# Ancient Near Eastern seals and sealing practices

Two main types of seals were used in the Ancient Near East, the stamp seal and the cylinder seal. Stamp seals first appeared in 'administrative' contexts in central and northern Mesopotamia in the seventh millennium and were used exclusively until the fifth millennium. Cylinder seals appeared first around 3600 BC in southern Mesopotamia and south-western Iran (Middle Uruk Period). They gradually replaced stamp seals, becoming the tool of a rising class of bureaucrats in the early stages of state formation. Even though stamp seals were still produced in the third and second millennia, cylinder seals predominated. In the first millennium, stamp seals made a strong comeback and eventually replaced cylinder seals entirely.

## Place names and sites

* Eshnunna (T. Asmar),
* Shaduppum (T. Harmal),
* Mari (Tell Hariri),
* Sippar-Yahrurum (T. Abu Habbah),
* Sippar-Amnanum (T. ed-Der),
* Babylon (near al-Hillah),
* Kish (T. Uhaimir),
* Nippur (T. Nuffar),
* Larsa (T. Senkereh),
* Isin (Ishan Bahriyat),
* Kisurra (T. Abu Hatab)
* Ur (T. el-Muqayyar)
* Urkesh (Tell Mozan)
| Period/Style | Area | Iconography | Shapes and sizes | Materials and Manufacture | Sealing practices/use | Sites |
| PPN B | Syria | Geometric patterns | Stamp seals mostly conoid or pyramid shaped, commonly perforated | Baked clay, steatite, jadeite | Impressed multiple times on gypsum slabs; used as amulets | Tell Buqras, Ras Shamra |
| Hassuna/Samarra | Syria, Iraq, Amuq | Geometric patterns, seldom human figures | Stamp seals mostly conoid or pyramid shaped, tetrahedron form, looped, ridge handled, anthropomorphic, commonly perforated | Baked clay, steatite, jadeite | Impressed, multiple times on gypsum slabs, used as amulets | Tell es-Sawwan, Tell Hassuna, Tell Cudeyde, Yarimtepe I, Ras Shamra |
| Halaf | Syria, Iraq, Amuq, Turkey | Geometric patterns, Saint Andrews Cross appears, seldom animal figures | Stamp seals mostly conoid or pyramid shaped, double axe or cloverleaf seal, grooved and oval disk seals commonly perforated | Baked clay, steatite, jadeite, chlorite, serpentine, diorite, limestone, rock crystal, sandstone | Container sealings (clay), sealings on gypsum slabs, used as amulets | Tell Halaf, Chagar Bazar, Tell al-Kowm, Tell Sabi Abyad, Arpaciya, Tell Cudeyde, Tepe Gawra |
| Ubaid | Syria, Iraq | first scenes appear, cultic, erotic, captives, animal and human figures, geometric patterns | stamp seals: tabloid, lentoid and hemispheroid seals, seals with small marginal lug handles, amulet seals with a leaf or wedge, conoid or pyramid shaped, double axe or cloverleaf seals | Baked clay, steatite, jadeite, chlorite, serpentine, diorite, limestone, rock crystal, sandstone | Container and door sealings; used as amulets | Tepe Gawra, Oueili, Eridu, Arpaciya |
| Early Uruk | Iraq, Syria | Geometric patterns, animal motifs | Circular and rectangular stamp seals; average diameter c. 2.5-3.5 cm, sometimes up to 4 cm | Soft limestones preferred; designs gouged and sometimes drilled | Container sealings (clay) | Uruk, Tepe Gawra, Tell Brak, Susa |
| Middle Uruk | Iraq, Iran, Syria | Cylinder seals: "baggy style", animal rows, animal combat, daily life scenes, 'nude hero' mastering animals; stamp seals: animals antithetically arranged, geometric designs | Cylinder seals: tall, large diameter; stamp seals: circular, rectangular, zoomorphic, kidney shaped; average diameter c. 3-3.5 cm | Cylinder and stamp seals: soft bright limestones, gypsum. increasing use of the drill, deeply cut designs smoothened with a graver | Container sealings, door sealings, jar stoppers, sealed hollow clay balls; sometimes counter-sealing with stamp seals, sometimes multiple impressions of stamp seals | Uruk, Tello, Nippur, Niniveh, Yorgan Tepe (Nuzi), Tell Brak, Tell Qraya, Tell Hamoukar, Tell Sheikh Hassan, Susa, Sharafabad, Choga Mish |
| Late Uruk | Iraq, Iran, Syria, Turkey | Cylinder seals: Geometric designs, files of animals, ladder-pattern, "master of the animals", monsters, intertwined snakes, pigtailed figures, architecture, heraldic scenes; activities, (captives & violence; hunting; herding; procession & cultic scenes; depictions of the 'priest king'); stamp seals: geometric designs, animals | Cylinder seals: tall and large (two groups; one with heights ranging from 4–6 cm, diameters between 3–5 cm; the other with average height and diameter c. 2 cm); stamp seals: circular, zoomorphic, kidney shaped; average diameter 2.5 cm | Soft, bright limestones, gypsum, steatite, rarely lapis lazuli, shell and ivory; designs cut and drilled; images rather plastic, naturalistic, deeply cut designs; sometimes axial perforation of the cylinders occurs; sometimes cylinder seals are provided with a loop, either cut in one piece with the cylinder or attached to it | Container sealings, door sealings, jar stoppers; sealings on tablets, hollow clay balls, bullae, labels, disks. Stamp seals sometimes impressed multiple times; Cylinder Seal rolled across the tablets and their edges first, then inscribed; when applied on hollow clay balls, sometimes the whole surface is covered with different sealings | Uruk, Ur, Jemdet Nasr, Habuba Kabira-South, Tall Qannas, Jebel Aruda, Tall Sheikh Hassan, Tall Brak, Tall Hamoukar, Hacınebi Tepe, Hassek Höyük?, Arslantepe, Hassek Höyük, Susa, Choga Mish, Tepe Sharafabad, Godin Tepe, Tal-i Malyan |
| Jemdet Nasr | Iraq, Iran, Syria | Cylinder seals: daily life, production processes (weaving), pig-tailed figures, schematic designs (files of animals, e.g. spiders and scorpions, eye pattern, fish pattern) | Example | Colored limestones and dark, hard stones preferred; steatite, serpentine, schist; extensive use of the drill | Container sealings; sealings on tablets, bullae | Jemdet Nasr, Uruk, Ur, |
| Proto-Elamite | Iran | Cylinder seals: 'animals acting as humans', Rearing animals, animal files, floral designs, monsters | Tall, large cylinders | darker stones preferred; limestones, steatite, chlorite, schist, bituminous stone & figures heavily proportioned, internal surfaces cut with a pointed graver | Container sealings, jar stoppers, door sealings; sealing of tablets, hollow clay balls, bullae | Susa, Tal-i Malyan, Tepe Giyan, Tepe Sialk, Godin Tepe, Tal-i Ghazir |
| Early Dynastic I | Example | Example | Example | Example | Example | Example |
| Early Dynastic II | Example | Example | Example | Example | Example | Example |
| Early Dynastic IIIa | Example | Example | Example | Example | Example | Example |
| Early Dynastic IIIb | Example | Example | Example | Example | Example | Example |
| Akkadian | Iraq, Syria | Contest scenes, mythological scenes (Sun God and Water God), worship scenes, banquet scenes, introduction scenes, procession scenes | Cylinder seals with concave sides (flared ends). Large (3–4 cm tall) | Majority serpentine; also diorite, greenstone, jasper, lapis lazuli and rock crystal | Container sealings, (new package sealings), door sealings, bulla-labels | Tell Brak, Nippur, Tell Asmar, Ur, Khafaje, Tello (Girsu), Tell Mozan |
| Ur III | Iraq | Predominantly presentation scenes in many variations; some contest, procession and ritual scenes | Small cylinder seals rarely more than 2.8 cm tall | Majority chlorite; also serpentine, steatite, limestone, hematite and lapis lazuli | Majority tablet sealings; door sealings and container sealings still occur | Tello (Girsu), Nippur, Tell Asmar (Eshnunna), Ur, Lagash, Umma, Drehem |
| Isin-Larsa | Iraq, Syria | Contest scenes, procession scenes. Presentation scenes; libation or animal offerings. New motifs include male or deity holding a mace, deity with scimitar, and nude female. Commonly mixture of elements from different scenes. | Cylinder seals: straight. Average height: 2.5-3.0 cm; "burgul" seals with no iconography used alongside common cylinder seals at certain sites (Eshnunna, Kish, Marad, Nippur, Isin, Kisurra, and Ur). | Dark hard stones preferred, mainly haematite; also Goethite, serpentine, jasper, agate, rock crystal, lapis lazuli (often reused seals and scrap material), soft limestones and chlorite, and terracotta. More seldom shell, gypsum, "greenstone", obsidian, carnelian, mudstone, and basalt. Drilling and filing with hand-held tools. Use of emery as abrasive. Tool traces are masked by further engraving, micro-chipping and polishing. | Container sealings and door sealings. Also tablet and envelope sealings (letters, legal and administrative documents) and occasionally bullae; multiple impressions of the same or different seals | Eshnunna, Shaduppum, Sippar-Yahrurum, Sippar-Amnanum, Kish, Nippur, Larsa, Isin, Kisurra, and Ur, Mari (T. Hariri) |
| Old Babylonian | Iraq | Contest scenes, presentation scenes, figure holding a mace, deity with scimitar, and nude female. Less introduction scenes. Commonly mixture of elements from different scenes. Two figures flanking the inscription on Late Old Babylonian seals. | Cylinder seals: straight, average height: 2.5-3.0 cm; "burgul" seals not attested after the 18th century BC. | Haematite mostly; magnetite around the 18th century; the rest same materials as Isin-Larsa. Introduction of bow-driven cutting wheels and drills during the mid-18th century BC; now unmasked drill holes, filing- and wheel marks. | Container sealings and door sealings. Also tablet and envelope sealings (letters, legal and administrative documents); multiple impressions of the same or different seals | Sippar-Yahrurum, Sippar-Amnanum, Babylon, Kish, Nippur, Larsa, Isin, Kisurra, and Ur |
| Old Assyrian | Iraq, Syria, Anatolia | Introduction- and presentation scenes, chariots drawn by equids, bulls on offering tables, procession- and contest scenes, water god. | Cylinder seals: straight. Average height: 1.8-2.8 cm. | Haematite most common, also magnetite, lapis lazuli, limestone, jasper, and basalt. Execution individual, "flat, linear style"of carving similar to Isin-Larsa glyptic from the Diyala area. Figures with fork-like hands | Container sealings, door- and window sealings. Also tablet and envelope sealings (letters and legal documents), bullae and triangular tags; multiple impressions of the same or different seals | Assur (Qal’at Sherqat), Ninveh, Nuzi (Yorghantepe), Shubat-Enlil (T. Leilan), Kanesh (Kültepe), Acemhöyük, Alişar, and Boğazköy. |
| Mittani Common Style | Iraq, Syria, Cyprus, Levant, Greece, Iran, Anatolia, Georgia, Armenia, the Persian Gulf | Simple ritual scenes where figures flank a tree, rows of animals and humans. | Cylinder seals: straight; height varies. | Compositional, sintered quartz (frit) and faience. A few of chert and hematite | Most seals stem from burials. | Malikh, Hasanlu, Beth Shan, Byblos, Kamid el-Loz, Mohammed 'Arab, Nuzi, Hazor, Megiddo, Alalakh, Tell Kazel, Tell Al-hamidiya, Dhekelia, Tell Billa, Assur, Lchashen, Sapar-Kharaba, Tell Brak |
| Mittani Elaborate Style | Iraq, Syria, Greece, Levant | Ritual scenes, drinking and offering scenes, animal rows. Some inscribed | Cylinder seals | Hematite, chalcedony, carnelian, agate, chert, limestone; colourful. Use of the drill on hard stones | Tablet and envelope impressions | Nuzi, Alalakh, Tell Brak |
| First Kassite Style | Iraq, Iran | Two figure ritual scenes. Bordered crosses, rosettes, animals; gazelles, frogs, birds, dogs and fish. Long inscriptions. | Small and uniform size | Hard stones; chalcedony, agate | Example | Nuzi, Nippur, Nimrud |
| Pseudo-Kassite Style | Iraq, Iran, The Persian Gulf | More linear than First Kassite. Inscriptions not length of whole seal and without real meaning (only for show). Double lines and hatched bands common. Monsters and birds. | Example | Soft composite materials; sintered quartz (frit) and glass. | Example | Nippur, Choza Zanbil, Susa, Subeidi, Failaka |
| Second Kassite Style | Iraq | Chthonic god cycle including natural and cosmic elements. Sacred tree flanked by living creatures; human or animal | Cylinder seals | Hard stones (colourful); chalcedony, agate, lapis lazuli. Glass. With golden caps | Tablet sealings | Thebes, Nippur, Ur, Subeidi, Assur, Aqar Quf |
| Third Kassite Style/Isin II Style | Iraq | Animals or monster scenes, a few involving humans. marru. Linear tendency | Cylinder seals | Soft stones and quartz. Gold caps flourish. Drill used less than in Second Kassite seals. | Tablet and envelope sealings | Ur, Uruk, Nippur, Abu Hatab, Luristan |
| Middle Assyrian | Iraq, Syria | Contest scenes, animal scenes (horse and winged bull appear), chariot scenes, hunting with archer, temples, antithetically arranged pairs of figures including the winged "griffin-demon", "sacred-tree"; sometimes inscription included; also schematic, linear depictions | Straight cylinder seals; average diameter c. 1.6 cm, average height ranging between 3.2-4.7 cm | Agate, limestone, quartz, jasper, carnelian, lapis-lazuli, talc, frit; either cutting of high quality or - for the cut-style - cursory engraving with extensive use of the cutting wheel | Tablet and envelope sealings; container and door sealings | Assur, Tell Sheikh Hamad (Dur-Katlimmu), Tell Mohammed Arab, Tell Fakhariya, Tell Sabi Abyad, Tell Billa, Tell al-Rimah |
| Neo-Assyrian | Iraq, Syria | Royal worship, king with bow and cup, devotional scenes, banquet scenes, contest scenes, ritual scenes, animal scenes, hunting scenes. Figures flanking a tree. The "siege" | Cylinder and stamp seals | Manufactured in 4 styles; linear (soft materials; steatite, serpentine and sintered quartz (frit)), modeled (chalcedony), cut (hard and soft materials), drilled (chalcedony, agate) | Container sealings. Jar stoppers. Door sealings. Bullae. Tablet sealings | Nimrud, Nineve, Assur, Tell Sheikh Hamad (Dur-Katlimmu) |
| Neo-Babylonian | Example | Example | Example | Example | Example | Example |
| Example | Example | Example | Example | Example | Example | Example |
| Example | Example | Example | Example | Example | Example | Example |
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