# Proto-Iroquoian language

Proto-Iroquoian is the theoretical proto-language of the Iroquoian languages. Lounsbury (1961) estimated from glottochronology a time depth of 3,500 to 3,800 years for the split of North and South Iroquoian.
At the time of early European contact, French explorers in the 16th century encountered villages along the St. Lawrence River, now associated with the St. Lawrence Iroquoian. Other better known northern tribes took over their territory and displaced them, and were later encountered by more French, European and English colonists. These tribes included the Huron and Neutral in modern-day Ontario, first encountered by French explorers and traders; the Five Nations of the Iroquois League in Upstate New York and Pennsylvania, and the Erie Nation and Susquehannock peoples in Pennsylvania.
Southern speakers of Iroquoian languages ranged from the Cherokee in the Great Smoky Mountains, to the Tuscarora and Nottoway in the interior near the modern Virginia/North Carolina border.

## Subdivisions

The Iroquoian languages are usually divided into two main groups: Southern Iroquoian (Cherokee) and Northern Iroquoian (all others) based on the great differences in vocabulary and modern phonology. Northern Iroquoian is further divided by Lounsbury and Mithun into Proto-Tuscarora-Nottoway and Lake Iroquoian. Julian (2010) does not believe Lake Iroquoian to be a valid subgrouping.

## History of studies

Isolated studies were done by Chafe (1977a), Michelson (1988), and Rudes (1995). There have also been several works of internal reconstruction for daughter languages, in particular Seneca and Mohawk. A preliminary full reconstruction of Proto-Iroquoian was not provided until Charles Julian's (2010) work.

## Phonology

Proto-Iroquoian as reconstructed shares the Iroquoian languages' notable typological traits of small consonant inventories, complex consonant clusters, and a lack of labial consonants.

### Vowels

The reconstructed vowel inventory for Proto-Iroquoian is:
| | Front | Central | Back |
| Close | i iː | | u uː |
| Mid | e eː ẽ ẽː | | o oː õ õː |
| Open | | a aː | |
Like later Iroquoian languages, Proto-Iroquoian is distinguished in having nasal vowels /õ/ and /ẽ/, although it has more than in its daughter languages.

### Consonants

The reconstructed consonant inventory for Proto-Iroquoian is given in the table below. The consonants of all Iroquoian languages pattern so that they may be grouped as (oral) obstruents, sibilants, laryngeals, and resonants (Lounsbury 1978:337).
| | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal |
| Plosive | t | | k kʷ | ʔ |
| Affricate | ts | | | |
| Fricative | s | | | h |
| Nasal | n | | | |
| Approximant | ɹ | j | w | |

## Morphology

Reconstructed functional morphemes from Julian (2010):
Reconstructed functional morphemes from Julian (2010) :
| No. | Gloss | Proto-Iroquoian | Proto-Northern Iroquoian |
| 1 | 'negative' | | *teʔ |
| 2 | 'coincident' (perhaps also relativizer) | *ts | |
| 3 | 'contrastive' | | *thi |
| 4 | 'partitive' | *ijiː | |
| 5 | 'translocative' | *wi | |
| 6 | 'factual' | | *waʔ |
| 7 | 'duplicative' | *teː | |
| 8 | 'future' | *ẽː | |
| 9 | 'optative' | | *aɹa |
| 10 | 'cislocative' | *t | |
| 11 | 'repetitive' | *ts | |
| 12 | 'non-singular animate' | *ka | |
| 13 | '1:2.SG' | *kõː | |
| 14 | '1:2.DU' | | *kni |
| 15 | '1:2.PL' | | *kwa |
| 16 | '2:1.SG' | *hskʷi | |
| 17 | '2:1.DU' | *hskniː | |
| 18 | '2:1.PL' | *hskʷ… | |
| 19 | '1SG:3' | *ki | |
| 20 | 1SG:3A' (> PNI '1SG:3I') | *kiji | |
| 21 | '1SG:3M' | | *he or *hɹi |
| 22 | '2SG:3' | *hsi | |
| 23 | 2SG:3A' (> PNI '2SG:3I') | *hsiji | |
| 24 | '2SG:3M' | | *hehse |
| 25 | '3:1SG' | *wakʷi | |
| 26 | 3A:1SG' (> PNI '3I:1SG') | *jõːkʷi | |
| 27 | '3M:1SG' | | *hɹake |
| 28 | '3:2SG' | *tsa | |
| 29 | 3A:2SG' (> PNI 3I:2SG') | *jeːtsa | |
| 30 | '3M:2SG' | | *hja |
| 31 | '2DU&3' | *tsniː | |
| 32 | '2DU&3M' | | *hshetsni |
| 33 | '2PL&3' | *ts… | |
| 34 | '2PL&3M' | | *hshetswa |
| 35 | '2NS&3I' | | *jetshi |
| 36 | '1+2DU:3' | *tniː | |
| 37 | '1+2DU:3M' | | *hshetni |
| 38 | '1+2PL:3' | *t… | |
| 39 | '1+2PL:3M' | | *hshetwa |
| 40 | '1+3DU:3' | | *jakni |
| 41 | '1+3DU:3M' | | *hshakni |
| 42 | '1+3PL:3' | | *jakwa |
| 43 | '1+3PL:3M' | | *hshakwa |
| 44 | '3:1DU' | *kniː | |
| 45 | '3M:1DU' | | *hshõkni |
| 46 | '3:1PL' | *kʷ… | |
| 47 | '3M:1PL' | | *hshõkwa |
| 48 | '1+2NS:3I' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *jethi |
| 49 | 1+3NS:3I' (> Hu. 1NS:3I) | | *jakhi |
| 50 | 3I:1NS' (> Tu. '1NS&3I') | | *jõkhi |
| 51 | '3SG:3' (lexically determined variant 1) | *ka | |
| 52 | '3SG:3' (lexically determined variant 2) | *wa | |
| 53 | '3SGM:3' | | *hɹa |
| 54 | '3:3SG' | *juː | |
| 55 | '3:3SGM' | | *hɹo |
| 56 | '3DU:3' | | *kni |
| 57 | '3DUM:3' | | *hni |
| 58 | 3NS:3' (> PNI '3PL:3') | *wantiː | |
| 59 | '3PL:3' (second variant, in competition with *wati, #58) | | *kõti |
| 60 | '3PLM:3' | | *hɹati |
| 61 | '3:3NS' | *juːntiː | |
| 62 | '3:3NSM' | | *hɹoti |
| 63 | '3I:3' | | *je |
| 64 | '3:3I' | | *jako |
| 65 | '3SGM:3I' | | *hshako |
| 66 | 3A:3SGA' (> Ch. '3NS:3SG', PNI '3I:3SG') | *kõːwa | |
| 67 | '3I:3SGM' | | *hɹõwa |
| 68 | 3A:3NSA' (> Ch. '3NS:3NS', PNI '3I:3NS') | *kõːwantiː | |
| 69 | '3I:3NSM' | | *hɹõwati |
| 70 | '3NS:3I' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *jakoti |
| 71 | '3NSM:3I' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *hshakoti |
| 72 | '2:1.SG.IMP' | | *take |
| 73 | '2:1.DU.IMP' | | *takni |
| 74 | '1:2.PL.IMP' | | *takwa |
| 75 | '2SG:3.IMP' | | *tse |
| 76 | 'reflexive' | *ataːt | |
| 77 | 'semireflexive' (lexically determined variant 1) | *at | |
| 78 | 'semireflexive' (lexically determined variant 2) | *aɹ | |
| 79 | 'joiner vowel' | *a | |
| 80 | 'nominalizer' (lexically determined variant 1) | | *hsɹ |
| 81 | 'nominalizer' (lexically determined variant 2) | | *ʔtshɹ |
| 82 | 'causative-instrumental' (lexically determined variant 1) | *t | |
| 83 | 'causative-instrumental' (lexically determined variant 2) | *hst | |
| 84 | 'instrumental' | | *hkw |
| 85 | 'reversive' (PNI lexically determined variant 1) | *kʷ | |
| 86 | 'reversive' (lexically determined variant 2) | | *hsj |
| 87 | 'inchoative' | | *ʔ |
| 88 | 'dative-benefactive' (PNI lexically determined variant 1) | *ts | |
| 89 | 'dative-benefactive' (lexically determined variant 2) | | *ẽ |
| 90 | 'dative-benefactive' (lexically determined variant 3) | | *ni |
| 91 | 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 1) | | *n |
| 92 | 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 2) | | *h |
| 93 | 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 3) | | *ts |
| 94 | 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 4) | | *tsɹ |
| 95 | 'dislocative' (lexically determined variant 5, limited to Iroquoia) | | *ɹ |
| 96 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 1) | | *njõː |
| 97 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 2) | | *nõː |
| 98 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 3) | | *hõː |
| 99 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 4) | | *õː |
| 100 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 5) | | *ɹõː |
| 101 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 6) | | *ɹjõː |
| 102 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 7) | | *tsõː |
| 103 | 'distributive' (lexically determined variant 8) | | *tsɹõː |
| 104 | 'progressive' | | *tjeʔ |
| 105 | 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 1) | | *hs |
| 106 | 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 2) | | *ts |
| 107 | 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 3) | | *haʔ |
| 108 | 'present suffix' (lexically determined variant 4) | | *h |
| 109 | 'imperfective suffix' (cf. Cherokee imperfective verbs inhsk) | | *hsk |
| 110 | 'past habitual suffix' | | *kʷ |
| 111 | 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 1) | | *ʔ |
| 112 | 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 2) | | *ẽʔ |
| 113 | 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 3) | | *Ø |
| 114 | 'punctual suffix' (lexically determined variant 4) | | *n |
| 115 | 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 1) | | *õh |
| 116 | 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 2) | | *ẽh |
| 117 | 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 3) | | *Ø |
| 118 | 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 4) | | *eʔ |
| 119 | 'perfect suffix' (lexically determined variant 5) | | *ih |
| 120 | 'past perfect suffix' | | *n |
| 121 | 'facilitative suffix' | | *nskõːh |
| 122 | 'modalizer suffix' | | *k |
| 123 | 'noun suffix' | | *aʔ |
| 124 | 'authenticative suffix' | | *õweh |
| 125 | 'characterizer suffix' | | *haːʔ |
| 126 | 'decessive suffix' | | *kẽh |
| 127 | 'intensifier suffix' | | *tsih |
| 128 | 'locative suffix' | | *keh |
| 129 | 'populative suffix' (lexically determined variant 1) | | *ɹonõʔ |
| 130 | 'populative suffix' (lexically determined variant 2) | | *kaːʔ |

## Lexicon

Reconstructed lexical roots and particles from Julian (2010):
Reconstructed lexical roots and particles from Julian (2010) :
| No. | Gloss | Proto-Iroquoian | Proto-Northern Iroquoian | Proto-Mohawk- Oneida | Huron (Common Huron-Petun) |
| 131 | 'path, road, trail' | | *-ah-, *-(a)hah- | | |
| 132 | 'be bad, be ugly, be useless' | | *-(a)hetkẽʔ | | |
| 133 | 'be salty, be sour' | | *-ahjoʔtsihs, *-oʔtsihst- | | |
| 134 | 'bark, wood, wood chips' | | *-ahkaɹ- | | |
| 135 | 'be ten' | | *-ahnshẽːh | | |
| 136 | 'ear' | | *-(a)hõht- | | |
| 137 | 'count' | | *-(a)hɹaːt- | | |
| 138 | 'hear, speak a language, understand' | | *-ahɹõk- | | |
| 139 | 'foot' | *-aːhs-, *-aːhsiʔt- | | | |
| 140 | 'three' | | *ahsẽh | | |
| 141 | 'string' | | | *ahsɹijeʔ | |
| 142 | 'shoe' | | *-ahtahkʷ-, *ahtaʔ | | |
| 143 | 'be forbidden, be prohibited, be strict, be taboo' | | *-ahtjawẽɹeʔ | | |
| 144 | 'abandon, give up, leave behind, let go, quit, release' | | *-ahtkaʔw- | | |
| 145 | 'disappear, vanish' | | *-ahtõ-, *-ahtõʔ- | | |
| 146 | 'hide' | | *-ahtseht- | | |
| 147 | 'argue for, compete for, contend for, fight for' | | *-ahtskehnh- | | |
| 148 | 'not yet, still' | | *ahtsõh, *atsõh | | |
| 149 | 'night' | *-ahtsõːh- | | | |
| 150 | 'connect, fasten, join together' | | *-ahtsõtɹ- | | |
| 151 | 'be durable, be hard, be strong' | | *-akanst-, *-anst-, *-kanst- | | |
| 152 | 'be a number, be an amount, be that many' | | *-akeːh, *-keːh | | |
| 153 | 'be bad' | | *-aksẽːh | | |
| 154 | 'cry' | | *-anstaɹ- | | |
| 155 | 'outdoors, outside' | | *ansteh | | |
| 156 | 'shoe' | *-aɹaːhsu- | | | |
| 157 | 'be cousins' | | *-aɹaʔtseːʔ | | |
| 158 | 'about, almost, approximately' | *aɹeʔ | | | |
| 159 | 'be inside, be one, be present, be within, exist' | | *-aːt | | |
| 160 | 'speak, talk' | | *-atati-, *-atatj- | | |
| 161 | 'bathe, swim' | *-atawẽ- | | | |
| 162 | 'climb over, go over' | *-atawẽːhɹat- | | | |
| 163 | 'be ashamed, be embarrassed' | *-ateːhẽːh- | | | |
| 164 | 'be burning, burn' | | *-atek- | | |
| 165 | 'burn, cause to burn, light a fire' | | *-atekaʔt- | | |
| 166 | 'use to light a fire' | | *-atekaʔtahkw- | | |
| 167 | 'be a doctor, cure, heal' | | *-atetsjẽʔt- | | |
| 168 | 'food taken along, provisions' | | *-atẽnaʔtshɹ- | | |
| 169 | 'be a member of the Wolf Clan' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-athahjõniːh | | |
| 170 | 'be cold, be cold out, cold' | | *-athoɹ-, *athoʔ | | |
| 171 | 'hear' | *-athõː- | | | |
| 172 | 'garter' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-athsinh-, *-athsinhatshɹ- | | |
| 173 | 'be burnt, be consumed, be used up, burn, use oneself up' | | *-athsʔaht- | | |
| 174 | 'abandon, throw, throw out' | | *-ati-, *-atj-, *-õti-, *-õtj- | | |
| 175 | 'draw, pull, stretch' | | *-atiɹõːt- | | |
| 176 | 'get dressed, put on' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-atjaʔtawiʔt- | | |
| 177 | 'harbour, hold back, keep' | | | *-atjenawahst- | |
| 178 | 'be cheap, be easy, be profligate, squander' | | *-atjets- | | |
| 179 | 'look at' | *-atkahthw- | | | |
| 180 | 'purulence, pus' | | *-atkẽhtsɹ- | | |
| 181 | 'be a sorcerer, be a spirit, have inherent power' | | *-atkõʔ | | |
| 182 | 'axe' | | *atokẽʔ | | |
| 183 | 'spoon' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-atokw-, *-atokwaʔtshɹ- | | |
| 184 | 'hunt' | | *-atoɹaːt- | | |
| 185 | 'breathe' | *-atõːɹ- | | | |
| 186 | 'laugh, laugh out loud' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-atõtaɹikt- | | |
| 187 | 'meet, meet by chance' | | *-atɹaʔ- | | |
| 188 | 'grandchild, have as grandchild' | | *-atɹe- | | |
| 189 | 'be green, be new' | *-atseːʔ | | | |
| 190 | 'be glad, be happy' | | *-atshẽnõni- | | |
| 191 | 'dry out, dry up, evaporate, run dry' | | *-atst-, *-atstathẽ- | | |
| 192 | 'abandon, lend, let go, spare' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-atwẽteht- | | |
| 193 | 'fence, palisade' | | *-atʔẽhɹ- | | |
| 194 | 'belong to, own, possess' | | *-awẽh | | |
| 195 | 'stir' | | *-awẽɹi-, *-awẽɹj- | | |
| 196 | 'water' | *awẽʔ | | | |
| 197 | 'be small' | | *-aʔ-, *-aʔaːh | | |
| 198 | 'lace, net, netting, web' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-aʔaɹ- | | |
| 199 | 'dew' | | *-aʔawj – | | |
| 200 | 'strike' | | *-aʔe- | | |
| 201 | 'become dark, become night' | | *-aʔkaɹaʔ-, *-aʔkɹaʔ- | | |
| 202 | 'snow, snowflake' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-aʔkɹ- | | |
| 203 | 'turtle' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-aʔnowaɹ-, *-ʔnowaɹ- | | |
| 204 | 'be hot, be warm' | | *-aʔtaɹihẽːh | | |
| 205 | 'heat, sweat' | | *-aʔtaɹihẽhsɹ- | | |
| 206 | 'axe' | | *-aʔtsɹ- | | |
| 207 | 'be extinguished, fire to go out' | | *-aʔtsw- | | |
| 208 | 'extinguish, put out a fire' | | *-aʔtswaht- | | |
| 209 | 'come, go, go on foot, walk' | *-e- | | | |
| 210 | 'remember' | | *-ehjahɹ- | | |
| 211 | 'believe, think' | *-eːɹ- | | | |
| 212 | 'heart' | | *-eɹjahs- | | |
| 213 | 'a lot, much' | | *etsoʔ, *itsoʔ, *itswaʔ | | |
| 214 | 'above, high, over' | | *eʔnkẽh, *heʔnkẽh | | |
| 215 | 'flower' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-ẽh- | | |
| 216 | 'day' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-ẽhnitsɹ- | | |
| 217 | 'be uncle to, have as nephew or niece' | | *-ẽhwatẽʔ, *-jẽhwatẽʔ | | |
| 218 | 'be born, establish oneself' | | *-ẽnakɹaːt- | | |
| 219 | 'day' | | *-ẽt- | | |
| 220 | 'be finished, be over, be prepared, be ready, come to an end' | | *-ẽtaʔ- | | |
| 221 | 'drop, fall' | *-ẽʔ- | | | |
| 222 | 'nine' | | *ẽʔtɹõʔ, *waʔtɹõh, *waʔtɹõʔ | | |
| 223 | 'council fire, flame, torch' | | *-hahsɹ- | | |
| 224 | 'cornstalk, grass' | | *-heɹ- | | |
| 225 | 'shout, yell' | | *-hẽɹeht- | | |
| 226 | 'clearing, field, meadow' | | *-hẽt- | | |
| 227 | 'mark, write' | | *-hjatõ- | | |
| 228 | 'book, something marked, something written' | | *-hjatõhsɹ- | | |
| 229 | 'claw' | *-hkaɹ- | | | |
| 230 | 'current, moving water, rapids' | | *-hnaw- | | |
| 231 | 'arm, shoulder' | *-hnẽː- | | | |
| 232 | 'command, employ, hire' | | *-hnhaʔ- | | |
| 233 | 'door' | | *-hnhoh-, *-hnhohw- | | |
| 234 | 'close a door, door to be closed' | | *-hnhotõ- | | |
| 235 | 'have jowls protruding' (> cattle, cow) | | *-hnh(o/õ)hskʷ(a/e)ɹõːt | | |
| 236 | 'feed, put in the mouth' | | *-hnhõtho-, *-hnhõthw- | | |
| 237 | 'be durable, be hard, be solid, be strong' | | *-hniɹ- | | |
| 238 | 'thigh' | | *-hnitsh- | | |
| 239 | 'neck, throat' | *-hnj- | | | |
| 240 | 'tie' | | *-hnɹ- | | |
| 241 | 'basswood' | | *-hohsɹ-, *-hotsɹ- | | |
| 242 | 'bread' | | *-hɹahkʷ- | | |
| 243 | 'feather' | | *-hɹaʔt- | | |
| 244 | 'cut' | | *-hɹen- | | |
| 245 | 'fall, fall over' | | *-hɹjenẽʔ-, *-ʔɹhjenẽʔ- | | |
| 246 | 'tell' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-hɹoɹi-, *-hɹoɹj- | | |
| 247 | 'name, reputation' | | *-hsẽn- | | |
| 248 | 'dough' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-hsheʔɹ-,-hsheʔɹh- | | |
| 249 | 'depression, depth, hole, hollow. | | *-hshõw- | | |
| 250 | 'detest, dislike, hate' | | *-hshwahẽ-, *-hshwẽ- | | |
| 251 | 'ankle, knee' | | *-hsinkoʔt- | | |
| 252 | 'slow' | *-hskanẽ- | | | |
| 253 | 'be good' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-hskaːths | | |
| 254 | 'deer' | | *-hskẽnõtõʔ | | |
| 255 | 'bone' | | *-hskẽʔɹ-; *-hskẽʔɹakeht- 'be a warrior', lit. 'carry the bone' | | |
| 256 | 'head' | *-hskʷ- | | | |
| 257 | 'finger, hand' | | *-hsnõhs-, *-hsnõʔ | | |
| 258 | 'be fast, be quick' | *-hsnuːɹiʔ | | | |
| 259 | 'be ancestor to, be grandparent to' | | *-hsoːt | | |
| 260 | 'build, make, prepare' | *-hsɹõːn- | | | |
| 261 | 'use' | | *-hst- | | |
| 262 | 'marrow' | | *-hstahɹõw- | | |
| 263 | 'be little, be small' | *-hsthwih, *-hstwih | | | |
| 264 | 'back' | | *-hsw- | | |
| 265 | 'board, wood' | | *-hswẽʔkaɹ-, *-hwẽʔkaɹ-, *-hwẽʔkhaɹ- | | |
| 266 | 'complete, exhaust, finish' | | *-hsʔ-, *-ihsʔ- | | |
| 267 | 'have as older sibling, have as older maternal female cousin' | | *-htsiʔ | | |
| 268 | 'colour, dye, paint' | *-htsuːhw- | | | |
| 269 | 'family' | | *-hwatsiɹ- | | |
| 270 | 'be round' | | *-hweʔnõniːh | | |
| 271 | 'foam' | | *-hwẽʔnst- | | |
| 272 | 'force, strength' | | *-hwihsh- | | |
| 273 | 'five' | *hwihsk | | | |
| 274 | 'metal, money' | | *-hwihst- | | |
| 275 | 'be, be the one, exist' | *-iː- | | | |
| 276 | 'be dead, die' | | *-ihej- | | |
| 277 | 'cross over' | | *-ihjaʔk-, *-jahjaʔk- | | |
| 278 | 'creek, river' | | *-ijhõh-, *-ijhõhw-, *-wjhõh- | | |
| 279 | 'be beautiful, be good, be great' | | *-ijoːh | | |
| 280 | 'emerge, go out, put out' | | *-inkẽʔ- | | |
| 281 | 'far' | *iːnõh | | | |
| 282 | 'mattress, sheet, spread' | | *-inskaɹ- | | |
| 283 | 'be sitting, sit' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-inskoːt | | |
| 284 | 'saliva, spit, spittle' | | *-inskɹ- | | |
| 285 | 'fish scale' | | *-inst- | | |
| 286 | 'cliff, rock, rock bank' | | *-instẽhɹ-, *-nstẽhɹ- | | |
| 287 | 'sleep' | | *-itaʔw-, *-itʔo- | | |
| 288 | 'crowd, group' | | *-itjohkʷ- | | |
| 289 | 'you' | | *iːts | | |
| 290 | 'shoot' | | *-iʔaːk-, *-iʔjaːk-, *-ʔjaːk- | | |
| 291 | 'clan, clay, hearth' | | *-iʔtaɹ-, *-ʔtaɹ- | | |
| 292 | 'abide, dwell, reside, sit' | | *-iʔtɹõ- | | |
| 293 | 'exit, go out, leave' | | *-jakẽʔ- | | |
| 294 | 'footprint, gait, track' | | *-jan- | | |
| 295 | 'be a chief, be good, be lawful, be proper' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-janɹ- | | |
| 296 | 'law' | | *-janɹehsɹ-, *-janrẽhsɹ- | | |
| 297 | 'break, cut' | | *-jaʔk- | | |
| 298 | 'being, body, carcass, corpse, person' | | *-jaʔt- | | |
| 299 | 'wake up' | *-je- | | | |
| 300 | 'add, contribute, mix' | | *-jehst- | | |
| 301 | 'capture, catch, grab' | | *-jena-, *-jenaw- | | |
| 302 | 'act, do, happen to' | | *-jeɹ- | | |
| 303 | 'be complete, be just, be perfect, be right' | | *-jeɹi- | | |
| 304 | 'body' | *-jeːɹõʔ- | | | |
| 305 | 'smile' | *-jeːts- | | | |
| 306 | 'be situated, exist, have, put down, set down, sit down' | | *-jẽ- | | |
| 307 | 'hit, strike' | | *-jẽht- | | |
| 308 | 'firewood, wood' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-jẽt- | | |
| 309 | 'accumulate, beget, get, obtain' | | *-jẽtaʔ- | | |
| 310 | 'know' | | *-jẽteɹ- | | |
| 311 | 'plant, sow' | | *-jẽtho-, *-jẽthw- | | |
| 312 | 'flay, skin' | | *-jẽtsɹ- | | |
| 313 | 'have as child' | | *-jẽʔ- | | |
| 314 | 'smoke, tobacco' | | *-jẽʔkʷ- | | |
| 315 | 'enter' | *-jõ- | | | |
| 316 | 'eat' | *-k- | | | |
| 317 | 'butterfly' | *kahnaːwẽːh | | | |
| 318 | 'look at' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-kahnɹ- | | |
| 319 | 'eye' | | *-kahɹ- | | |
| 320 | 'four' | | *kajeɹih | | |
| 321 | 'be old' | *-kajõ- | | | |
| 322 | 'anywhere, somewhere' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *kankaʔ | | |
| 323 | 'pipe' | *kanõːnowẽʔ | | | |
| 324 | 'bite' | *-kaɹ- | | | |
| 325 | 'account, price, story' | | *-kaɹ- | | |
| 326 | 'roll, turn around' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-kaɹhateni-, *-kaɹhatenj- | | |
| 327 | 'invert, roll over, turn over' | | *-kaɹhatho-, *-kaɹhathw- | | |
| 328 | 'tree' | | *kaɹhit, *keɹhit, *keɹhiʔ, *kɹaheːt, *kɹahit | | |
| 329 | 'come here!' | | *katsih | | |
| 330 | 'paddle, row' | *-kaweː- | | | |
| 331 | 'lift, raise' | | *-kensko-, *-kenskʷ- | | |
| 332 | 'see' | *-kẽ-, *-kẽːh | | | |
| 333 | 'be old' | | *-kẽhtsi- | | |
| 334 | 'summer' | | *-kẽnh- | | |
| 335 | 'be white' | | *-kẽɹat | | |
| 336 | 'peel, scrape' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-kẽtsɹ- | | |
| 337 | 'divide, separate' | | *-kh-, *-khahsi-, *-khahsj-, *-khahsk- | | |
| 338 | 'elbow' | *-khjuːhs- | | | |
| 339 | 'food, meal' | | *-khw- | | |
| 340 | 'chipmunk' | *kihɹjuʔkẽh | | | |
| 341 | 'dog' | *kiːɹ | | | |
| 342 | 'hair' | *-kiʔɹh- | | | |
| 343 | 'crow' | *koːhkaːʔ | | | |
| 344 | 'be a lot, be many, be much' | *-koʔtiʔ | | | |
| 345 | 'face' | *-kõːhs- | | | |
| 346 | 'eel' | | *kõteh | | |
| 347 | 'bowl, dish, plate' | | *-kts- | | |
| 348 | 'acorn, oak' | *kuːɹeh | | | |
| 349 | 'be big, be large' | *-kuwa-, *-kʷa- | | | |
| 350 | 'pick up' | *-kʷ- | | | |
| 351 | 'be able' | | *-kʷeni-, *-kʷenj- | | |
| 352 | 'that, the, this' | *nV(H) | | | |
| 353 | 'domestic animal, prisoner, slave' | | *-nahskʷ- | | |
| 354 | 'be autochthonous, dwell, reside' | *-nakɹ- | | | |
| 355 | 'bed, place, room, space' | | *-nakt-, *-nakʷt- | | |
| 356 | 'camp, city, settlement, town, village' | | *-nat- | | |
| 357 | 'grain, wheat' | | *-natsj- | | |
| 358 | 'be melted, be warm, be wet' | *-nawẽːh | | | |
| 359 | 'antler, horn' | | *-naʔkaɹ- | | |
| 360 | 'imitate' | | *-naʔkeɹ- | | |
| 361 | 'bread' | | *-naʔtaɹ- | | |
| 362 | 'call' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-naʔtõhkʷ- | | |
| 363 | 'cauldron, kettle, pail, pot' | | *-naʔtsj- | | |
| 364 | 'liquid' | *-neː- | | | |
| 365 | 'ice' | *-neːhst-, *-neːhstwaɹ | | | |
| 366 | 'corn, grain, kernel' | *-nẽh- | | | |
| 367 | 'now' | *nẽh | | | |
| 368 | 'steal' | *-nẽːhskʷ- | | | |
| 369 | 'sand; stone' | *-nẽːj- | | | |
| 370 | 'arm' | | *-nẽtsh- | | |
| 371 | 'be stingy' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-niʔ- | | |
| 372 | 'marry' | | *-njaːk- | | |
| 373 | 'neck' | | *-njaɹ- | | |
| 374 | 'lake' | | *-njataɹ- | | |
| 375 | 'wampum' | | *-nkoʔɹ-, *-nkoʔɹh- | | |
| 376 | 'blood' | | *-nkõ-, *-nkʷẽhs- | | |
| 377 | 'red' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-nkʷẽhtaɹ- | | |
| 378 | 'begin to snow' | | *-nkʷẽʔ- | | |
| 379 | 'be cold' | | *-noːh | | |
| 380 | 'tooth' | | *-noʔts-, *-noʔtsj- | | |
| 381 | 'medicine' | | *-nõhkʷ-, *-nõhkʷaʔt-, *-nõhkʷaʔtshɹ- | | |
| 382 | 'house' | *-nõhs- | | | |
| 383 | 'be painful, be sore, hurt' | | *-nõhwakt- | | |
| 384 | 'admire, like' | | *-nõhweʔ- | | |
| 385 | 'hill, mountain' | | *-nõt- | | |
| 386 | 'corn soup, hominy' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-nõtaɹ- | | |
| 387 | 'brain, head' | *-nõːtsiː- | | | |
| 388 | 'breast, milk' | *-nõʔt- | | | |
| 389 | 'fungus, mushroom' | | *-nɹahs- | | |
| 390 | 'leaf' | | *-nɹaht- | | |
| 391 | 'get involved, help' | *-nsteːɹ- | | | |
| 392 | 'corn husk' | *-nuːɹ- | | | |
| 393 | 'be difficult, be unable to, fail to do' | *-nuːɹõ- | | | |
| 394 | 'winter, year' | | *-ohsɹ- | | |
| 395 | 'throw' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-ojʔaːk- | | |
| 396 | 'split' | | *-oɹẽ- | | |
| 397 | 'be, be standing, exist, stand upright' | | *-oːt | | |
| 398 | 'be at the end, end' | | *-oʔkt- | | |
| 399 | 'dig' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-oʔkʷaːt- | | |
| 400 | 'hand' | *-oʔnj- | | | |
| 401 | 'be of a kind, be of a sort' | | *-oʔtẽːh | | |
| 402 | 'earth, land, world' | | *-õhwẽtsj- | | |
| 403 | 'go beyond, go through, leak, pass through, penetrate, reach' | *-õːkuːh- | | | |
| 404 | 'sift' | *-õːkuːhst- | | | |
| 405 | 'be a person, human being' | | *-õkʷeh, *-õkʷehsɹ-, *-õkʷeʔt- | | |
| 406 | 'be alive, life, live' | *-õːnh- | | | |
| 407 | 'rain' | | *-õnoːt- | | |
| 408 | 'pot' | *-õːt- | | | |
| 409 | 'put into the fire' | *-õːt- | | | |
| 410 | 'be attached, have as a body part' | | *-õːt | | |
| 411 | 'remove from the fire' | *-õːtakʷ- | | | |
| 412 | 'be a lake, lake' | *-õːtaɹiʔ | | | |
| 413 | 'be in, be on' | | *-ɹ- | | |
| 414 | 'moon to be present, planet to be present, sun to be present' | | *-ɹ- | | |
| 415 | 'moon, planet, sun' | | *-ɹahkʷ- | | |
| 416 | 'erase, rub out, wipe out' | | *-ɹakew- | | |
| 417 | 'choose, pick out, select' | | *-ɹako-, *-ɹakw- | | |
| 418 | 'sap, syrup' | | *-ɹan- | | |
| 419 | 'heel' | | *-ɹat- | | |
| 420 | 'climb' | | *-ɹathẽ-, *-ɹaʔthẽ- | | |
| 421 | 'adhere, stick, stick on' | | *-ɹaʔnẽtaːk- | | |
| 422 | 'incantation, song, spell, witchcraft' | | *-ɹẽn- | | |
| 423 | 'bush, forest, woods' | | *-ɹhat- | | |
| 424 | 'coat with, put on' | | | *-ɹho- | |
| 425 | 'be paternal aunt to' | *-ɹhok | | | |
| 426 | 'socks, leggings' | *-ɹiː- | | | |
| 427 | 'affair, business, thing, matter' | | *-ɹihw- | | |
| 428 | 'fight, kill' | | *-ɹijo-, *-ɹjo- | | |
| 429 | 'animal' | | *-ɹjoːʔ | | |
| 430 | 'blue, sky' | | *-ɹõhj- | | |
| 431 | 'log, tree' | | *-ɹõt- | | |
| 432 | 'chop' | | *-ɹʔo-, *-ɹʔok- | | |
| 433 | 'be present, exist' | | *-t- | | |
| 434 | 'and, besides' | | | *tahnũʔ | |
| 435 | 'run' | | *-takh- | | |
| 436 | 'woodpecker' | *taɹaːɹ | | | |
| 437 | 'flint' | *tawiːhskaɹaʔ | | | |
| 438 | 'two' | | *tekniːh | | |
| 439 | 'eight' | | *tekɹõʔ | | |
| 440 | 'change' | | *-teni-, *-tenj- | | |
| 441 | 'mosquito' | *-tẽːhs- | | | |
| 442 | 'alternate, differ' | | *-tih- | | |
| 443 | 'skunk' | *tiʔɹ | | | |
| 444 | 'nearby' | | | | tjohskẽẽʔ |
| 445 | 'snake' | | | | tjoʔxjẽtsihk |
| 446 | 'decay, rot, spoil' | *-tkẽː- | | | |
| 447 | 'how, how many, how much' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *toːh | | |
| 448 | 'be certain, be exact, be true' | | *-tokẽːh | | |
| 449 | 'stand' | *-toʔn- | | | |
| 450 | 'bluejay' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *tɹiʔtɹiːʔ | | |
| 451 | 'beans' | | *tsaheʔ, *-tsaheʔt- | | |
| 452 | 'bottle, gourd, jar' | | *-tsheʔ, *-tsheʔt-, *-tsheʔw- | | |
| 453 | 'club, fist, knot' | | *-tsihkʷ- | | |
| 454 | 'robin' | *tsiːhskʷoːʔkʷoːʔ | | | |
| 455 | 'otter, seal' | *tsiːjẽh | | | |
| 456 | 'salt' | | *-tsikheʔt- | | |
| 457 | 'be male' | | *-tsin | | |
| 458 | 'fire' | *-tsiːɹ | | | |
| 459 | 'coal, ember, fire, spark' | | *-tsist- | | |
| 460 | 'fox, lynx' | | *tsitshoʔ | | |
| 461 | 'bile, green, yellow' | | *-tsiʔnkʷaɹ- | | |
| 462 | 'bird' | | *tsiʔtẽʔ | | |
| 463 | 'corn tassel' | *-tsiːʔtsiːʔ | | | |
| 464 | 'seven' | | *tsjatahk | | |
| 465 | 'tobacco' | *-tsjoːɹ- | | | |
| 466 | 'six; seven' | | *tsjotaɹeʔ | | |
| 467 | 'fish' | *-tsjõʔt- | | | |
| 468 | 'be daughter-in-law' | *-tsoʔ | | | |
| 469 | 'dream, sleep' | | *-tsɹẽht- | | |
| 470 | 'put into the water' | *-uː- | | | |
| 471 | 'remove from the water' | *-uːkʷ- | | | |
| 472 | 'cover' | *-uːɹ- | | | |
| 473 | 'splash water, sprinkle' | *-uːtsɹ- | | | |
| 474 | 'whippoorwill' | *waʔkuhɹiːʔ | | | |
| 475 | 'say, speak' | *-we- | | | |
| 476 | 'language, voice, word' | | *-wẽn- | | |
| 477 | 'thumb' (limited to Iroquoia) | | *-whjõhkaɹ- | | |
| 478 | 'young person' | *-wiːnõːh | | | |
| 479 | 'baby, child, infant, offspring' | | *-wiɹ- | | |
| 480 | 'arm, fin, wing' | | *-wj- | | |
| 481 | 'wing' | | | *-wjahũtsh- | |
| 482 | 'learn, teach' | | *-wjẽhst- | | |
| 483 | 'know how, learn how' | | *-wjẽhw-, *-wjẽw-, *-wjẽʔ- | | |
| 484 | 'craft, manner, skill, way' | | *-wjẽn- | | |
| 485 | 'become capable, learn how' | | | *-wjʌ̃tehtaʔ- | |
| 486 | 'be good' | *-wohst | | | |
| 487 | 'air, wind' | | *-wɹ- | | |
| 488 | 'arrow' | *-ʔn- | | | |
| 489 | 'bone' | | *-ʔnẽj- | | |
| 490 | 'egg' | | *-ʔnhõhs- | | |
| 491 | 'mind, spirit' | | *-ʔnikõhɹ- | | |
| 492 | 'be late, delay' | | *-ʔnitsko-, *-ʔnitskʷ- | | |
| 493 | 'escape, flee, run away' | | *-ʔnjakẽʔ- | | |
| 494 | 'nose' | *-ʔnjõːhs- | | | |
| 495 | 'be envious, be jealous, envy' | | *-ʔnonsh- | | |
| 496 | 'be powerful, be strong' | | *-ʔnshanst- | | |
| 497 | 'drown, fall into water' | | *-ʔtskoʔ- | | |
| 498 | 'drag, drive, pull, ride' | | *-ʔtsɹ- | | |