# Valuation (algebra)

In algebra (in particular in algebraic geometry or algebraic number theory), a valuation is a function on a field that provides a measure of the size or multiplicity of elements of the field. It generalizes to commutative algebra the notion of size inherent in consideration of the degree of a pole or multiplicity of a zero in complex analysis, the degree of divisibility of a number by a prime number in number theory, and the geometrical concept of contact between two algebraic or analytic varieties in algebraic geometry. A field with a valuation on it is called a valued field.

## Definition

One starts with the following objects:
* a field K and its multiplicative group K$^×$,
* an abelian totally ordered group (Γ, +, ≥).
The ordering and group law on Γ are extended to the set Γ ∪ {∞} by the rules
* ∞ ≥ α for all α ∈ Γ,
* ∞ + α = α + ∞ = ∞ + ∞ = ∞ for all α ∈ Γ.
Then a valuation of K is any map
    v : K → Γ ∪ {∞}
that satisfies the following properties for all a, b in K:
* v(a) = ∞ if and only if a = 0,
* v(ab) = v(a) + v(b),
* v(a + b) ≥ min(v(a), v(b)), with equality if v(a) ≠ v(b).
A valuation v is trivial if v(a) = 0 for all a in K$^×$, otherwise it is non-trivial.
The second property asserts that any valuation is a group homomorphism on K$^×$. The third property is a version of the triangle inequality on metric spaces adapted to an arbitrary Γ (see Multiplicative notation below). For valuations used in geometric applications, the first property implies that any non-empty germ of an analytic variety near a point contains that point.
The valuation can be interpreted as the order of the leading-order term. The third property then corresponds to the order of a sum being the order of the larger term, unless the two terms have the same order, in which case they may cancel and the sum may have larger order.
For many applications, Γ is an additive subgroup of the real numbers $\mathbb {R}$ in which case ∞ can be interpreted as +∞ in the extended real numbers; note that $\min(a,+\infty )=\min(+\infty ,a)=a$ for any real number a, and thus +∞ is the unit under the binary operation of minimum. The real numbers (extended by +∞) with the operations of minimum and addition form a semiring, called the min tropical semiring, and a valuation v is almost a semiring homomorphism from K to the tropical semiring, except that the homomorphism property can fail when two elements with the same valuation are added together.

### Multiplicative notation and absolute values

The concept was developed by Emil Artin in his book Geometric Algebra writing the group in multiplicative notation as (Γ, ·, ≥):
Instead of ∞, we adjoin a formal symbol O to Γ, with the ordering and group law extended by the rules
* O ≤ α for all α ∈ Γ,
* O · α = α · O = O for all α ∈ Γ.
Then a valuation of K is any map
    | ⋅ |$_v$ : K → Γ ∪ {O}
satisfying the following properties for all a, b ∈ K:
* |a|$_v$ = O if and only if a = 0,
* |ab|$_v$ = |a|$_v$ · |b|$_v$,
* |a+b|$_v$ ≤ max(|a|$_v$, |b|$_v$), with equality if |a|$_v$ ≠ |b|$_v$.
(Note that the directions of the inequalities are reversed from those in the additive notation.)
If Γ is a subgroup of the positive real numbers under multiplication, the last condition is the ultrametric inequality, a stronger form of the triangle inequality |a+b|$_v$ ≤ |a|$_v$ + |b|$_v$, and | ⋅ |$_v$ is an absolute value. In this case, we may pass to the additive notation with value group $\Gamma _{+}\subseteq (\mathbb {R} ,+)$ by taking v+(a) = −log |a|$_v$.
Each valuation on K defines a corresponding linear preorder: a ≼ b ⇔ |a|$_v$ ≤ |b|$_v$. Conversely, given a "≼" satisfying the required properties, we can define valuation |a|$_v$ = {b: b ≼ a ∧ a ≼ b}, with multiplication and ordering based on K and ≼.

### Terminology

In this article, we use the terms defined above, in the additive notation. However, some authors use alternative terms:
* our "valuation" (satisfying the ultrametric inequality) is called an "exponential valuation" or "non-Archimedean absolute value" or "ultrametric absolute value";
* our "absolute value" (satisfying the triangle inequality) is called a "valuation" or an "Archimedean absolute value".

### Associated objects

There are several objects defined from a given valuation v : K → Γ ∪ {∞} ;
* the value group or valuation group Γ$_v$ = v(K$^×$), a subgroup of Γ (though v is usually surjective so that Γ$_v$ = Γ);
* the valuation ring R$_v$ is the set of a ∈ K with v(a) ≥ 0,
* the prime ideal m$_v$ is the set of a ∈ K with v(a) > 0 (it is in fact a maximal ideal of R$_v$),
* the residue field k$_v$ = R$_v$/m$_v$,
* the place of K associated to v, the class of v under the equivalence defined below.

## Basic properties
### Equivalence of valuations

Two valuations v$_1$ and v$_2$ of K with valuation group Γ$_1$ and Γ$_2$, respectively, are said to be equivalent if there is an order-preserving group isomorphism φ : Γ$_1$ → Γ$_2$ such that v$_2$(a) = φ(v$_1$(a)) for all a in K$^×$. This is an equivalence relation.
Two valuations of K are equivalent if and only if they have the same valuation ring.
An equivalence class of valuations of a field is called a place. Ostrowski's theorem gives a complete classification of places of the field of rational numbers $\mathbb {Q} :$ these are precisely the equivalence classes of valuations for the p-adic completions of $\mathbb {Q} .$

### Extension of valuations

Let v be a valuation of K and let L be a field extension of K. An extension of v (to L) is a valuation w of L such that the restriction of w to K is v. The set of all such extensions is studied in the ramification theory of valuations.
Let L/K be a finite extension and let w be an extension of v to L. The index of Γ$_v$ in Γ$_w$, e(w/v) = [Γ$_w$ : Γ$_v$], is called the reduced ramification index of w over v. It satisfies e(w/v) ≤ [L : K] (the degree of the extension L/K). The relative degree of w over v is defined to be f(w/v) = [R$_w$/m$_w$ : R$_v$/m$_v$] (the degree of the extension of residue fields). It is also less than or equal to the degree of L/K. When L/K is separable, the ramification index of w over v is defined to be e(w/v)p$^i$, where p$^i$ is the inseparable degree of the extension R$_w$/m$_w$ over R$_v$/m$_v$.

### Complete valued fields

When the ordered abelian group Γ is the additive group of the integers, the associated valuation is equivalent to an absolute value, and hence induces a metric on the field K. If K is complete with respect to this metric, then it is called a complete valued field. If K is not complete, one can use the valuation to construct its completion, as in the examples below, and different valuations can define different completion fields.
In general, a valuation induces a uniform structure on K, and K is called a complete valued field if it is complete as a uniform space. There is a related property known as spherical completeness: it is equivalent to completeness if $\Gamma =\mathbb {Z} ,$ but stronger in general.

## Examples
### p-adic valuation

The most basic example is the p-adic valuation ν$_p$ associated to a prime integer p, on the rational numbers $K=\mathbb {Q} ,$ with valuation ring $R=\mathbb {Z} _{(p)},$ where $\mathbb {Z} _{(p)}$ is the localization of $\mathbb {Z}$ at the prime ideal $(p)$. The valuation group is the additive integers $\Gamma =\mathbb {Z} .$ For an integer $a\in R=\mathbb {Z} ,$ the valuation ν$_p$(a) measures the divisibility of a by powers of p:
    $\nu _{p}(a)=\max\{e\in \mathbb {Z} \mid p^{e}{\text{ divides }}a\};$
and for a fraction, ν$_p$(a/b) = ν$_p$(a) − ν$_p$(b).
Writing this multiplicatively yields the p-adic absolute value, which conventionally has as base $1/p=p^{-1}$, so $|a|_{p}:=p^{-\nu _{p}(a)}$.
The completion of $\mathbb {Q}$ with respect to ν$_p$ is the field $\mathbb {Q} _{p}$ of p-adic numbers.

### Order of vanishing

Let K = F(x), the rational functions on the affine line X = F$^1$, and take a point a ∈ X. For a polynomial $f(x)=a_{k}(x{-}a)^{k}+a_{k+1}(x{-}a)^{k+1}+\cdots +a_{n}(x{-}a)^{n}$ with $a_{k}\neq 0$, define v$_a$(f) = k, the order of vanishing at x = a; and v$_a$(f /g) = v$_a$(f) − v$_a$(g). Then the valuation ring R consists of rational functions with no pole at x = a, and the completion is the formal Laurent series ring F((x−a)). This can be generalized to the field of Puiseux series K{{t}} (fractional powers), the Levi-Civita field (its Cauchy completion), and the field of Hahn series, with valuation in all cases returning the smallest exponent of t appearing in the series.

### π-adic valuation

Generalizing the previous examples, let R be a principal ideal domain, K be its field of fractions, and π be an irreducible element of R. Since every principal ideal domain is a unique factorization domain, every non-zero element a of R can be written (essentially) uniquely as
    $a=\pi ^{e_{a}}p_{1}^{e_{1}}p_{2}^{e_{2}}\cdots p_{n}^{e_{n}}$
where the e's are non-negative integers and the p$_i$ are irreducible elements of R that are not associates of π. In particular, the integer e$_a$ is uniquely determined by a.
The π-adic valuation of K is then given by
* $v_{\pi }(0)=\infty$
* $v_{\pi }(a/b)=e_{a}-e_{b},{\text{ for }}a,b\in R,a,b\neq 0.$
If π' is another irreducible element of R such that (π') = (π) (that is, they generate the same ideal in R), then the π-adic valuation and the π'-adic valuation are equal. Thus, the π-adic valuation can be called the P-adic valuation, where P = (π).

### P-adic valuation on a Dedekind domain

The previous example can be generalized to Dedekind domains. Let R be a Dedekind domain, K its field of fractions, and let P be a non-zero prime ideal of R. Then, the localization of R at P, denoted R$_P$, is a principal ideal domain whose field of fractions is K. The construction of the previous section applied to the prime ideal PR$_P$ of R$_P$ yields the P-adic valuation of K.

## Vector spaces over valuation fields

Suppose that Γ ∪ {0} is the set of non-negative real numbers under multiplication. Then we say that the valuation is non-discrete if its range (the valuation group) is infinite (and hence has an accumulation point at 0).
Suppose that X is a vector space over K and that A and B are subsets of X. Then we say that A absorbs B if there exists a α ∈ K such that λ ∈ K and |λ| ≥ |α| implies that B ⊆ λ A. A is called radial or absorbing if A absorbs every finite subset of X. Radial subsets of X are invariant under finite intersection. Also, A is called circled if λ in K and |λ| ≥ |α| implies λ A ⊆ A. The set of circled subsets of L is invariant under arbitrary intersections. The circled hull of A is the intersection of all circled subsets of X containing A.
Suppose that X and Y are vector spaces over a non-discrete valuation field K, let A ⊆ X, B ⊆ Y, and let f : X → Y be a linear map. If B is circled or radial then so is $f^{-1}(B)$. If A is circled then so is f(A) but if A is radial then f(A) will be radial under the additional condition that f is surjective.