. Only known from isolated teeth | Hybodus |
| Acrodus | A. oppenheimeri | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | An acrodontid hybodontiform shark. Only known from isolated teeth | Hybodus |
| Acrodus | A. scaber | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | An acrodontid hybodontiform shark. Only known from isolated teeth | Hybodus |
| Acrodus | A. spitzbergensis | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | An acrodontid hybodontiform shark. Only known from isolated teeth | Hybodus |
| Acrodus | A. vermiformis | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | An acrodontid hybodontiform shark. Only known from isolated teeth | Hybodus |
| Acrodus | A. sp. | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | An acrodontid hybodontiform shark. Only known from isolated teeth | Hybodus |
| Hybodus | H. microdus/ H. ?microdus | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | A hybodontid hybodontiform shark. Only known from isolated teeth | Hybodus |
| Hybodus | H. rapax | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | A hybodontid hybodontiform shark. Only known from isolated teeth | Hybodus |
| Hybodus | H. sasseniensis | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | A hybodontid hybodontiform shark. Only known from isolated teeth | Hybodus |
| Lissodus | L. angulatus | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | A lonchidiid hybodontiform shark. Only known from isolated teeth that were originally described as Polyacrodus angulatus | Hybodus |
| Nemacanthus | N. sp. | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | A palaeospinacid synechodontiform shark. Only known from fin spines | Hybodus |
| Palaeobates | P. polaris | Lusitaniadalen Member (Fish Niveau), Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | An acrodontid hybodontiform shark known from teeth and skelettal elements. Skull and postcranial elements are only known from the Fish Niveau | Hybodus |
| Palaeobates | P. sp. | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | An acrodontid hybodontiform shark. Only known from isolated teeth | Hybodus |
| Polyacrodus | P. sp. | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | A polyacrodontid hybodontiform shark known from skull | Hybodus |
| Hybodontoidea | Gen. et sp. indet.1 | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | Basal plate of cephalic spine | Hybodus |
| Hybodontoidea | Gen. et sp. indet.2 | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | Fin spine | Hybodus |
| Hybodontoidea | Gen. et sp. indet.3 | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | Fin spine | Hybodus |
| Synechodontiformes | Gen. et sp. indet.1 | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | Isolated teeth | Hybodus |
| Synechodontiformes | Gen. et sp. indet.2 | Vendomdalen Member (Grippia Niveau) | Isolated teeth | Hybodus |