# Dameli language

Dameli (دَميلي), also Damia, Damɛ̃ḍī, Dāmia bāṣa or Gidoj, is an Indo-Aryan language of the Dardic subgroup spoken by approximately 5,000 people in the Domel Town, in the Chitral District of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.
The Domel or Damel Valley is about ten miles south of Drosh on the East Side of the Chitral or Kunar river, on the road from the Mirkhani Fort to the pass of Arandu.
Dameli is still the main language in the villages where it is spoken, and it is regularly learned by children. Most of the men speak Pashto as a second language, and some also speak Khowar and Urdu, but there are no signs of massive language change.

## Study

Emil Perder's 2013 dissertation, A Grammatical Description of Dameli, based on the author's field work, is the first comprehensive description of the Dameli language. Before Perder's work, the main source of information on Dameli was an article by Georg Morgenstierne, published in 1942: "Notes on Dameli: A Kafir-Dardic Language of the Chitral". A sociolinguistic survey written by Kendall Decker (1992) contains a chapter on Dameli.

## Classification

The language is classified as an Indo-Aryan language of the Dardic subgroup. It is notable for containing a significant degree of words deriving from the Nuristani languages, even in basic vocabulary, though the pronoun system and morphology are characteristically of Dardic origin. The Dardic languages were first thought to be as an independent branch within Indo-Iranian, but today they are placed within Indo-Aryan following Morgenstierne's work.

## Phonology

The following tables set out the phonology of the Dameli Language.

### Vowels

| | Front | Back |
| High | i, iː | u |
| Mid | e, eː | oː |
| Low | a | ɑː |
Vowels are distinguished by quality, length, and nasality. It is possible that [u] and [o] may serve as variants of /u/ and /u:/. Occasionally, the vowels /u/ and /i/ can be reanalyzed as semivowels /w/ and /j/, respectively, in order to fit the syllable structure.

### Consonants

| | | Labial | Coronal | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | n | ɳ (ṇ) | | (ŋ) | | |
| Stop | voiceless | p | t | ʈ (ṭ) | | k | (q) | |
| Stop | voiced | b | d | ɖ (ḍ) | | g | | |
| Stop | aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | ʈʰ | | kʰ | | |
| Affricate | plain | | ts (ċ) | tʂ (c̣) | tʃ (č) | | | |
| Affricate | aspirated | | tsʰ | tʂʰ | tʃʰ | | | |
| Fricative | voiceless | | s | ʂ (ṣ) | ʃ (š) | x | | h |
| Fricative | voiced | | | ʐ (ẓ) | ʒ (ž) | ɣ | | |
| Approximant | Approximant | ʋ (w) | l | ɻ (ẉ) | j ( ) | | | |
| Rhotic | Rhotic | | r | ɽ (ṛ) | | | | |

### Tones

Perder distinguishes two tones: rising and falling, but concludes that they require further study.

### Syllable structure

Dameli has a limited amount of syllable structures. Consonants clusters are allowed at the onset and coda, but only with a certain set of consonants. Any consonant except /ɳ/ can appear at the start of a syllable. In word final position, only voiceless unaspirated stops can occur.

## Morphology
### Nouns

Nouns can be inflected for number and case and refer to things that are inanimate or animate. They belong either to the masculine or feminine gender. However, the gender system is in decline among speakers. The general plural suffix is -nam. However, some words borrowed from Pashto retain their plural suffixes.

#### Cases

Dameli is a split ergative language. With past and perfective forms, the system is ergative, and with nonpast and perfective forms, the system is accusative. There are two sets of cases: core and periphery. The 'core' cases include the unmarked/nominative form and the ergative form, and the periphery cases include the locative and instrumental. Kinship terms may also include a separate case, called the vocative. The nominative case is typically unmarked in the imperfective and nonpast forms, as seen in this example.
i
3SG.ANIM.PROX
žami
woman
c̣ʰiir
milk
brikin-ni
sell-IMPRF.3SG.F
i žami c̣ʰiir brikin-ni
3SG.ANIM.PROX woman milk sell-IMPRF.3SG.F
This woman is selling milk
However, in the past and perfective forms, it becomes the marked ergative case.
mas-sãã
3SG.ANIM.PROX-POSS
putr-es-ee
son-KIN.3-ERG
tasãã-Ø
3SG-POSS-M
ɡram
village
ta
of
ek
one
mač
man
žan-ee
kill-PFV.3SG
mas-sãã putr-es-ee tasãã-Ø ɡram ta ek mač žan-ee
3SG.ANIM.PROX-POSS son-KIN.3-ERG 3SG-POSS-M village of one man kill-PFV.3SG
His son killed a man from his village.
The locative is created by adding the suffix -a to the end of the noun. It can also be used to encode a third argument in an ditransitive verb.
tu
2SG.NOM
kul-a
house-LOC
t$^h$op-i
be.IMPFV.2SG-Q
tu kul-a t$^h$op-i
2SG.NOM house-LOC be.IMPFV.2SG-Q
Are you home?
The instrumental case is formed by adding the suffix -ee.
ay
1SG.NOM
braadun-ee
catapult-INS
wigi-num
fire-IMPFV.1SG
ay braadun-ee wigi-num
1SG.NOM catapult-INS fire-IMPFV.1SG
I am shooting with a catapult
Instrumental case can also be used to denote a place along the way to somewhere else or to express how something is said in another language.

#### Kinship

The kinship system of Dameli takes into account relative age, relative generation, gender, and whether the relationship is by-blood or by-marriage. Seven generations are distinguished: the generation of the anchor and the three generations preceding or following them. The third generation preceding the anchor is only used in the term for great-grandfather, parbap and the term for grandfather, bap, is used to mean ancestor. All kinship terms are distinguished by gender, and may or may not share the same root. The anchor's gender is also occasionally taken into account; the term used for a woman's mother-in-law is not the same as a man's. For relative age, the anchor is generally considered, but in the case of relatives by marriage, the parent's age is considered.
Kinship terms :
| Consanguineal kin | Consanguineal kin | Affinal kin | Affinal kin |
| Term | Gloss | Term | Gloss |
| parbap | great-grandfather | pašur | father-in-law, wife's maternal uncle |
| bap, baloodadi | grandfather | ǰeṣṭaali | wife's mother, wife's maternal aunt |
| yei, balooyi | grandmother | preeš | husband's mother |
| dadi | father | pʰaapa | paternal aunt's husband |
| yii | mother | mamaani | maternal uncle's wife |
| pitri | paternal uncle | žami, ištrii | wife, woman |
| ǰeṣṭadadi | paternal uncle (older) | aštrakaa | wives, women |
| mažuma dadi | paternal uncle (middle) | bareu, mač | husband, man |
| sureedadi, učuṭadadi | paternal uncle (younger) | ẓami | wife's brother, sister's husband |
| pʰaapi | paternal aunt | saaraani | wife's sister |
| žeṣṭeri pʰaapi | paternal aunt (older) | deer | husband's brother |
| mažumi pʰaapi | paternal aunt (middle) | ǰeṣṭa deer | husband's older brother |
| surui pʰaapi | paternal aunt (younger) | mažuma deer | husband's brother (middle) |
| nan | maternal aunt, father's sister in law | suruu deer | husband's younger brother |
| žeṣṭi | maternal aunt (older) | žamili | husband's sister |
| mam | maternal uncle, mother's brother-in-law | bražei | brother's wife |
| braa, braadi (pl.) | brother | saaraana | sister's husband, wife's sister's husband |
| bay | brother (older) | bawi | son's wife, nephew's wife |
| suree | brother (younger) | zaamaa | daughter's husband, niece's husband |
| pas, pasari (pl.) | sister | abeeni | co-wife |
| bibi | sister (older) | dram | friend, blood-brother |
| surei | sister (younger) | paai | boy |
| put | son, fraternal nephew | brei | girl |
| žu | daughter, fraternal niece | kuẉa, zaatak | child |
| ṣpaṣi | sororal nephew, sororal niece | | |
| nawaasa (m.), nawaasi (f.) | grandson, granddaughter | | |
| kaṛwaasa (m.), kaṛwaasi (f.) | great-grandson, great-granddaughter | | |
Kinship terms can be inflected in three different ways: an unmarked form, a second person form, and a third person form. Second person is marked with the suffix -un/-in and third person is marked with -es. The suffix -oo, which only occurs on kinship terms, takes on a vocative role as it is used to address the subject. Unlike other nouns, kinship terms generally take the plural suffix -suu instead of -nam.

### Pronouns

Pronouns in Dameli are inflected for five factors: person, number, distance, animacy, and case.
Personal pronouns :
| Pronoun | Nomative | Oblique | Ergative |
| 1SG | ay | muu | muu |
| 2SG | tu | too | too |
| 3SG.ANIM.PROX | i | mas | manii |
| 3SG.ANIM.DIST | see | tas | tanii |
| 3SG.INAM.PROX | yee | yee | yee |
| 3SG.INAM.DIST | see | see | see |
| 1PL | ay | amaa | amaa |
| 2PL | bi | mya | mya |
| 3PL.ANIM.PROX | mẽẽ | masuu | masuu |
| 3PL.ANIM.DIST | tẽẽ | tasuu | tasuu |
| 3PL.INAM.PROX | mẽẽ | mẽẽ | mẽẽ |
| 3PL.INAM.DIST | tẽẽ | tẽẽ | tẽẽ |
The locative is formed with the addition of the suffix -a to the oblique form. Third person pronouns can also be used as determiners when inserted in front of a noun.
tu
2SG.NOM
mas
3SG.ANIM.PROX.OBL
paai
boy
ku
why
žan-op
kill-PFV.2SG
tu mas paai ku žan-op
2SG.NOM 3SG.ANIM.PROX.OBL boy why kill-PFV.2SG
Why did you kill this boy?
tẽẽ
3PL.INAN.DIST
kul
house
naɡi
fall
prat-ee
give−PFV.3SG
tẽẽ kul naɡi prat-ee
3PL.INAN.DIST house fall give−PFV.3SG
Those houses fell down.

#### Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns :
| Gloss | Masculine owned | Feminine owned |
| 1SG | mãã | mããi |
| 2SG | tãã | tããi |
| 3SG.ANIM.PROX | masãã | masããi |
| 3SG.ANIM.DIST | tasãã | tasããi |
| 1PL | amuna | amuni |
| 2PL | mina | mini |
| 3PL.ANIM.PROX | masuna | masuni |
| 3PL.ANIM.DIST | tasuna | tasuni |
| Possessive marker |||
| 3SG.ANIM | sãã | sããi |
| 3PL.ANIM | suna | suni |
The possessive reflexive pronoun taanu is used indicate that something is owned by an already-defined person, much like English 'one's own'. It is inflected for gender agreement with the noun it modifies.

#### Interrogative pronouns

The interrogative and relative pronouns are kya 'what', kii/kuree 'who', keeraa 'which', and kasãã 'whose'.

### Adjectives

In Dameli, some adjectives show gender agreement and some do not. Generally, dimensions other than gender are not considered. Generally, -a marks agreement with a masculine noun, and -i marks agreement with a feminine noun.
muu
1SG.OBL
ta
from
kaaya
remembrance
aaċ-i
come-CP
daro
is
mãã-i
1SG.POSS-F
šumaa-i
beautiful-F
daaman
Domel(F)
ta
of
gurum
morning
muu ta kaaya aaċ-i daro mãã-i šumaa-i daaman ta gurum
1SG.OBL from remembrance come-CP is 1SG.POSS-F beautiful-F Domel(F) of morning
I remember the morning of my beautiful Domel.
The suffixes -bana and -bani denote similarity to a noun, somewhat like English '-ish' or 'like'. The suffix -baṣ denote ability as in matrambaṣ 'legible' (lit. able to be read). Some more suffixes include -weela, roughly equivalent to 'having x', and -pin 'full of x'.

### Numerals

The basic numerals of Dameli are as follows:
Cardinal numerals :
| Number | Dameli |
| 1 | ek |
| 2 | duu |
| 3 | traa |
| 4 | čoor |
| 5 | pããč |
| 6 | ṣoo |
| 7 | sat |
| 8 | aṣ |
| 9 | noo |
| 10 | daš |
| 11 | yaaš |
| 20 | biši |
| 21 | bišiyoek |
| 40 | duubiši |
| 100 | pããčbiši, sawa |
| 1000 | zara |
The numerals are in base ten, but can be analyzed as base 20 in specific cases (ex: traa-biši 'sixty' lit. three-twenty). Ordinal numerals take on the suffix -am. Collective numerals are expressed with the suffix -i.

### Verbs

A typical Dameli verb root contains one or two syllables. Roots can be intransitive, transitive, or ditransitive. The main distinction is between transitive and intransitive verbs. Some common verbs use alternative roots when in the perfective aspect. For example, in the verb 'to die', the root naṣṭ is used in the perfective and the root br in other contexts. The causative suffix -a (used in the future and perfective) and -aai (used in the imperfective and past). Verbs may also use the 'second causative', becoming ditransitive. Verbs are inflected for six finite tense-aspect-mood categories: perfective, imperfective, indirect past, potential past, future, and imperative. There are an additional five non-finite tense-aspect-mood qualities: infinitive, present participle, past participle, inchoative participle, and conjunctive participle.
Dameli verbs are inflected for person, number, gender, evidentiality, and TAM. The past tense marker taa is used when forming complex TAM constructions.

#### Copulas

Two different copula verbs are used: one for animate subjects and one for inanimate subjects.
| Tense | Animate | Inaminate |
| Imperfective | t$^h$- | daru |
| Present | t$^h$- | daru |
| Perfective | t$^h$- | beru |
| Past | t$^h$- | beru |
| Future | b- | |
| Indirect past | bai- | |
| Present participle | baal | |
| Past participle | baisan | |
| Conjunctive participle | bai | |

#### Perfective

| Form | Intransitive | Transitive | Causative |
| 1SG | -úm | -úm | -m |
| 2SG | -óp | -óp | -p |
| 3SG.M | -aa | -ee | -ee |
| 3SG.F | -úi | -ee | -ee |
| 1PL | -úma | -úma | -ama |
| 2PL | -óba | -óba | -aba |
| 3PL | -ún | -én | -en |
The perfective aspect is the most basic verb form, describing an action as a singular, whole occurrence. It also refers to events that the speaker witnessed.

#### Imperfective

| Form | Intransitive/Transitive | Causative |
| 1SG | -num | -m |
| 2SG | -nap | -ap |
| 3SG.M | -na | -a |
| 3SG.F | -ni | -i |
| 1PL | -numa | -ma |
| 2PL | -naba | -ba |
| 3PL | -nun | -n |
The imperfective form expresses the simple present, the continuous past, and completed actions with currently relevant outcomes. Combining the imperfective with taa creates the past continuous form.

#### Indirect Past

| Form | Intransitive | Transitive | Causative |
| 1SG | -t$^h$um | -t$^h$um | -t$^h$um |
| 2SG | -t$^h$op | -t$^h$op | -t$^h$op |
| 3SG.M | -t$^h$aa | -t$^h$ee | -t$^h$ee |
| 3SG.F | -t$^h$ui | -t$^h$ee | -t$^h$ee |
| 1PL | -t$^h$uma | -t$^h$uma | -t$^h$uma |
| 2PL | -t$^h$oba | -t$^h$oba | -t$^h$oba |
| 3PL | -t$^h$un | -t$^h$en | -t$^h$en |
The indirect past is used to indicate events that the speaker did not directly witness in the past.

#### Potential past

| Form | Inflection |
| 1SG | -tʰim |
| 2SG | -tʰis |
| 3SG.M | -tʰiyo |
| 3SG.F | -tʰima |
| 1PL | -tʰima |
| 2PL | -tʰiba |
| 3PL | -tʰin |
The potential past is used to indicate events that may have happened in the past, but that the speaker is not sure of.

#### Future

| Form | Inflection |
| 1SG | -im |
| 2SG | -es |
| 3SG | -o |
| 1PL | -ima |
| 2PL | -iba |
| 3PL | -in |

#### Imperative

| Form | Intransitive/Transitive | Causative |
| SG | -ee | -i |
| PL | -aa | -ya |
The imperative is used to indicate commands and requests.

#### Non-finite

Non-finite verb forms :
| Form | Suffix |
| Infinitive | -an |
| Present participle | -aal |
| Past participle | -isan |
| Inchoative participle | -em |
| Conjunctive participle | -i |
An epenthetic vowel is inserted if the suffix would otherwise create a non-compatible cluster. The infinity functions as a 'verbal noun'. The conjunctive participle functions as a converb, mainly serving to mark the adverb. In negative imperatives, the prohibitive marker ma is used before the imperative verb form.

#### Causative

Verbs can take a causative and 'second causative' suffix. Generally, an intransitive verb will become transitive with a causative suffix, and ditransitive with a second causative suffix. For instance, the verb 'to sit' has three levels of causativity:
taga
before?
tali
until
ay
1SG.NOM
aram-a
rest-LOC
ni
not
niš-im
sit-FUT.1SG
tee
that
taga tali ay aram-a ni niš-im tee
before? until 1SG.NOM rest-LOC not sit-FUT.1SG that
I will not sit down to rest, until…
ãã
and
muu
1SG.ERG
keeraa
which
paai
boy
madrasa-a
madrasa-LOC
niš-aai-tʰum
sit-CAUS-INDIRPST.1SG
ba
TOP
ãã muu keeraa paai madrasa-a niš-aai-tʰum ba
and 1SG.ERG which boy madrasa-LOC sit-CAUS-INDIRPST.1SG TOP
And the boy that I sat in the madrassah...
ay
1SG.NOM
mãã-Ø
1SG.POSS−M
maam-a
maternal.uncle−OBL
ṣawaai
by
mas
3SG.ANIM.PROX
niš-aw-aai-m
sit−CAUS2−CAUS−PFV.1SG
ay mãã-Ø maam-a ṣawaai mas niš-aw-aai-m
1SG.NOM 1SG.POSS−M maternal.uncle−OBL by 3SG.ANIM.PROX sit−CAUS2−CAUS−PFV.1SG
I sat him down through my uncle (I asked my uncle to calm him down)
The first example uses the intransitive verb to refer to the act of sitting; the second example uses the transitive verb to describe the act of making someone else sit, and the third example uses a second causative to describe the action of the subject, I, making the object, the boy, sit through the medium of the uncle.

### Postpositions

There are two major categories of postpositions: those that require the locative case and those that don't. There are five postpositions that require the preceding noun to have the locative case: ki 'to', ṣaži 'in order to', ṣawaai 'for, by, through', mili 'with (comitative)', and ĩĩ 'appropriate place.' ṣawaai is primarily used to describe the second argument of a ditransitive verb. ĩĩ is always cliticized to the preceding noun. Other, non-locative pospositions are ta 'from, of, than', ṣaa 'on', neẉ 'under', taprei 'for', bãĩ 'towards', tagii 'from', and tali 'until.

### Question words

The basic non-prominal question words are as follows:
| Word | Gloss |
| keer | when |
| kanuu | how |
| ku | why |
| kaa | where (general) |
| kutaal | where (direction) |
| kati | how many |
| kya | what |

## Syntax

Dameli exhibits typical Indo-Aryan syntax. The default word order for most clause types is Subject-Object-Verb. The basic clause can contain a clause adverbial, the subject, and the predicate, consisting of the object and verb. The clause adverbial provides context for the rest of the clause. The subject, a noun phrase, declares the agent of the verb. Indirect objects are generally placed before direct objects. Locative predicates are generally postnominal. Negation is typically placed before the verb it negates.
The basic noun phrase has three sections: a determiner (indicating number or proximity), an attribute (adjective or adverb), and a head (noun). In this phrase, ek 'one' serves as the determiner, lee ɣarib 'very poor' serves as an attribute, and mač 'man' serves as the head.
ek
one
lee
very
ɣarib
poor
mač
man
ek lee ɣarib mač
one very poor man
A very poor man
Adverbials can express time (i.e. yesterday, tomorrow), space (i.e. here, far), and intensifiers (i.e. very).
Common adverbials :
| Gloss | Dameli |
| yesterday | doos |
| today | mudya |
| tomorrow | beraa ki |
| here | ayaa |
| there | tara |
| near | oor |
| far | p$^h$ar |
| very/many | lee |
Coordination in Dameli is when two qualities which are expected to occur together and form a single unit. They can be formed using the clitic -o or by putting the terms in sequences, such as yei bap 'grandfather and grandmother' and aan-o baraan 'inside and outside'. Conjunction coordination is expressed with the coordinator ãã. Disjunctive coordination is expressed with kuu or ya 'or'. Adversative coordination (like English 'but') is expressed with leekin and xu.
The topic particles ta and ba denote a previously mentioned topic and a new topic, respectively. The vocative particle a can be placed in front of any description word to create a vocative clause.