# Plateau languages

The forty or so Plateau languages are a tentative group of Benue–Congo languages spoken by 15 million people on the Jos Plateau, Southern Kaduna, Nasarawa State and in adjacent areas in central Nigeria.
Berom and Eggon have the most speakers. Most Plateau languages are threatened and have around 2,000-10,000 speakers.
Defining features of the Plateau family have only been published in manuscript form (Blench 2008). Many of the languages have highly elaborate phonology systems that make comparison with poor data difficult.

## Branches and locations

Below is a list of major Plateau branches and their primary locations (centres of diversity) based on Blench (2019).
Distributions of Plateau branches :
| Branch | Primary locations |
| Alumic | Akwanga LGA, Nasarawa State |
| Beromic | Barkin Ladi, Jos North, Jos South and Riyom LGAs, Plateau State; and Jema'a LGAs, Kaduna State |
| Central | Jaba, Jema'a, Kachia, Kagarko, Kajuru, Kaura, Kauru and Zangon Kataf LGAs, Kaduna State; and Bassa, Jos East and Jos North LGAs, Plateau State; Toro and Tafawa Balewa LGAs, Bauchi State |
| East | Mangu LGA, Plateau State |
| Ndunic | Sanga LGA, Kaduna State |
| Ninzic | Jema'a and Sanga LGAs, Kaduna State; and Akwanga LGA, Nasarawa State |
| South | Akwanga, Nasarawa Eggon, Lafia LGAs, Nasarawa State; Bwari LGA, Federal Capital Territory |
| Tarokoid | Langtang North, Langtang South, Wase LGAs, Plateau State |
The Plateau languages are highly typologically and lexically diverse. For instance, Roger Blench (2022) notes that Beromic is more internally diverse than all of West Chadic A3.

## Classification

Little work has been done on the Plateau languages, and the results to date are tentative.

### Blench (2018)

Blench (2018:112) gives the following classification of the Plateau languages.
* Plateau
** Tarokoid (5)
** South
*** Eggonic (2)
*** Jilic (2–4)
** ? East (2–3)
*** Bo-Rukul
*** Horom-Fyem
** Ndunic (Ahwai) (1–3)
** Alumic (4)
** Ninzic (13–14)
** ? West-Central area (~20)
*** Rigwe
*** Tyapic
*** Izeric
*** Hyamic
*** Koro
*** Gyongic
** North-West
** Beromic (4)
** ? Eloyi

### Blench (2008)

The following classification is taken from Blench (2008). Most of the branches are discrete constituents, though Central is a residual grouping and there are doubts about some of the purported Ninzic languages. Plateau languages as a whole share a number of isoglosses, as do all branches apart from Tarokoid.
* Plateau
** Tarokoid (5)
*** Eloyi
*** South
**** Eggonic (2)
**** Jilic (2–4)
*** Ndunic (Ahwai) (1–3)
*** Alumic (4)
*** Ninzic (13–14)
*** ? East (2–3)
*** ? Central (20)
*** Beromic (4)
Glottolog adds the Yukubenic languages. Blench, however, places Yukubenic in the Jukunoid family, following Shimizu (1980).

### Gerhardt (1983)

Classification of Plateau languages by Gerhardt (1983), based on Maddieson (1972):
* Plateau
** Plateau 1a, 1b (Kainji languages)
** Plateau 2
*** Yeskwa, Lungu, Koro
*** Kamanton, Kagoma, Jaba cluster, Nandu-Tari
*** Afuzare, Kaje, Iregwe
*** Kagoro, Ataka, Katab (including Kachicheri, Kafanchan), Marwa
*** Kadara, Kuturmi, Ikulu, Idong, Doka, Iku-Gora-Ankwa
** Plateau 3
*** Migili (?, L. G.)
*** Birom (including Aboro, Afango)
*** Aten
** Plateau 4
*** Ayu
*** Kwanka-Boi-Bijim-Shall-Zwall
*** Ninzam, Mada, Gwantu, Numana-Nunku, Nindem, Kaningkon, Kanufi
*** Rukuba
** Plateau 5
*** Yashi
*** Eggon, Nungu, Ake, Jidda-Abu
** Plateau 6
*** Pyam
*** Horom
** Plateau 7
*** Tarok (= Yergam)
*** Bashar
*** Pai
** Plateau 8
*** Mabo-Barkul
** Plateau 9
*** Eloyi
** Plateau 10
*** Turkwam, Arum-Chesu
Note: Plateau 1 languages, consisting of Plateau 1a and 1b, are now classified separately as Kainji languages.

## Language list

List of Plateau languages given by Blench (2018):
* Plateau
** Northwest
*** Eda
*** Edra
*** Acro
*** Obiro
*** Mwaghavul
*** Ẹjẹgha (Idon)
*** Doka
*** Ẹhwa (Iku-Gora-Ankwe)
** Beromic
*** Berom
*** Buji
*** Cara
*** Iten
*** Shall-Zwall
** West-Central (area)
*** Izeric
**** Izere of Fobur
**** Icèn, Ganàng, Fəràn
*** Rigwe
*** Southern Zaria (now Southern Kaduna)
*** Tyapic
**** Jju
**** Tyap
**** Gworok
**** Takad (Attakar)
**** Tyecarak (Kacicere)
**** Sholyio
**** Fantswam (Kafancan)
**** Tyuku
*** Koro
**** Ashe
**** Tinɔr (Waci-Myamya)
**** Idũ, Gwara
**** Nyankpa-Barde
*** Hyamic
**** Shamang
**** Cori
**** Hyam
**** Zhire
**** Shang
*** Gyongic
**** Gyong (Kagoma)
**** Nɡhan (Kamanton)
** Ninzic
*** Ninzo
*** Ce
*** Bu-Niŋkada
*** Mada
*** Numana-Nunku-Gwantu-Numbu
*** Ningye-Ninka
*** Anib
*** Ninkyob
*** Nindem
*** Nungu
*** Ayu
** Ndunic
*** Ndun (Tari)
** Alumic
*** Toro, Alumu-Təsu
*** Hasha
*** Sambe
** Southern
*** Eggonic
**** Eggon
**** Ake
*** Jilic
**** Jili
**** Jijili
** Southeastern (?)
*** Fyem
*** Horom
*** Bo-Rukul
** Tarokoid
*** Tarok
*** Pe (Pai)
*** Kwang-Ya-Bijim-Legeri
*** Yaŋkam (Bashar)
*** Sur (Tapshin)
** Eloyi
Nisam is a presumed Plateau language once spoken in Nince Village, Kaduna State, but its place within the Plateau branch cannot be ascertained due to the lack of linguistic data. In 2005, there was only one speaker of Nisam.

## Morphology

Proto-Plateau nominal prefixes:
* *ni- (corresponding to Bantu noun class 9 *n- for animals and inanimate objects)
* *V- for person, *bV- for people
* *N- prefixes, homorganic with the following consonant
* *nV- ~ *mV- (both singular and plural), which mark liquids, mass nouns, and abstract nouns
Only some of the languages have nominal classes, as the Bantu languages have, where in others these have eroded. In many Plateau languages, many CV- prefixes have become fossilised, replaced by V- prefixes, or disappeared altogether. The large numbers of consonants in many languages is due to the erosion of noun-class prefixes.
In Plateau languages, adjectives and possessive forms generally follow the noun.

## Reconstructions

Some Proto-Plateau quasi-reconstructions proposed by Roger Blench (2008) are:
| No. | Gloss | Proto-Plateau |
| 1. | tree | #ku-kon V-kon |
| 2. | leaf | #(g)yaNa |
| 4. | dew | #-myeŋe |
| 12. | wind | #-gbulu |
| 21. | hunger | #igbyoŋ |
| 25. | ear | #ku-toŋ(ɔ) |
| 26. | mouth | #ku-nyu |
| 30. | female breast | #ambɛŋ |
| 31. | navel | #i-kumbu |
| 32. | bone | #-kupu |
| 35. | blood | #-(n)ji |
| 64. | twelve/ten | #isok- |

## Numerals

Comparison of numerals in individual languages:
| Classification | Language | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| South | Lijili | lō̥ | àbē̥ | àtʃé̥ | ànàró̥ | àsó̥ | mìnzí | mútá | rúnó̥ | zàtʃé̥ | zàbè̥ |
| Beromic | Aten (Iten) | dáy | fà | tàt / tʃàt | nàːs | wí | tàːrà | nìtà | nàràs | dùːdʒàŋ | dùːbɔ̀ |
| Beromic | Berom (Birom) | ɡwīnìŋ / (d)īnìŋ (Roots) | -bā | -tāt | -nāːs | -tūŋūn | -tī̄ː mìn | -tāːmà (5+ 2) | -rwīːt (5+ 3) | syāː-tāt (12- 3) | syāː-tāt (12- 2) |
| Central, South-Central | Irigwe (Rigwe) | ˀzrú | ˀʍʲè | ˀt͡sʲɛ̀ | ˀni | ˀt͡ɕʷòô | rít͡sʲɛ́ | nat͡sʲɛ́ | klaǹvà | kruvájá | ʃʷá |
| Central, South-Central | Jju (Kaje) | əyriŋ | əhwa | ətat | ənaai | əpfwɔn | əkitat (2 x 3) | ətiyriŋ | ənaimbvwak | əkumbvuyriŋ | swak |
| Central, South-Central | Tyap (Kataf) | əɲiuŋ/ ʒyiuŋ | əfeaŋ/ sweaŋ | ətat/ t͡sat | ənaai/ ɲaai | əfwuon/ t͡swuon | ətaa | ənatat | əninai/ ərinai | əkubunyiuŋ | swak |
| Northern | Ikulu (Kulu) | íńjí | íńpààlá | íńtáá | íńnāā | íńcūū | íńcúnú | tɔ́ɔ̀pāā | níǹnāā (2 x 4) ? | tɔ́ɔ̀llāā | nùkɔ̄p |
| Southeastern | Fyam (Pyem) | kʲéŋ | por | táár | naas | tóón | táárin | támor | tʃínít | téres | dukút |
| Tarokoid | Tarok (Yergam) | ùzɨ̀ŋ | ùpàrɨ́m | ùʃáɗɨ́ŋ | ùnèɗɨ́ŋ | ùtúkún | ùk͡pə́ɗɨ́ŋ | ùfàŋʃát | ùnə̀nnè | ùfàŋzɨ́ŋtɨ́ŋ | ùɡ͡bə́pei |
| Western, Northwestern, Hyamic | Hyam (Jabba) | ʒìnì | fe̠ri | taat | naaŋ | twoo | twaani (5+ 1) ? | twarfo (5+ 2) ? | naaraŋ (2 x 4) ? | mbwan kɔb (10 - 1) | kɔ́b |
| Western, Northwestern, Koro | Yeskwa (Nyenkpa) | ènyí | ènvà | èntât | ènnà | èntyúò | èncí | tònvà | tóndát | tyúôrá | ókóp |
| Western, Southwestern, A | Mada (Madda) | ɡyə̄r | ywā | tar | nlyɛ̄ | tun | tānnɛ̀n | tāmɡ͡bā | tāndà | tīyār | ɡùr |
| Western, Southwestern, A | Ninzo | jír | há | tár | nə̄(s) | ʈʷí | tānì | tāŋɡ͡bā | tāndàr | tīr(s) | wūr |
| Western, Southwestern, A | Rukuba (Che) | ɡyín | -hàk | -tát | -nàs | -túŋ | tàiŋ | taŋbák | taːrat | taːras | uwùruk |
| Western, Southwestern, B | Eggon (1) | ákiə́n | àhàà | àtráá | ùɲí | òtnó | ùfín (5+ 1) | àfóhà (5+ 2) | àfóté (5+ 3) | àfúúɲí (5+ 4) | ókpo |
| Western, Southwestern, B | Eggon (2) | òrí | ɔ̀hà | ɔ̀cá | òɲì | ɔ̀tnɔ̂ | ə̀fĩ́ (5+ 1) | ɔ̀fɔ́hà (5+ 2) | ɔ̀fɔ́tɛ́ (5+ 3) | ɔ̀fɔ̂ɲí (5+ 4) | ɔ̀kbɔ́ |