# Longgu language

Longgu (Logu) is a Southeast Solomonic language of Guadalcanal, but originally from Malaita.

## Phonology

Phonology is concerned with the ways in which languages make use of sounds to distinguish words from each other. In Longgu, there are both consonants and vowels which make up its alphabet. Altogether, it has five distinct vowel articulations and nineteen consonant phonemes. According to the usual custom in the languages of Guadalcanal, the vowels are sounded out separately.

### Consonants

In Longgu, the consonant phonemes include:
| | | Labial | Labial | Dental | Velar | Glottal |
| | | Plain | Labialized | Dental | Velar | Glottal |
| Plosive | Voiceless | p | | t | k | ʔ |
| Plosive | Voiced | b | bʷ | d | g | |
| Fricatives | Voiceless | | | s | | |
| Fricatives | Voiced | β | | z | | h |
| Nasal | Nasal | m | mʷ | | ŋ | |
| Lateral | Lateral | | l | | | |
| Trill | Trill | | r | | |
| Glide | Glide | | w | | | |
In Longgu, there are four voiceless stops including glottal stops. All of Longgu's voiceless stops are not aspirated, while its three voiced stops are pre-nasalised. Prenasalization of voiced stops is also recurrent in Longgu, whereby it is more audible intervocalically. Furthermore, the labial stop /bʷ/ is also recognised as a voiced stop /b/. For example:
* Babasu and Bwabwasu (name of a town) are both acceptable.
In this language, there are four fricatives, but in particular we can look at the dental fricative /z/ which has been recorded. Additionally, a voiceless interdental has been previously recorded for Longgu. An example of this is θae, meaning ‘liver' in English. Furthermore, when the consonants /s/ and /z/ are produced, the tip of the tongue is touching the back of the bottom teeth, with the blade touching the palate. Below shows a minimal pair which demonstrates these two different consonants:
* bisi “place to go to the toilet”
* bizi “so (as in se bizi “not so (much)”)
In addition to consonants for Longgu, the labial consonants /bʷ/ and /mʷ/ are portrayed as individual phonemes as opposed to two separate phonemes, such as /b/ and /w/ or /m/ and /w/ as there are no other transformations of a consonant that is followed by a glide (i.e. */dw/ and */gw/). Therefore, it has been found that there are no consonant clusters in Longgu, hence an analysis of two separate phonemes rather than a unit phoneme is required.

### Vowels

The vowel phonemes in Longgu are:
| | Front | Back |
| High | i | u |
| Mid | e | o |
| Low | | a |
In Longgu, any pair of vowels may occur in a vowel sequence. Vowel sequences are treated as two separate vowels based on their behaviour in terms of stress rules and reduplication. Below are two examples of minimal pairs which demonstrate a contrast in vowel sequences:
| (1) | ae-ai | ae | 'faeces' |
| (1) | ae-ai | aiai | 'cassava' |
| (2) | ae-au | haehae | 'cockatoo' |
| (2) | ae-au | hauhau | 'small container' |
The high back vowel, which is in this case /u/ is interpreted as a glide[w] before /i/ or /a/. Furthermore, there appears to be no long vowels in Longgu, however all of its vowels may produce vowel sequences. In Longgu, a vowel sequence cannot be broken for the purposes of reduplication.

### Phonotactics

The overall syllable structure of Longgu is (C)V(V), which means that the order of sentence structure will be; consonant, verb and then vowel. All of its consonants either occur before the word or in the middle, however a few of these consonants are known to occur in particular environments. For example, /z/ will tend to occur only before /a/ and /u/. This syllable structure does not apply to two independent pronouns, such as; ngaia 3rd person singular, and gaoa 1st person dual inclusive. The stress on both of these pronouns is on the first syllable (nga-ia and ga-oa). Furthermore, voiced stops may only occur in the same morpheme as another voiced stop if both are identical or made at the same place of articulation. For example:
* dede-a ‘fill it’
* gege ‘beside’
It is important to note that this rule does not necessarily apply across all morphemic boundaries as, for example, a possessive suffix that is attached to a noun may include a voiced stop that is made at a different place of articulation. For example:
* gege-da ‘beside them’

### Reduplication

Any vowel, including a geminate vowel (a reduplicated vowel which emphasises the meaning) can occur with any other vowel within the same syllable. In terms of consonants, labial consonants /pw/, /bw/ and /mw/ only occur before non-rounded vowels. See the examples below:
* bwabwa ‘hole, cave’
* mwatawa ‘ocean’
* pwakepwake ‘boar’
There is both partial and full reduplication that is present in Longgu. In terms of partial reduplication, the first syllable of a word containing two syllables is reduplicated:
* la-loto ‘swimming’
* zua-zuala ‘standing’
* mau-mauru ‘sleeping’
It is important to note here that words of two or more syllables are always partially reduplicated through the reduplication of the first two syllables:
* tavurake ‘to leave’
* tavu-tavurake ‘leaving’

### Stress

Stress occurs when a level of emphasis or prominence is given to a phonological word. Primary stress will be on the main syllable, whilst the secondary stress will be on every alternate preceding syllable. Stress in most oceanic languages will indeed fall on this penultimate syllable. A phonological word can consist of a base word, such as a noun or verb, and all of its affixes. For instance, the word zato “sunny” tends to be nominalised through a singular noun phrase clitic:
* záto “sunny”
* záto-i “sun”

### Orthography

In Longgu, certain orthographic conventions can be used. It is important to realise that the labialised bilabial phonemes in Longgu can essentially be written as pw, bw and mw, the bilabial fricative / β/ as v, the glottal stop /ʔ/ as /’/ and the velar nasal /ŋ/ as digraph /ng/. Apart from these exceptions, all the other consonants are written in their phoneme form.

## Pronouns and Person Markers

There are four pronominal forms in Longgu:
* independent pronouns
* subject pronouns
* possessive suffixes
* object suffixes
Independent pronouns and subject pronouns in Longgu are closed word classes. Possessive suffixes are attached to nouns to form inalienable possessive constructions, and object suffixes are attached to transitive verbs. Four numbers are distinguished in pronominal forms: singular, dual, paucal, and plural, and non-singular first person pronouns are either inclusive (INCL) or exclusive (EXCL).

### Independent pronouns

Independent pronouns can act as subject pronouns for 1st and 2nd person non-singular. They also mark agreement between the verbs and its object for 2nd and 3rd person non-singular object suffixes. When an independent pronoun functions as the head of a noun phrase, the noun phrase may consist of the head alone (example 1), may include the pronominal article (example 2), the cardinal or ordinal numeral expressing "one", a post head modifier, or a noun phrase clitic. All third person pronouns can function as determiners, but the 3rd person plural pronoun gira and 3rd person singular pronoun ngaia are the ones that are most commonly used to fulfill this function.
girua
3DU
aura
3DU
lolo-'i-a
catch-TRS-3SG
mola
just
na
PERF
m-arua
CONJ-3DU
tole-a
lead-3SG
na
PERF
vu
to
asi
sea
ngaia
3SG
mwela-geni-i
child-woman-SG
girua aura lolo-'i-a mola na m-arua tole-a na vu asi ngaia mwela-geni-i
3DU 3DU catch-TRS-3SG just PERF CONJ-3DU lead-3SG PERF to sea 3SG child-woman-SG
"They both just caught her and they both took this girl to the sea."
m-i
CONJ-ART
ngaia
3SG
'ua
still
i
LOC
ei
there
m-i ngaia 'ua i ei
CONJ-ART 3SG still LOC there
"But she was still there."
Table 1. Independent pronouns :
| | | Singular | Dual | Paucal | Plural |
| 1st person | exclusive | nau/na | amerua | golu | gia |
| 1st person | inclusive | nau/na | gaoa/ ga | amelu | ami |
| 2nd person | 2nd person | oe | amurua | amolu | amu |
| 3rd person | 3rd person | ngaia | girua/ girarua | giraolu | gira |
The first person dual inclusive pronoun gaoa has the reduced form ga. The first person singular pronoun na is used instead of nau when placed before the irrealis particle ho.
Independent pronouns have three functions:
* Nominal argument of a clause
gira
3PL
ara
3PL
nana'i
stay home
na
PERF
gira ara nana'i na
3PL 3PL {stay home} PERF
"They stayed home"
* Possessor in an alienable possessive construction
luma
house
ami-gi
1PL.EX-PL
luma ami-gi
house 1PL.EX-PL
"Our houses"
* Determiner in a noun phrase
gira
3PL
tolo-gi
bush-PL
ara
3PL
ili-a
tell-3SG
'ani-a
INSTR-3SG
"rau
"line
ni
LIG
bolo"
pig"
gira tolo-gi ara ili-a 'ani-a "rau ni bolo"
3PL bush-PL 3PL tell-3SG INSTR-3SG "line LIG pig"
"Those bush (people) call it 'line of the pig'"

### Subject pronouns

The subject pronoun is also the first constituent of a verb phrase, and is used to cross-reference the number and person of the subject noun phrase. Lonngu does not have any 1st and 2nd person non-singular subject pronouns, as can be seen in Table 2. Third person non singular subject noun phrases are either fully cross-referenced for person and number by the subject pronoun (example 6), or by the 3rd person plural subject pronoun (example 7).
Using the 3rd person plural subject pronoun to cross-reference dual and paucal subject noun phrases is thought to be a simplifying device, and used when the number of the subject has already been established either by a subject noun phrase, an independent pronoun (example 7), or a subject pronoun in a previous clause (example 8). The third person plural subject pronoun can be used to cross reference both inanimate and animate subjects.
rua
two
mi
CONJ
gale-na
child-3SG
arua
3DU
la
go
tete
bridge
rua mi gale-na arua la tete
two CONJ child-3SG 3DU go bridge
"A mother and her child walked on the reef"
giraolu
3PAU
mola
only
ara
3PL
ho
IRR
la
go
mai
hither
giraolu mola ara ho la mai
3PAU only 3PL IRR go hither
"Only they will come (not you)"
m-arau
CONJ-3DU
goni
build
pilu
fence
na,
PERF,
ara
3PL
goni-a
build-3SG
pilu-i
fence-SG
liva'a-na
live-3SG
pilu
fence
ni
LIG
boo-i
pig-SG
m-arua
CONJ-3DU
na'i-a
put-3SG
i
LOC
ei
there
m-arau goni pilu na, ara goni-a pilu-i liva'a-na pilu ni boo-i m-arua na'i-a i ei
CONJ-3DU build fence PERF, 3PL build-3SG fence-SG live-3SG fence LIG pig-SG CONJ-3DU put-3SG LOC there
"and they both built a fence, they built a fence like a pig fence and they both put it there"
The use of 3rd person plural subject pronoun as a cross-referencing device is often associated with the repetition of an event as seen in example 8.
Subject pronouns are given in Table 2, with independent pronouns functioning as subject pronouns placed in brackets.
Table 2. Subject pronouns :
| | Singular | Dual | Paucal | Plural |
| 1st person | nu | (gaoa amerua) | (golu amelu) | (gia ami) |
| 2nd person | o | (amorua) | (amolu) | (amu) |
| 3rd person | e | arua/ ararua | aralu | ara |

### Possessive suffixes

Possessive suffixes are bound morphemes that are either attached to nouns or to the nominal preposition ta-,.
Table 3. Possessive suffix :
| | | Singular | Dual | Pascal | Plural |
| 1st person | exclusive | -gu | -mamerua | -mamelu | -mami |
| 1st person | inclusive | -gu | -garua | -gaolu | -ga |
| 2nd person | 2nd person | -mu | -miurua | -miolu | -miu |
| 3rd person | 3rd person | -na | -darua | -daolu | -da |
Possessive suffixes have five functions:
* To signify the whole of a part/ whole relationship
maa-na
eye-3SG
wai
water
maa-na wai
eye-3SG water
"mouth/ eye of the river"
* To express the relationship between a local noun and the dependent common/ place noun
wai
water
e
3SG
'oni
located
gege-na
beside-3SG
komu-i
village-SG
wai e 'oni gege-na komu-i
water 3SG located beside-3SG village-SG
"The river is located/ runs next to the village"
* To signify the possessor in an inalienable possessive construction
gale-na
child-3SG
Ulunatena
NAME
gale-na Ulunatena
child-3SG NAME
"Ulumatena's child"
* To signify the object of a nominal or dative preposition
tolo
NAME
e
3SG
tali
want
to'i
work
ta-na
LOC-3SG
haka-i
ship-SG
tolo e tali to'i ta-na haka-i
NAME 3SG want work LOC-3SG ship-SG
"Tolo wants to work on a ship"
* To refer to the object of a small class of verbs
mamaa-na
watch-3SG
vonu-i
turtle-SG
mamaa-na vonu-i
watch-3SG turtle-SG
"watch the turtle"

### Object suffixes

Object suffixes are attached to transitive verbs to cross-reference person and number of the object pronoun phrase argument in transitive clauses. The person and number of object noun phrases with animate references are fully marked by the object suffix on the verbs (example 14). Object suffixes in Longgu make distinctions between inanimate and animate objects, as well as distinguishing between objects which are highly individuated, and those that have no special importance.
bwa'ewai
shark
e
3SG
gali-gali-rarua
circle-REDUP-3DU
bwa'ewai e gali-gali-rarua
shark 3SG circle-REDUP-3DU
"The shark kept circling them both"
A list of object suffixes are shown in Table 3, and independent pronouns functioning as object suffixes are placed in brackets.
Table 4. Object suffixes :
| | 1st | 2nd | 3rd |
| Singular | -u | -o | -a |
| Dual | (gaoa amerua) | (amorua) | -rarua |
| Pascal | (golu amelu) | (amolu) | -raolu |
| Plural | (gia ami) | (amu) | -ra -i |
For third person plural object suffixes, inanimate objects can be referred to using both -ra and -i, but animate objects are referred to using only the object suffix -ra.
Singular objects are marked by 3rd person singular suffix -a.
ara
3PL
goni-a
build-3SG
pilu-i
fence-SG
ara goni-a pilu-i
3PL build-3SG fence-SG
"They built a fence"
Non-singular objects can be marked by the 3rd person singular suffix -a, as well as the 3rd person plural suffix -ra and the 3rd person plural inanimate suffix -i. However, the 3rd person singular suffix can only be used when the object is not highly individuated (example 16). The taro tops in example 16 refers to taro tops in general, not a specific group that the speaker had in mind.
nau
1SG
mola
only
gu
IRR
la
go
va'i-ni-ra
COMIT-TRS-3PL
vua
grandparent
ngaia-gi
3SG-PL
ivu'i-ni-a
hoe-TRS-3SG
savi
taro top
golu-gi
1PAU.IN-PL
nau mola gu la va'i-ni-ra vua ngaia-gi ivu'i-ni-a savi golu-gi
1SG only IRR go COMIT-TRS-3PL grandparent 3SG-PL hoe-TRS-3SG {taro top} 1PAU.IN-PL
"Only I should go with his grandparents, hoeing our taro tops"
The 3rd person plural inanimate suffix -i cross references dual, paucal, or plural inanimate objects which are highly individuated. In example 17, the head noun is quantified, and food objects are also cross-referenced by the 3rd person plural inanimate suffix.
e
3SG
rua
two
'ai
stick
ni
LIG
topuhu
pudding
rua
two
lodoi
fruit
bua
betel nut
rua
two
aba-aba
leaf-REDUP
ni
LIG
ova
betel nut leaf
girua
3DU
arua
3DU
wate-i
give-3PL.IN
e rua 'ai ni topuhu rua lodoi bua rua aba-aba ni ova girua arua wate-i
3SG two stick LIG pudding two fruit {betel nut} two leaf-REDUP LIG {betel nut leaf} 3DU 3DU give-3PL.IN
"(it was) two sticks of pudding, two betel nut fruits, two leaves of betel nut leaf, they gave (them)"

## Possession

Possession in grammar is a construction which expresses a relationship between a possessor and a possessum [what is possessed]. There are two key syntactic constructions for possession: alienable and inalienable. Inalienable possession refers to the relationship between a person/being and its inherent properties or parts, and which cannot be removed. In contrast, alienable possession refers to a relationship of possession where the possessum (thing being possessed) can be given away or lost by the possessor. Both types of possessive construction may express kin relationships, part/whole relationships (body and its parts), objects, location and ownership but to varying degrees and with certain allowances and limitations.
NB: All examples in Possession are taken from Longgu Grammar by Deborah Hill, 2011 unless otherwise stated.

### Inalienable Possession

Inalienable possession in Longgu is expressed by a possessive pronoun. There are two sets of possessive pronouns within inalienable possession: those referring to food that is eaten or intended to be eaten; and those which express ownership of all other things. Inalienable possessive constructions are formed by directly suffixing a possessive suffix to a head noun [the possessum], followed by the dependent noun [possessor]. It can be a common noun (which can in turn be possessed) or an independent pronoun. Some nouns in Longgu may only form the head of an inalienable possessive construction and not alienable. These include: Certain kin terms; local nouns; noun ve’ete- (‘self’); certain nouns referring to personal possessions; nouns expressing the relationship between a whole and its parts; nouns which refer to concepts that are inherently connected to a person (e.g. A person's name, shadow, ancestors); nominalised verbs.
Inalienable possessive constructions express a number of different types of relations and they can be split into several sub-categories:
* Possessive suffixes
* Kin relationships
* Body part relationships
* Spatial relationships
* Personal possession
* Part/whole relationships
* Possessive pronouns referring specifically to food and possessions

#### Possessive Suffix

| Possessum | Possessor |
| Head Noun + Poss. suffix | + independent noun (common noun/independent pronoun) |
Possessive Suffixes in Longgu :
| | | Singular | Dual | Paucal | Plural |
| 1st | excl. | -gu | -mamerua | -mamelu | -mami |
| 1st | incl. | -gu | -garua | -gaolu | -ga |
| 2nd | 2nd | -mu | -miurua | -miolu | -miu |
| 3rd | 3rd | -na | -darua | -daolu | -da |
For example:
e
3SG
se
NEG
bweina
big
ta’e
INTENS
tatala-na
footprint-3SG
mwela-ne
child-DEI
e se bweina ta’e tatala-na mwela-ne
3SG NEG big INTENS footprint-3SG child-DEI
“This child’s footprint isn’t really big”
susu-na
breast milk-3SG
tia
mother
ngaia
3SG
susu-na tia ngaia
{breast milk}-3SG mother 3SG
“her mother’s breast milk”
Possessive constructions can also be recursive, meaning that up to three possessive noun phrases may be in the one sentence.
parapara
hot
ta’e
INTENS
bou–na
head-3SG
gale–gu
child-1SG
parapara ta’e bou–na gale–gu
hot INTENS head-3SG child-1SG
“my child’s head is really hot”
[*head N + poss. suff. ... head N +poss
bou(head) + na ...gale + gu]

#### Kin Relationships

Only certain kinship terms may be inalienable in Longgu. These include bound nouns such as: Barunga-na (‘his/her spouse’), Si-na (‘his/her younger sibling’), iiva-na (‘his/her brother/sister in-law’); and Vavune-na (‘his/her cross-sibling’), vungau-na (‘his/her parent/child in-law’) which may both be used vocatively. Not strictly kinship terms, boro “old man” and mwaro “old woman” can formulate a semi-verbal predicate. The possessor (rather than possessum) is marked by a suffix (–na) so there is no need for a noun to follow.
* Boro-na “his/her old man/ancestor”
* Mwaro-na “his/her old woman/ancestor”
su’e-a
ask-3SG
burunga-mu
spouse-2SG
ge
OBL
ili-a
tell-3SG
tia
mother
ngaia
3SG
su’e-a burunga-mu ge ili-a tia ngaia
ask-3SG spouse-2SG OBL tell-3SG mother 3SG
“ask your spouse to tell of her mother”

#### Body part relationships

Most body part terms form the head of inalienable possessive constructions:
| Bou-na | "his/her head" |
| Suli-na | "his/her body" |
| Lima-gu | "my arm/hand" |
| A’ae-mu | “your leg/foot” |
| Kuli-na | “his/her ear” |
| Kutu-mu | “your belly” |
| Roa-gu | “my shoulder” |
| Aloa-na | “his/her neck” |
| Maa-na | “his/her eye/face” |
| Susu-na^ | “her breast milk, breast” |
| Mimi-na^ | “his/her urine, bladder” |
^may denote either the fluid or the body part.
The inalienable possessive construction is the unmarked possessive construction for primary body parts (parts seen as belonging to the whole body, as opposed to non-primary body parts, which are seen as belonging to a section/part of the body).
Note: when the body parts become separated from the whole they are thus treated as alienable (see Alienable: kinship)
m–amolu
CONJ-2PAU
ge
OBL
zuala
stand
ga
ANT
‘ani-a
INSTR-3SG
e
3SG
mae
dead
na
PERF
a’ae-miu
leg-2PL
m–amolu ge zuala ga ‘ani-a e mae na a’ae-miu
CONJ-2PAU OBL stand ANT INSTR-3SG 3SG dead PERF leg-2PL
“you (few) must stand for a while because your legs are stiff (lit. dead) now”

#### Spatial Relationships

Local (denoting location) nouns can act as the head of an inalienable possessive construction but not an alienable. As well as denoting possession, local nouns can also appear in their bare form and/or in associative constructions.
gia
go first
ngaia
3SG
boo-i–na
pig-SG-DEI
isitava
go outside
ubu-na
inside-3SG
luma–i–na
house-SG-DEI
gia ngaia boo-i–na isitava ubu-na luma–i–na
{go first} 3SG pig-SG-DEI {go outside} inside-3SG house-SG-DEI
“that pig went ahead outside from inside that house”
m–e
CONJ-3SG
gale,
baby,
ango
crawl
mai
hither
gege-darua–i–na
beside-3DU-SG-DEI
m–e gale, ango mai gege-darua–i–na
CONJ-3SG baby, crawl hither beside-3DU-SG-DEI
“and it was a baby [snake], [lit] crawled beside them”
Places within the house are also place nouns and as such can form the head of inalienable possession:
nu
1SG
kue-kue–kue
squeal-REDUP-REDUP
lae–lae
go-REDUP
mola
just
ubu
inside
ni
LIG
masu’u-gi-na
bush-PL-DEI
ma
CONJ
bwarakumo-gi-i-na,
back of house-1SG-SG-DEI,
ma
CONJ
maa–luma–gu-i-na
eye-house-1SG-SG-DEI.
nu kue-kue–kue lae–lae mola ubu ni masu’u-gi-na ma bwarakumo-gi-i-na, ma maa–luma–gu-i-na
1SG squeal-REDUP-REDUP go-REDUP just inside LIG bush-PL-DEI CONJ {back of house}-1SG-SG-DEI, CONJ eye-house-1SG-SG-DEI.
“I squealed (while) just walking in the bush (lit. those bushes) and at the back of my house and my door”

#### Personal Possession

There are a select few common nouns which show personal possession in inalienable constructions but not alienable:
* Vuli-na ‘his/her bed’
* Nilau-na ‘his/her decoration’
* Pitapita-na ‘his/her bracelet’
* Va’ava’a-na ‘his/her necklace’
This limited group suggests that there is a semantic basis, that all these items are either worn or slept in. The treatment of these nouns (of personal decoration) as inalienable is consistent even when the possessor is not wearing them, in contrast to ‘clothes’.
rabu–ta’ini-a
beat-TRS-3SG
ta–na
LOC-3SG
vuli-na
bed-3SG
vua
grandchild
nau–i
1SG-SG
rabu–ta’ini-a ta–na vuli-na vua nau–i
beat-TRS-3SG LOC-3SG bed-3SG grandchild 1SG-SG
“beat [the plant] on my grandchild’s bed”
Intangible things which aren’t transferable between people are treated as bound to a person.:
* Zata-na ‘his/her name’
* Nun-na ‘his/her shadow’
* Walu-na ‘his/her voice’
* Tatala-na ‘his/her footprint’
* Anoa-na ‘his/her ancestor’s spirit’
zata-na
name-3SG
te
one
uta’a–i
man-SG
a
ART
Sibiloko
NAME
zata-na te uta’a–i a Sibiloko
name-3SG one man-SG ART NAME
“the name of one man was Sibiloko”
e
3SG
se
NEG
bweina
big
ta’e
INTENS
tatala–na
footprint-3SG
mwela-ne
child-DEI
e se bweina ta’e tatala–na mwela-ne
3SG NEG big INTENS footprint-3SG child-DEI
“this child’s footprint isn’t really big”

#### Part/Whole Relationships

Parts/sections of man-made things, natural things such as rivers and hils, and patterns like dances are treated as inalienably possessed. These include:
* Pilasu-na vugi “banana sprouts (new shoots)”
* Tina-na ‘ai ‘tree trunk’
* Boru-na wai ‘river bed’
* Boru-na iolai ‘underside of canoe’
* Popopo-na mala’u’ui ‘top of the hill’
* Maa-na wai ‘mouth (lit: eye) of the river’
* Sulu-na niui ‘leaf of the coconut tree’
* Uri-uri-na avai ‘dance steps’
golu
1PAU.IN
ge
OBL
nau-nau-a
REDUP-try-3SG
awade
how
uri-uri-na
step-REDUP-3SG
avai
dance
golu ge nau-nau-a awade uri-uri-na avai
1PAU.IN OBL REDUP-try-3SG how step-REDUP-3SG dance
“we must practice how to do the dance steps”

#### Possessive Pronouns referring to food and possession

Inalienable possessive pronouns are divided into two categories:
* referring to food that is eaten or intended to be eaten by the possessor,
* relating to other possessions, typically found in nominal clauses (eg. That’s mine).
For both sets a suffix a is attached to the 1st and 2nd person singular possessive suffixes.
(a) For referents to food that’s eaten or intended to be the possessive suffix is attached directly to the possessive particle a.
Possessive Pronouns relating to food :
| | 1st | 2nd | 3rd |
| Singular | Agua | Amua | Ana |
| Dual | Agarua | Amiurua | Adarua |
| Paucal | Agaola | Amiolu | Adaolu |
| Plural | Aga | Amiu | Ada |
(b) Other possessions, typically found in nominal clauses, are formed by an attachment of possessive suffixes to the particle na
Possessive pronouns relating to other possessions :
| | 1st | 2nd | 3rd |
| Singular | Nagua | Namua | Nana |
| Dual | Nagarua | Namiurua | Nadarua |
| Paucal | Nagaolu | Namiolu | Nadaolu |
| Plural | Naga | Namiu | Nada |

### Alienable Possession

Alienable possession refers to the possession of items (possessums) that may be transferred away or lost by the possessor. They are formed by a head noun and an independent pronoun, which denotes the possessor, and may be followed by a possessed or non-possessed dependent noun.
    HEAD NOUN + INDEPENDENT PRONOUN + can be followed by a dependent noun (non-/possessed)
Nouns that can take on an alienable construction include such categories as animals, foods, personal items, villages and some kinship terms.
Longgu development of alienable constructions where the possessor is expressed by a disjunctive pronoun (like nau) is non-standard to the POC.

#### Kinship Relations

There is a small set of kinship terms which may be the head of an alienable possessive construction but not inalienable. These are:
* Tia ngaia ‘his/her mother’
* Mama ngaia ‘his/her father’
* vua ngaia ‘his/her grandparent’grandchild’
* sa’i ngaia ‘his sister’s child/his/her mother’s brother’
o
2SG
susu-a
breast feed-3SG
vua
grandchild
nau,
1SG,
tike,
daughter,
mo
CONJ
go
OBL
na’i-a
leave-3SG
wa-na
DAT-3SG
mama
father
ngaia
3SG
o susu-a vua nau, tike, mo go na’i-a wa-na mama ngaia
2SG {breast feed}-3SG grandchild 1SG, daughter, CONJ OBL leave-3SG DAT-3SG father 3SG
“you breast feed my grandchild, daughter, and you must leave him for his father”
All of these kinship terms, excluding tia ngaia ‘his/her mother, mother’s sister’, represent reciprocal relationships. In POC, generally terms for mother and father are not included in inalienable possessive constructs, in this Longgu differs. Longgu also deviates from standard POC in that not all reciprocal kinship terms are included in inalienable possessive constructions.
Terms for adopted child and friend are also alienably constructed:
mwela
child
kuti-kuti
feed-REDUP
nau
1SG
mwela kuti-kuti nau
child feed-REDUP 1SG
“my adopted child”
m–e
CONJ-3SG
lae
go
na
PERF
udu
friend
ngaia
3SG
nina
DEI
m–e lae na udu ngaia nina
CONJ-3SG go PERF friend 3SG DEI
“and his friend went then”

#### Personal Possession

Personal possession that can be transferred from one person to another, for example objects, as well as place, like villages.
e
3SG
ade-a
take-3SG
tuapasa
spear
ngaia-i
3SG-SG
e ade-a tuapasa ngaia-i
3SG take-3SG spear 3SG-SG
“he took his spear”
m–ara
CONJ-3PL
lahou
then
ade–i
take-3PL.IN
na
PERF
ivi
clothes
gira–gi
3PL-PL
vata’u
away
m–ara
CONJ-3PL
na’i–i
put-3PL.IN
ubu–na
inside-3PL
ei
basket
gira–gi
3PL-PL
m–ara lahou ade–i na ivi gira–gi vata’u m–ara na’i–i ubu–na ei gira–gi
CONJ-3PL then take-3PL.IN PERF clothes 3PL-PL away CONJ-3PL put-3PL.IN inside-3PL basket 3PL-PL
“and then they took off their clothes and they put them into their baskets”
m-arua
CONJ-3DU
kao
look back
mai
hither
m–arua
CONJ-3DU
bere–ngi–a
see-TRS-3SG
‘ua
CONT
komu
village
girua–i
3DU-SG
m-arua kao mai m–arua bere–ngi–a ‘ua komu girua–i
CONJ-3DU {look back} hither CONJ-3DU see-TRS-3SG CONT village 3DU-SG
“and they both looked back and they both still saw their village”
As noted above, possessive pronouns may be used in inalienable constructions to talk about food that is being eaten/intended to be eaten by the possessor. In alienable constructions the food words themselves can form the head (of only alienable constructions). This includes food that may be intended for eating.
m–e
CONJ-3SG
lahou
then
ade–a
take-3SG
hou
thither
kabokabo
taro
ngaia
3SG
m–e lahou ade–a hou kabokabo ngaia
CONJ-3SG then take-3SG thither taro 3SG
“and then he took out his taro”

### Alienable/Inalienable Possession

There are a number of nouns which may form either the head of an alienable or inalienable possessive construction, and this is dependent on the semantic relationship between the head and the dependent noun. Sub-categories include: kinship terms, body part terms, other common nouns.
| | Inalienable | Alienable | Gloss |
| Kinship terms | gale-na | gale-ngaia | "her child" |
| | To' o-na | To' o ngaia | "her sister" |
| Body part terms | Kakasa-na | Kakasa ngaia | "her rib" |
| | Mimi-na | Mimi ngaia | "its bladder" |
| Other (originated from possessor) | U'unu-na | U'unu ngaia | "her story" |
| | Tala-na | Tala ngaia | "her path" |
| | Zalu-na | Zalu ngaia | "her egg" |
| | Totohale-na | Totohale ngaia | "her picture" |
| Other (occupied by possessor) | Luma-na | Luma ngaia | "her house" |
| | iola-na | iola ngaia | "her canoe" |
| | ivi-na | ivi ngaia | "her clothes" |
There are only two kinship terms which may form the head of both alienable and inalienable possessive constructions. For gale ‘child’, there is a semantic basis for which form it takes. This is whether the possessor of the child is human or animal.
* Gale-na mwane ‘the man’s child’
* Gale ngaia ‘usul ‘the dog’s puppy’
The inalienable possessive construction of body part terms is the unmarked variety, however when these become detached/dismembered they are treated as alienable.
* Kakasa-gu ‘my rib (inside my body)’
* Kakasa nau ‘my rib (that I own, eg. A pig’s rib)’
‘story’, ‘path’, ‘egg’, ‘picture’; ‘canoe’, ‘house’, ‘clothes’. Each have alienable and inalienable distinctions.
Inalienable constructions of ‘story’, ‘path’, ‘egg’, ‘picture’ express that the possessor is the source of the possessum. For example, an egg laid (created) by someone compared with an egg which someone owns.
| Possessor as source (inalienable) | | Ownership relation (alienable) | |
| U'unu-na | "his/her story about him/her" | U'unu ngaia | "his/her story told by him/her" |
| Tala-darua | "their path (the way they travelled)" | Tala gira | "their path (of their village)" |
| Zalu-na | "her egg (that she laid)" | Zalu ngaia | "his/her egg (that he/she owns)" |
| Possessor as occupier (inalienable) | | Owned by possessor but not occupied by possessor (alienable) | |
| (a) Luma-gu | "my house (that I live in/occupy) | (a) Luma nau-i | "my house (that I own)" |
| (b) iola-da-i | "their canoe (possessed by the people inside it)" | (c) iola ngaia Teddy | "Teddy's canoe (Teddy owns the canoe)" |
| (d) ivi-na si-na-i | "the younger sibling's clothes" | (e) ivi ngaia Ara | "Ara's clothes" |
luma
house
ni
LIG
niu–i
coconut-SG
e
3SG
luma
house
nau–i
1SG-SG
luma
house
ni
LIG
niu-i
coconut-SG
e
3SG
se
NEG
luma–gu
house-1SG
luma ni niu–i e luma nau–i luma ni niu-i e se luma–gu
house LIG coconut-SG 3SG house 1SG-SG house LIG coconut-SG 3SG NEG house-1SG
“the coconut house (house for storing coconuts) is my house (that I own. Alienable), it is not my house (that I occupy. Inalienable)”
‘inoni
person
ara
3PL
se
NEG
lae–gi–na
go-PL-DEI
ara
3PL
toro–vahini–a
push-TRS-3SG
vu
to
mwetawa
ocean
iola–da–i
canoe-3PL-SG
‘inoni ara se lae–gi–na ara toro–vahini–a vu mwetawa iola–da–i
person 3PL NEG go-PL-DEI 3PL push-TRS-3SG to ocean canoe-3PL-SG
“the people who are not going push their canoe out to sea”
iola
canoe
ngaia
3SG
Teddy
NAME
iola ngaia Teddy
canoe 3SG NAME
“Teddy’s canoe”
m-e
CONJ-3SG
lahou
then
ade-a
take-3SG
na
PERF
ivi-na
clothes-3SG
si-na-i
younger sibling-3SG-SG
m-e lahou ade-a na ivi-na si-na-i
CONJ-3SG then take-3SG PERF clothes-3SG {younger sibling}-3SG-SG
“and then she took her younger sibling’s (sister’s) clothes”
ivi
clothes
ngaia
3SG
Ara
NAME
ivi ngaia Ara
clothes 3SG NAME
“Ara’s clothes”

### Associative ni Construction

Not strictly a possessive construction, the associative ni construction is formed whereby the morpheme –ni is used to join two nouns into a possessive noun phrase. (N1 + ni + N2).
In Proto-Oceanic there were four distinct constructions for representing nouns possessed by a possessor noun phrase: inalienable/specific possessor; inalienable/non-specific possessor; alienable/specific possessor; alienable/non-specific possessor. Longgu, however, maintains only a three-way distinction, with the differentiation between the two non-specific possessor constructions being lost and ni now used for both.
| | Specific possessor | Non-specific possessor |
| Inalienable | tatala-nafootprint-P:3SGmwela-nechild-thistatala-na mwela-nefootprint-P:3SG child-this“this child’s footprint” | tatalafootprintniniʔinonipersontatala ni ʔinonifootprint ni person"human footprints" |
| Alienable | komuvillageŋaiaD:3SGtiamotherŋaiaD:3SGkomu ŋaia tia ŋaiavillage D:3SG mother D:3SG"his mother's house" | raboʔobowlninikomuvillageraboʔo ni komubowl ni village"wooden bowl (lit. 'bowl of village')" |

## Negation
### Negative particle

A negative verb phrase is formed by the negative particle se and a predicate head.
e
3SG
se
NEG
lae
go
‘ua
CONT
e se lae ‘ua
3SG NEG go CONT
he hasn't gone yet
amurua
2DU
se
NEG
su’e-talivana-a
ask-properly-3SG
amurua se su’e-talivana-a
2DU NEG ask-properly-3SG
you two didn't ask her properly
amerua
1DU.EX
ho
IRR
se
NEG
lae
go
nina
DEI
kote
in
amerua
1DU.EX
violo
hungry
amerua ho se lae nina kote amerua violo
1DU.EX IRR NEG go DEI in 1DU.EX hungry
we (two) won't go now in case we (get) hungry
The negative particle, se, is a pre-head particle which negates verbal and semi-verbal clauses. The negative particle occurs after the subject pronoun in a verb phrase expressing realis mood, and after the irrealis particle ho (5) in a verb phrase (negative predicate) which expresses irrealis mood.
o
2SG
se
NEG
salu-u,
lie-1SG,
udu,
friend,
e
3SG
una,
say,
ho
IRR
se
NEG
po-rarua
hide-3DU
o se salu-u, udu, e una, ho se po-rarua
2SG NEG lie-1SG, friend, 3SG say, IRR NEG hide-3DU
don't lie to me, friend, he said, you won't hide them
amerua
1DU.EX
ho
IRR
se
NEG
lae
go
nina
DEI
amerua ho se lae nina
1DU.EX IRR NEG go DEI
we won't go now

### Negative Quantifiers

Quantifiers function like numerals. Negative quantifiers include:
| bwala | “none, no, not” |
| bwalasaliu | “none at all, never” |
The quantifiers bwala “none” may be predicate heads as well as adnominal modifiers.
e
3SG
bwala
none
mola
only
e bwala mola
3SG none only
it's none
bwala
none
u’unu
story
tewa-tewa
long-REDUP
bwala u’unu tewa-tewa
none story long-REDUP
not a very long story
All quantifiers modify a head noun. The quantifier bwala “none” quantifies nouns which are not marked by noun phrase clitics.
bwala
none
‘inoni
person
ge
OBL
bweu
doubt
‘ani -o
INSTR-2SG
bwala ‘inoni ge bweu {‘ani -o}
none person OBL doubt INSTR-2SG
nobody should doubt you (lit. doubt about you)
Note: bwala is also a conjunction “or”, which is used to express the disjunctive meaning.

### Existential clauses

Existential clauses in Longgu are formed by verbal, semi-verbal and nominal clauses.
Negative existential clauses are formed by either semi-verbal or nominal clauses. A semi-verbal negative existential clause consists of the quantifier bwala “none, not, no” and a noun as predicate head. It is recognizable as a semi-verbal clause because of the presence of a subject pronoun (9) and aspect particle (10).
nau-i
1SG-SG
na
PERF
bwala
no
tia
mother
nau
1SG
m-e
CONJ-3SG
bwala
no
mama
father
nau
1SG
nau-i na bwala tia nau m-e bwala mama nau
1SG-SG PERF no mother 1SG CONJ-3SG no father 1SG
me, I have no mother and no father (my mother does not exist and my father does not exist)
bwala
no
vonu
turtle
na
PERF
ubu-na
inside-3SG
pilu-i
fence-SG
bwala vonu na ubu-na pilu-i
no turtle PERF inside-3SG fence-SG
there was no turtle inside the fence
A nominal negative existential clause consists of one noun phrase – the predicate. The quantifier bwala “none, no, not” precedes the noun phrase head. Note that (11) is an inalienable possessive construction. The possessum is gale “child” and the dependent possessor is an associative noun phrase. The plural clitic refers to the head of the possessive construction.
bwala
no
gale-darua
child-3DU
geni
woman
ni
LIG
Bwabwasu-gi
PLACE-PL
bwala gale-darua geni ni Bwabwasu-gi
no child-3DU woman LIG PLACE-PL
the two women of Bwabwasu had no children (the children of the Bwabwasu women did not exist)

### General modifiers

There is also a small closed-class of general modifiers (i.e. those which function as both verbal modifiers (12) and nominal modifiers (13)). The negative general modifier include sodo “nothing”.
Sodo “nothing” is a post-head modifier.
to’i
work
sodo
nothing
to’i sodo
work nothing
work for nothing
‘inoni
person
sodo
nothing
‘inoni sodo
person nothing
good-for-nothing person

### Intensifiers

The intensifier tahou modifies only verbs. It can be used in comparisons, but it expresses the notion “at all” in negative sentences.
i
LOC
weita
before
m-i
CONJ-LOC
weita
before
golu
1PAU.IN
se
NEG
bere-ngi-a
see-TRS-3SG
tahou
INTENS
i weita m-i weita golu se bere-ngi-a tahou
LOC before CONJ-LOC before 1PAU.IN NEG see-TRS-3SG INTENS
a long time ago we couldn’t see it at all

### Yes/no questions

Yes/no questions are structurally similar to declarative sentences. They differ from declarative sentences only by the intonation contour. In declarative sentences there is falling intonation across the sentence. In interrogative sentences the intonation rises and then falls on the last word.
Yes/no questions may include the directional particle hou “thither”. This particle functions to form a more clearly interrogative sentence than an interrogative sentence formed by intonation only.
oe
2SG
ho
IRR
lae
go
lou
too
hou
thither
oe ho lae lou hou
2SG IRR go too thither
are you going too?
Yes/no responses (with falling intonation) are:
| ee | “yes” |
| bwala | “no” |
To covey doubt about the answer, a speaker uses ii (with rising intonation).
To respond negatively to an identifying question the quantifier bwala “no” is used.
i
ART
ngaia
3SG
gale-mu?
child-2SG
bwala
no
i ngaia gale-mu? bwala
ART 3SG child-2SG no
is he your child? no
To respond negatively to a response to a question about a state, a verb phrase consisting of the quantifier bwala “no, none” and an aspect particle (either the continuative particle ‘ua or the perfect aspect particle na/na’a) is used (i.e. bwala ’ua “not yet”; bwala na “not now”).
o
2SG
taula’i
marry
oe?
2SG
bwala
no
‘ua
CONT
o taula’i oe? bwala ‘ua
2SG marry 2SG no CONT
are you married? not yet/ still not
A positive response to yes/no question asking about the identity of something is ee “yes”. A positive response to a yes/no question about the state of something will often repeat the question.
meta
good
na?
PERF
ee,
yes,
nu
1SG
meta
good
na
PERF
meta na? ee, nu meta na
good PERF yes, 1SG good PERF
are you well now? yes, I am well now

## Footnotes

* ↑ Longgu at Ethnologue (22nd ed., 2019)
* ↑ Delahunty & Garvey 1994, p. 89.
* 1 2 Hill 2011, p. 4.
* ↑ Ivens 1934, p. 604.
* 1 2 Hill 2011, p. 5.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 12.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 10.
* 1 2 Hill 2011, p. 7.
* 1 2 3 Hill 2011, p. 11.
* 1 2 3 Lynch, Ross & Crowley 2002, p. 539.
* 1 2 Hill 2011, p. 15.
* 1 2 3 4 Hill 2011, p. 90.
* 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hill 2011, p. 91.
* 1 2 3 Hill 2011, p. 92.
* 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hill 2011, p. 94.
* ↑ Hill 2011, pp. 201–202.
* ↑ Hill 2011, pp. 205–206.
* 1 2 Hill 2011, p. 202.
* ↑ Hill 2011, pp. 91–92.
* 1 2 3 4 Hill 2011, p. 130.
* 1 2 3 Hill 2011, p. 131.
* ↑ Hill 2011, pp. 92–93.
* 1 2 3 4 Hill 2011, p. 93.
* 1 2 3 Hill 2011, p. 136.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 95.
* 1 2 3 4 5 Hill 2011, p. 137.
* 1 2 Hill 2011, p. 138.
* 1 2 Hill 2011, p. 175.
* ↑ Ross 2004, p. 511.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 178.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 177.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 179.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 180.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 186.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 187.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 188.
* ↑ Ross 2004, p. 512.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 190.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 191.
* ↑ Hill 2011, pp. 192–194.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 194.
* 1 2 Ross 2004, p. 514.
* 1 2 3 4 Hill 2011, p. 156.
* 1 2 Hill 2011, p. 100.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 140.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 88.
* 1 2 Hill 2011, p. 217.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 288.
* 1 2 Hill 2011, p. 27.
* 1 2 3 4 Hill 2011, p. 28.
* 1 2 Hill 2011, p. 81.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 82.
* ↑ Hill 2011, p. 163.
* 1 2 Hill 2011, p. 164.
* 1 2 Hill 2011, p. 306.
* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Hill 2011, p. 307.