OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Stability–instability paradox

The stability–instability paradox is an international relations theory regarding the effect of nuclear weapons and mutually assured destruction. It states that when two countries each have nuclear weapons, the probability of a direct war between them greatly decreases, but the probability of minor or indirect conflicts between them increases. This occurs because rational actors want to avoid nuclear wars, and thus they neither start major conflicts nor allow minor conflicts to escalate into major conflicts—thus making it safe to engage in minor conflicts. For instance, during the Cold War the United States and the Soviet Union never engaged each other in warfare, but fought proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam, Angola, the Middle East, Nicaragua and Afghanistan and spent substantial amounts of money and manpower on gaining relative influence over the third world.
A study published in the Journal of Conflict Resolution in 2009 quantitatively evaluated the nuclear peace hypothesis, and found support for the existence of the stability–instability paradox. The study determined that while nuclear weapons promote strategic stability, and prevent large scale wars, they simultaneously allow for more lower intensity conflicts. When one state has nuclear weapons, but their opponent does not, there is a greater chance of war. In contrast, when there is mutual nuclear weapon ownership with both states possessing nuclear weapons, the odds of war drop precipitously.
This effect can be seen in the India–Pakistan relationship and to some degree in Russia–NATO relations.

## Mechanism

The stability–instability paradox:
   "posits that both parties to a conflict will rationally view strategic conflict and the attendant risk of a strategic nuclear exchange as untenable, and will thus avoid any escalation of sub-strategic conflicts to the strategic level. This effective “cap” on sub-strategic militarized conflict escalation emboldens states to engage in such conflict with the confidence that it would not spiral out of control and threaten their strategic interests.
   The causal force of this theory of increased sub-strategic conflict is the mutual recognition of the untenability of conflict at the level of strategic interests—a product of MAD [Mutually Assured Destruction]. With strategic interests forming the “red line” neither side would dare to cross, both sides are free to pursue sub-strategic political objectives through militarized conflict without the fear that the terms of such conflict will escalate beyond their control and jeopardize their strategic interests. Effectively, with the risk of uncontrolled escalation removed, the net costs to engage in conflict are reduced."
# Frederick Goldsmid

Frederick David Goldsmid (31 January 1812 – 18 March 1866), son of Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid and his wife Isabel, was an English politician.
He was elected a Member of Parliament (MP) for Honiton on 12 July 1865.
Goldsmid married, on 23 July 1834, Caroline Samuel (1814–1885), daughter of Phillip Moses Samuel and Julia Goldsmid.Their first child was Helen (later Lucas) who was born in the next year. They would have eight more children. Frederick taught Helen Hebrew when she was a child. She would be a philanthropist after she became a rich widow.
He died on 18 March 1866. He and his wife, who died in 1885, are both buried at Balls Pond Road Cemetery.
# 1899 USC Methodists football team

The 1899 USC Methodists football team was an American football team that represented the University of Southern California during the 1899 college football season. The team competed as an independent without a head coach, compiling a 2–3–1 record.

## Schedule

| Date | Opponent | Site | Result | Attendance |
| October 21 | Whittier | Los Angeles, CA | W 11–0 | |
| November 4 | at Santa Ana High School | Santa Ana, CA | L 0–11 | |
| November 8 | Occidental | Los Angeles, CA | W 11–0 | |
| November 15 | Occidental | Los Angeles, CA | T 0–0 | |
| November 30 | at Pomona | Pomona, CA | L 0–12 | 2,000 |
| January 1 | at Santa Barbara AC | Santa Barbara, CA | L 0–10 | |
# Kirill Romanov (footballer)

Kirill Valeryevich Romanov (Russian: Кирилл Валерьевич Романов; born 27 October 1980) is a former Russian professional football player.

## Club career

He made his Russian Football National League debut for FC Gazovik-Gazprom Izhevsk on 10 April 2003 in a game against FC Kristall Smolensk.
# CSL Group Ltd

CSL Group are Critical IoT Connectivity Experts, providing fully managed single or multi-path solutions to connect any life, mission or business-critical IoT application.
Backed by private equity since 2006, the company has expanded its reach and capabilities with a strong International presence, including offices in the UK, Spain, the Netherlands, Sweden, SE Asia and America.
They operate in highly regulated and standards-driven markets and have made six strategic acquisitions to date. The company serves key sectors such as security, telecare, and critical national infrastructure, with applications that include CCTV, alarm signalling, vehicle telematics, EV charging, digital signage, and payment terminals. Their product portfolio includes routers, SIMs, broadband, satellite, and alarm signalling equipment, catering to a wide range of customers from multi-national corporations to high street brands. Renowned for their best-in-class customer support, CSL is a multi-award-winning provider in the industry.

## History

CSL was founded in 1996 by Simon Banks and Chris Brooks as a UK-based alarm signalling company. From 2005 to 2016 operations were run by Phil Hollett who secured backing from Octopus and then Bowmark. In 2015, Ed Heale joined the business, responsible for reshaping the company’s strategy, transforming it into a global provider of critical communication solutions.

## Present Day

CSL continues to grow as a global leader in critical connectivity. Notable recent achievements include being selected by Vodafone as the UK National Lottery Project Partner in 2023 and partnering with Vodafone Business in 2024 to modernize Thames Water’s communications technology ahead of the PSTN switch-off in 2027. In 2024, CSL surpassed 3 million managed connections and has developed and owns the patent for rSIM to further enhance its service offerings. Additionally, the company was recognised as one of the UK’s Best Workplaces™ in 2024, reinforcing its ongoing commitment to creating an exceptional workplace culture.

## Offices

CSL operates from 11 international offices, with its head office in northwest London. Additional offices are located in Greater Manchester, Newbury, Ireland, the Netherlands, Sweden, Spain, the USA, and Southeast Asia, while their logistics warehouse is based in Wales.

## Employees

As of 2024, CSL employs approximately 250 staff across its 11 international offices
# Femme Fatale (song)

"Femme Fatale" is a song by American rock band the Velvet Underground from their 1967 debut album The Velvet Underground & Nico, with lead vocals by Nico.

## Background

The song was composed in the key of C major. At the request of Andy Warhol, band frontman Lou Reed wrote the song about Warhol superstar Edie Sedgwick. According to Reed, the title was inspired by Warhol saying, about Sedgwick, "Oh, don't you think she's a femme fatale, Lou?"
The song was recorded with vocals by Nico. Guitarist Sterling Morrison said of the title:
   [Nico] always hated that. Nico, whose native language is minority French, would say "The name of this song is 'Fahm Fatahl'." Lou and I would sing it our way. Nico hated that. I said, "Nico, hey, it's my title, I'll pronounce it my way".
"Femme Fatale" was recorded at the Scepter Studios in New York in April 1966 while the studio was still under construction. It was released as a B-Side to "Sunday Morning" in December 1966. The following year it was included in their debut album The Velvet Underground & Nico. A 1969 live recording of the song was included in Bootleg Series Volume 1: The Quine Tapes released in 2001.

## Critical reception

AllMusic critic Mark Deming thought that "Femme Fatale" was among the four best songs on the album. American music journalist Stephen Davis called "Femme Fatale" a beautiful song that portrays the vivid, conflicted and emotional undercurrents of 1966.

## Personnel

* Nico – lead vocals
* Lou Reed – lead guitar, backing vocals
* John Cale – piano, bass
* Sterling Morrison – rhythm guitar, backing vocals
* Maureen Tucker – snare drum, tambourine
# Erich Bär

Erich Bär (born 23 May 1916 in Dresden; died 5 April 2005) was a resister against Nazism and later lieutenant colonel of Ministry of State Security (Stasi) of the GDR. He was, from 1957 to 1972, head of the executive offices of the Stasi in East Berlin.

## Life

Bär, son of a worker, after compulsory education trained as a tinsmith and plumber. Early on, he was active in communist organizations and was from 1931 to 1935 a functionary in the Young Communist League of Germany.
After the Nazi seizure of power, Bär supported the KPD also in the underground and was charged in 1935 with "conspiracy to commit high treason". Without trial he was detained until 1945 in the penitentiaries Zwickau, Berlin-Plötzensee and Bremen-Oslebshausen and from 1938 to 1945 in the concentration camp Buchenwald.

## After 1945

After the end of the Second World War Bär became a member of the KPD. In 1946 he became a member of the SED. In 1947 Bär was deputy staff chief of the Saxony police. In 1949 he worked for the main administration for the protection of the national economy of Saxony; from there emerged in February 1950, the Saxony state administration of the Stasi. In 1952 he became deputy head of the district administration Bezirk Neubrandenburg of the Stasi; from 1953 at the rank of lieutenant colonel. In 1956 Bär became deputy head of the district administration Frankfurt an der Oder. In 1959 Bär rose to deputy head of the Department VII, in charge of the Ministry of the Interior and Volkspolizei.
In 1960 Bär became officer on special assignment at the Volkspolizei within the Ministry of the Interior. In 1962 Bär was employed in the Stasi Department passport control and investigation office and in 1963 he was Officer of Special Affairs in the line II office, responsible for the support of the West German DKP and the Socialist Unity Party of West Berlin.
Bär retired in 1972.

## Honours

* 1986 Patriotic Order of Merit in Gold

## Literature

* Gieseke, Jens: Erich Bär. In: Wer war wer in der DDR? 5. Ausgabe. Band 1, Ch. Links, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-86153-561-4.
* Gieseke, Jens: Wer war wer im Ministerium für Staatssicherheit (MfS-Handbuch). BStU. Berlin 2012.
* Wilke, Manfred, ed. (1998), Anatomie der Parteizentrale : Studien des Forschungsverbundes SED-Staat an der Freien Universität Berlin (in German), Berlin: Akademieverlag, ISBN 3-05-003220-0
# Mehmet Budak

Mehmet Budak (born August 1, 1980 in Doğanşehir, Turkey) is a Turkish footballer. He last played as a winger for 68 Yeni Aksarayspor.

## Club career

Budak previously played for Adanaspor and Malatyaspor in the Super Lig, and Eskişehirspor and Sakaryaspor in the TFF First League.
# Dashwood

Dashwood is an English surname. Notable people with the surname include:

## Real people

* Charles Dashwood (judge) (1842–1919), Australian public servant, judge and Government Resident of the Northern Territory
* Charles Dashwood (Royal Navy officer) (1765–1847)
* Francis Dashwood, 11th Baron le Despencer (1708–1781), English rake and politician
* Gemma Dashwood (born 1977), Australian Paralympic swimmer
* George Dashwood (disambiguation), multiple people
   * George Dashwood (1669–1706), MP for Sudbury 1703–1705
   * George Dashwood (1680–1758), MP for Stockbridge 1710–1713
   * Sir George Dashwood, 4th Baronet (1786–1861), MP for Truro 1814–1818
   * Sir George Dashwood, 5th Baronet (c. 1790–1862), English landowner, Member of Parliament for Buckinghamshire 1832–1835 and Wycombe 1837–1863
   * George Frederick Dashwood (1806–1881), public servant and politician in South Australia
   * George Henry Dashwood (1801–1869), British antiquary
* Robert Dashwood (disambiguation), multiple people
   * Sir Robert Dashwood, 1st Baronet, MP for Banbury
   * Sir Robert Dashwood, 9th Baronet
   * Sir Robert Henry Seymour Dashwood, 7th Baronet (1876–1947), of the Dashwood baronets
* Roderick Dashwood, Distinguished Professor at Texas A&M University
* Rosamund Dashwood (1924–2007), Canadian long-distance runner
* Tenille Dashwood (born 1989), Australian professional wrestler
* Thomas Dashwood (1876–1929), English cricketer

## Fictional characters

* Elinor Dashwood, character in Jane Austen's novel Sense and Sensibility
* Marianne Dashwood, character in Jane Austen's novel Sense and Sensibility
* Mike Dashwood, character in The Bill, 1984-1992
# A Capital

A Capital (meaning The Capital [City] in English) was a Portuguese afternoon newspaper published in Lisbon, Portugal, between 1968 and 2005.

## History and profile

A Capital was first published on 21 February 1968. The paper was established as a result of the editorial conflicts in the daily newspaper Diário Popular.
A Capital had a populist stance. Before the Carnation revolution the paper was owned by different companies, including the Banco Espírito e Comercial de Lisboa, CUF, Tabaqueira and Sorel. The paper was nationalized following the revolution. A Capital was purchased by Prensa Ibérica in 2001.
A Capital ceased publication on 30 July 2005.
# Shipka Memorial Church

The Memorial Temple of the Birth of Christ (Bulgarian: Храм-паметник „Рождество Христово“, Hram-pametnik „Rozhdestvo Hristovo“), better known as the Shipka Memorial Church or Shipka Monastery is a Bulgarian Orthodox church built near the town of Shipka in Stara Planina between 1885 and 1902, according to Antoniy Tomishko's design in the seventeenth-century Russian style under the direction of architect Alexander Pomerantsev. It is dedicated, along with other parts of the Shipka Monument complex, to the Russian and Bulgarian soldiers that died for the liberation of Bulgaria in the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78.
The temple was officially opened on September 28, 1902, in the presence of Russian Army generals and many honourable guests. The opening and consecration of the Shipka Memorial Church coincided with the 25-year anniversary of the Battles of Shipka Pass. In 1970, the temple was proclaimed a national monument of culture.
The church's bell tower reaches a height of 53 m, and its bells, the heaviest of which weighs 12 tons, were cast from the cartridges that were collected after the battles. In the temple itself, the names of the Russian regiments and Bulgarian volunteers are inscribed on 34 marble plates. The remains of the perished are laid in 17 stone sarcophagi in the church's crypt.

## Gallery

* The dome - interior
* The church iconostasis
* The onion-shaped gold-plated domes
* The Memorial Temple of the Birth of Christ
* View of the Shipka Memorial Church from the Northern side of the garden
# Abdessadek Rabiaa

Abdessadek Rabiaa or Rabii (Arabic: عبد الصادق ربيع; born 5 February 1945 in Marrakech) was a Moroccan politician and civil servant. Since 1993 he has been Secretary General of the Government, a position he held until his death on 12 August 2008. He held a degree in law from the Université de Bordeaux and practiced as a lawyer for some time in the 1970s.
# Guri Solberg

Guri Solberg (born 15 July 1976) is television host at the Norwegian TV station TV 2.
She was host of Absolutt Underholdning in 2004-2005, Skal vi danse? four times in 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2013 (on TV 2), and award ceremonies Amanda Award in 2008 and Gullfisken in 2007 and 2008.
Solberg is a journalist educated at Volda University College and has previously worked in television channels NRK P3 and NRK2. She hosted the Nordic Music Awards in October 2004 and in 2005.
She was a guest host for Norwegian Idol, during the maternity leave of presenter Solveig Kloppen. It was announced that she is hosting Norwegian X Factor in its 2nd season in 2010.
Guri Solberg is married to David Vogt who plays in the Norwegian band Real Ones.
# NGC 6572

NGC 6572 is a planetary nebula in the constellation Ophiuchus. It was discovered in 1825 by the German astronomer Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve. According to several sources such as Sky & Telescope, this object received the nicknames Blue Racquetball, Emerald Nebula, Green Nebula, and Turquoise Orb. At magnitude 8.1, NGC 6572 is easily bright enough to make it an appealing target for amateur astronomers with telescopes. At low magnification, it will appear to be just a colored star, but higher magnification will reveal its shape.
NGC 6572 is a relatively young nebula, and began to shed its gases a few thousand years ago. Because of this, the material is still quite concentrated, which explains its abnormal brightness. The envelope of gas is currently racing out into space at a speed of around 15 kilometres per second. As it becomes more diffuse, it will dim. Its structure consists of two bipolar shells that are slightly misaligned from each other's axes, as well as a toroidal waist.
The central star of the planetary nebula has a spectral type of Of-WR(H). The central star has an effective temperature of 68,000 K and a luminosity about 5,700 times that of the Sun.
# John Raphael (sportsman)

John Edward Raphael (30 April 1882 – 11 June 1917) was a Belgian-born sportsman who was capped nine times for England at rugby union and played first-class cricket with Surrey. He was a Barrister by profession and a Liberal politician.

## Background

Raphael was Jewish, and the son of multi-millionaire financier Albert Raphael, who was part of a banking dynasty that in the 1920s rivalled the Rothschild family, John Raphael was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, and St John's College, Oxford. In January 2021, one of the eight pastoral Houses at Merchant Taylors' was renamed in his honour.

## Rugby

Raphael won his first cap in 1902 when England took on Wales in the Home Nations Championship. A centre, winger or full-back, he also played in the 1905 and 1906 Championships as well as in Test matches against both France and New Zealand. The only points of his career came through a try which he scored in 1906 when playing Scotland. He captained the 1910 British Lions tour to Argentina, which included the South American nation's inaugural Test match.
Raphael authored a book Modern Rugby Football which was published posthumously by his mother in 1918

## Cricket

Raphael played his cricket as a specialist batsman and most of his appearances at first-class level were for either Surrey or Oxford University. He also played first-class matches for the Marylebone Cricket Club, Gentlemen of England, London County and an England XI amongst others. Four of Raphael's five centuries were scored for Oxford University, including his career best score of 201 which he made against Yorkshire, who had the bowling of Wilfred Rhodes at their disposal. It remains the only double hundred to be made by an Oxford cricketer against Yorkshire. His only century for Surrey came in the 1904 County Championship, which he captained his county for much of, scoring 111 against Worcestershire. A part-time bowler, his three first-class wickets were of Samuel Coe, Lord Dalmeny and Test cricketer John King.

## Politics

Raphael was involved in politics as a supporter of the Liberal Party. He stood for the UK parliament as Liberal candidate for Croydon at the 1909 Croydon by-election. In a three-way contest he finished second.

## Military

In World War I Raphael served with the King's Royal Rifle Corps as a Lieutenant and died of wounds in 1917 at the Battle of Messines, while fighting in the country of his birth.
He is buried at Lijssenthoek Military Cemetery near Poperinge, West Flanders, Belgium. Mrs Harriette Raphael, his mother, had her ashes buried next to his grave in 1929. A memorial to Raphael was erected by his mother Archived 26 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine at St Jude's Church, Hampstead Garden Suburb , to whom she bequeathed the family home on her death.
# St James', Louth

St James' is a suburb and ward of Louth in the East Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. It covers the older part of the town and had a population of 4,893 at the 2021 UK Census when combined with the neighboring ward of Priory.

## Geography

The ward covers the slightly older parts of the town centre. It covers the streets of Broadbank, Westgate, Chequersgate, Northgate, Newbridge Hill, and Kiln Lane among many others.

## Amenities

The ward covers the much older parts of Louth. Notable buildings in the ward include the Louth Museum, Louth Town Hall, and St James' Church. The River Ludd also runs through the ward.

## Transport

The bus station is located on Church Street and offers connections to other places in Lincolnshire such as Lincoln, Mablethorpe, Grimsby, Horncastle etc. There is also a local town bus that offers connections to places around the town and its outlying suburbs. The Old Railway Station is located on Newbridge Hill, opposite the Aldi superstore. It once offered services to many parts of England for the town but it was closed in the 1970-80s and is now a private residence with the surrounding trackbed now housing estates.
# Chip Elliott

Chip Elliott is an American engineer, best known for his work in creating advanced computer networks.
Elliott was Northfield Mount Hermon School's first graduate as 1972 class orator, where he won the Bausch & Lomb science prize and was named a National Merit Scholar, then graduated from Dartmouth College, where he maintained and helped create computer language systems, including Algol 60, APL, Dynamo, and PL/I, for the Dartmouth Time-Sharing System. Subsequently, he was a founder of True BASIC, Inc. At BBN Technologies in the 1990s, he created the videoconferencing system for the Defense Simulation Internet, led the networking design and implementation of the Iris Digital Communications System, and served as network architect for the Near-term digital radio (NTDR) system. He also participated in the design of Connexion by Boeing, Celestri, Discoverer II, and SBIRS-Low.
In the early 2000s, Elliott led the design and build-out of the DARPA Quantum Network, which was the world's first quantum cryptography network, operating 10 optical nodes across the Boston region to provide highly secure key distribution non-stop through both telecom fibers and the atmosphere. He then served as the founding Project Director for GENI, the Global Environment for Network Innovations, a national suite of experimental infrastructure created across 60+ university campuses by the National Science Foundation for at-scale research in future internet architectures, services, and security. At his retirement, he was BBN's chief technology officer.
Elliott has served on panels in the US including for the Government Accountability Office, the Defense Science Board and boards for the Director of National Intelligence, Army, Navy, SOCOM, and DTO, and has held visiting and adjunct faculty positions at Dartmouth College, Tunghai University in Taiwan, and the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur. He holds over 90 issued patents, and has been named a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, ACM Fellow, and Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers for contributions to the design and implementation of communication networking. For his leadership in quantum cryptography he was given Frost & Sullivan's Award for Excellence in Technology (2005) and named a World Technology Award Finalist (2004) and Fellow.