# Espiritu Santo languages

The Espiritu Santo languages (alternatively Santo languages) are a group of North Vanuatu languages spoken on Espiritu Santo Island in northern Vanuatu. Tryon (2010) considers the Espiritu Santo languages to be a coherent group.

## Languages

Two lists of Espiritu Santo languages from Tryon (2010) and François (2015) are provided below.

### Tryon (2010)

Tryon (2010) recognizes 33 living languages and 2 extinct languages. They are:
| Language | Speakers | Area | Villages |
| Valpei (Tavanlav) | 300 | North-West Santo | Wunpuko, Valpei, Petani, Matalip, Pwar, Molpoe, Hakua, Maroa, Pwat, Pwatmwel (Onmwertev), Mwalovuko, Wunapak |
| Nokuku (Vevatot) | 250 | North-West Santo | Olpoe, Nokuku, Lajmoli, Vunon, Penaoru, Petawota |
| 'Oa | 300 | North-West Santo | Tasmate, Sulesal, Vasalea |
| Vunapu | 250? | North-West Santo | Vunapu, Pesena |
| Piamatsina | 250? | North-West Santo | Piamatsina, Piamaeto, Peavot |
| Tolomako (Big Bay) | 900 | North-West Santo | Jureviu, Tuturu, Tavunamalo, Peavot, Vasi, Pialulup, Matantas |
| Kula | 350 | West Santo | Wusi, Kerepua, Elia 1 |
| Bura | 300 | West Santo | Linduri, Putonro, Saktui, Maram, Patiare, Mapten, Nukupospos |
| Kene | 300 | West Santo | Vuimele, Navura, Papaisale, Arumalate, Latavoa, Pilipili, Lepurpuri, Potlavaisevu |
| Akei | 4000 | West Santo | Toramaori, Lalaolo, Tovotovo, Kerevinumbu, Tasiriki, Ukoro, Malovira, Tasmalum |
| Daruru | 100? | West Santo | Pelmol |
| Retlatur | 100 | South Santo | Tanovusivusi |
| Ale | 500 | South Santo | Fimele, Wailapa |
| Aje | 10 | South Santo | Patunmevu, Nambaka, Wunamoli |
| Ande | 500 | South Santo | Tanmet, Lotunai, Ipayato, Tasmalum, Morouas |
| Araki | 10 | South Santo | Araki Island |
| Movono | 370 | South Santo | Tangoa Island |
| Farsav | 400 | South Santo | Nambel, Tanovoli, Narango, Funafosi, Nambauk |
| Tiale / Merei | 400 | Central Santo | Tavuimoli, Nazaraka, Mataipevu, Patuitano, Morokari, Angoru, Tombet, Navele, Vusvogo |
| Kiai | 450 | Central Santo | Wailapa, Fortsenale, Namoru |
| Ko / Mores (Farmores) | 200? | Central Santo | Tanmet, Lemben, Tsarailan, Namafun, Patmarifu, Sarete, Mavunlif |
| Moiso | 100 | Central Santo | Moriuli |
| Toksiki / Soisoru | 200 | Central Santo | Morkriv, Pilnuri, Bengie |
| Tamambo | 4000 | East Santo | Malo |
| Aore | extinct | East Santo | Aore |
| Biliru | 3 | East Santo | Tambotalo, Belnatsa, Beleru, Belembut, Lambue |
| Farafi | 300? | East Santo | Butmas, Tur, Maniok, Shark Bay, Naturuk |
| Ngen | 250 | East Santo | Vanafo (Tanafo), Mon Exil, Palon, Shark Bay |
| Ati (Meris / Miris) | 85 | East Santo | Fumbak, Naturuk, Nambauk |
| Se | 20 | East Santo | Vanafo, Butmas |
| Atin (Farnanatin) | 120 | East Santo | Nambauk (Patunfarambu), Fumatal |
| Farnanto | 100 | East Santo | Nambauk, Tanmet, Tafua |
| Mavea (Lonavu) | 500 | East Santo | Mavea, Aissi, Tutuba |
| Nethalp | extinct | East Santo | Lorediakarkar |
| Nekep | 4000 | East Santo | Hog Harbour, Port Olry, Kole 1 |

### François (2015)

The following list of 38 Espiritu Santo languages is from Alexandre François (2015:18-21).
| No. | Language | Other names | Speakers | ISO 639-3 | Region |
| 27 | Tolomako | Bigbay | 900 | tlm | Espiritu Santo |
| 28 | Piamatsina | | 250 | ptr | Espiritu Santo |
| 29 | Vunapu | | 380 | vnp | Espiritu Santo |
| 30 | Valpei | | 300 | vlp | Espiritu Santo |
| 31 | Nokuku | | 250 | nkk | Espiritu Santo |
| 32 | Meri | Tasmate, Oa | 300 | tmt | Espiritu Santo |
| 33 | Wusi | Kula | 350 | wsi | Espiritu Santo |
| 34 | Bura | | 300 | | Espiritu Santo |
| 35 | Merei | Tiale, Lametin | 400 | lmb, mnl | Espiritu Santo |
| 36 | Mores | Ko | 200 | mrp | Espiritu Santo |
| 37 | Ande | Morouas | 500 | | Espiritu Santo |
| 38 | Toksiki | Soisoru, Roria | 200 | rga | Espiritu Santo |
| 39 | Kiai | Fortsenal | 450 | frt | Espiritu Santo |
| 40 | Moiso | | 100 | | Espiritu Santo |
| 41 | Kene | | 300 | | Espiritu Santo |
| 42 | Daruru | | 100 | | Espiritu Santo |
| 43 | Akei | Tasiriki | 4000 | tsr | Espiritu Santo |
| 44 | Retlatur | | 100 | | Espiritu Santo |
| 45 | Wailapa | Ale | 500 | wlr | Espiritu Santo |
| 46 | Farsaf | Narango, Nambel | 400 | nrg | Espiritu Santo |
| 47 | Varavara | Amblong, Aje | 300 | alm | Espiritu Santo |
| 48 | Narmoris | | 220 | plb | Espiritu Santo |
| 49 | Biliru | Tambotalo | 3 | tls | Espiritu Santo |
| 50 | Atin | | 120 | | Espiritu Santo |
| 51 | Ati | Polonombauk, Meris | 85 | | Espiritu Santo |
| 52 | Farnanto | | 100 | | Espiritu Santo |
| 53 | Se | Fanafo | 20 | | Espiritu Santo |
| 54 | Sinia | Navut | 520 | nsw | Espiritu Santo |
| 55 | Butmas-Tur | Ati, Farafi | 520 | bnr | Espiritu Santo |
| 56 | Ngen | Shark Bay | 450 | ssv | Espiritu Santo, Litaro |
| 57 | Tholp | Nethalp | 0 | lnn | Espiritu Santo |
| 58 | Sakao | Hog Harbour, Nkep | 4000 | sku | Espiritu Santo |
| 59 | Mavea | Mav̋ea, Mafea | 34 | mkv | Espiritu Santo, Mavea |
| 60 | Tutuba | | 500 | tmi | Espiritu Santo, Tutuba |
| 61 | Aore | | 0 | aor | Espiritu Santo, Aore |
| 62 | Tamambo | Malo, Tamabo | 4000 | mla | Espiritu Santo, Malo |
| 63 | Tangoa | Movono | 370 | tgp | Espiritu Santo, Tangoa |
| 64 | Araki | | 8 | akr | Espiritu Santo, Araki |

### Lynch (2019)

John Lynch (2019) proposes the following classification scheme for the Espiritu Santo languages, with the development of bilabial consonants to linguolabials as the primary marker of the "Nuclear Santo" group:
* Espiritu Santo
** West Santo Group
*** Cape Cumberland: Hukua, Vunapu, Piamatsina (uncertain), Valpei, Nokuku, Tasmate
*** Wusi
*** Central Santo: Merei-Tiale, Okula
*** Kiai
*** Southwest Santo: Akei, Wailapa
*** South-Central Santo (Lynch: "possibly three dialects")
*** Outlier: Tolomako
** Nuclear Santo Group
*** South Santo Group
**** Tangoa
**** Araki
**** Mav'ea
**** Tutuba
**** Aore
**** Tamambo
**** Outlier: Mores
*** East Santo Group
**** Shark Bay: Shark Bay I, Shark Bay II, Lorediakarkar
**** Southeast Santo: Butmas-Tur, Polonombauk, Tambotalo
**** Outlier: Sakao