# Timurid campaigns in the Caucasus

The Campaigns of Tamerlane in Central Ciscaucasia (1395–1396) were a series of invasions aimed at weakening the Golden Horde by the forces of Timur (Tamerlane), the ruler of the Timurid Empire. These campaigns involved several major battles, the destruction of key settlements, and reshaped political influence in the North Caucasus.

## Background

Timur’s campaigns were part of a broader conflict with Tokhtamysh, the Khan of the Golden Horde, with the North Caucasus serving as a key region due to its strategic routes and resources. Various North Caucasian communities, including the Alans, Circassians, Dargins, and Lezgins, had long maintained ties with the Golden Horde, contributing both military support and local knowledge that helped Tokhtamysh resist Timur’s advances.

## Chronology of the Campaigns
### First Invasion (Spring 1395)

In spring 1395, Timur’s army entered Central Ciscaucasia through the Daryal Gorge, targeting settlements allied with Tokhtamysh. The forces clashed near the Malka and Kura rivers, with Timur’s army using resources like summer pastures at Bishdag and winter resources in the Kuma-Manych Depression to sustain their campaigns. These resources were critical for Timur’s army, as they allowed sustained pressure on the local allies of the Golden Horde, who struggled to defend their territories from the larger, well-supplied Timurid forces.

### Second Phase (Autumn-Winter 1395)

Returning in the autumn, Timur conducted additional raids aimed at eliminating the remaining supporters of Tokhtamysh. His campaigns focused on various North Caucasian groups, such as the Circassians, Alans, and Nogai tribes, whom he viewed as strategic threats to his control over the region. Several fortified sites, including those near the Kuban and Majar areas, were destroyed.

### Third Phase (Spring 1396)

In 1396, Timur expanded his campaign to Dagestan, where he confronted local Dagestani forces allied with the Golden Horde. These operations further devastated regional economies, with mass relocations and destruction of agricultural bases, ultimately reducing the region’s ability to resist future invasions.

## Cultural and Archaeological Impact

Timur’s campaigns left significant archaeological evidence, especially at sites like the Majar hillfort and Novopavlovka. Excavations reveal layers of ash and destroyed buildings that coincide with Timurid incursions, providing insight into the scale of the destruction. Written sources from Arab and Persian chroniclers, such as Nizam al-Din Shami and Sharaf al-Din Yazdi, detail the campaign’s brutality and the strategic tactics employed by Timur, further supported by Western accounts from figures like Johannes Schiltberger.

## Aftermath

The campaigns resulted in the effective weakening of the Golden Horde's influence in the North Caucasus, shifting regional control to the Timurid Empire. The campaigns severely disrupted local power structures, affecting ethnic groups such as the Circassians, Alans, and others in the region, as well as limiting the Golden Horde’s ability to exert power southward. According to historian E.V. Rtveladze, these campaigns permanently altered the region's demographics and economic conditions, as the devastated lands were often abandoned or resettled by different groups.