# Proto-Oceanic language

Proto-Oceanic (abbreviated as POc) is a proto-language that historical linguists since Otto Dempwolff have reconstructed as the hypothetical common ancestor of the Oceanic subgroup of the Austronesian language family. Proto-Oceanic is a descendant of the Proto-Austronesian language (PAN), the common ancestor of the Austronesian languages.
Proto-Oceanic was probably spoken around the late 3rd millennium BCE in the Bismarck Archipelago, east of Papua New Guinea. Archaeologists and linguists currently agree that its community more or less coincides with the Lapita culture.

## Linguistic characteristics

The methodology of comparative linguistics, together with the relative homogeneity of Oceanic languages, make it possible to reconstruct with reasonable certainty the principal linguistic properties of their common ancestor, Proto-Oceanic. Like all scientific hypotheses, these reconstructions must be understood as obviously reflecting the state of science at a particular moment in time; the detail of these reconstructions is still the object of much discussion among Oceanicist scholars.

### Phonology

The phonology of POc can be reconstructed with reasonable certainty. Proto-Oceanic had five vowels: *i, *e, *a, *o, *u, with no length contrast.
Twenty-three consonants are reconstructed. When the conventional transcription of a protophoneme differs from its value in the IPA, the latter is indicated:
| | | Labiovelar | Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular |
| Stop | Voiceless | *pw /pʷ/ | *p | *t | *c | *k | *q |
| Stop | Prenasalized | *bw /ᵐbʷ/ | *b /ᵐb/ | *d /ⁿd/ | *j /ᶮɟ/ | *g /ᵑɡ/ | |
| Nasal | Nasal | *mw /mʷ/ | *m | *n | *ñ /ɲ/ | *ŋ | |
| Fricative | Fricative | | | *s | | | |
| Rhotic | Flap | | | *R /ɾ/ | | | |
| Rhotic | Trill | | | *r | | | |
| Rhotic | Prenasalized | | | *dr /ⁿr/ | | | |
| Lateral | Lateral | | | *l | | | |
| Glide | Glide | *w | | | *y /j/ | | |
Based on evidence from the Southern Oceanic and Micronesian languages, Lynch (2003) proposes that the bilabial series may have been phonetically realized as palatalized: /pʲ/ /ᵐbʲ/ /mʲ/.

### Basic word order

Many Oceanic languages of New Guinea, Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, and Micronesia are SVO, or verb-medial, languages. SOV, or verb-final, word order is considered to be typologically unusual for Austronesian languages, and is only found in some Oceanic languages of New Guinea and to a more limited extent, the Solomon Islands. This is because SOV word order is very common in some non-Austronesian Papuan languages in contact with Oceanic languages. In turn, most Polynesian languages, and several languages of New Caledonia, have the VSO word order. Whether Proto-Oceanic had SVO or VSO is still debatable.

## Lexicon

From the mid-1990s to 2023, reconstructing the lexicon of Proto-Oceanic was the object of the Oceanic Lexicon Project, run by scholars Andrew Pawley, Malcolm Ross and Meredith Osmond. This encyclopedic project produced 6 volumes altogether, all available in open access.
In addition, Robert Blust also includes Proto-Oceanic in his Austronesian Comparative Dictionary (abbr. ACD).

### Animal names

Selected reconstructed Proto-Oceanic terms of various animals from Blust's ACD:

#### Fishes

    Proto-OceanicCommon nameScientific name *bubu₇triggerfishBalistes sp. *sumutriggerfishBalistidae *sulika fish, the fusilierCaesionidae sp. *tipi-tipibutterflyfishChaetodon spp. *taŋapawrasseCheilinus spp. *bolo bolosmall dark surgeonfishpossibly Ctenochaetus *komisuckerfish / remoraEcheneis naucrates; hold on by biting *kamaRia fish, the rainbow runnerElagatis bipinnulata *piRu-piRusailfishIstiophoridae *kulaboa fishLethrinidae spp. *sabutu; *surup₂; *susul₁; *kasikaa fish, the emperorLethrinus spp. *tasiwasea perchLutjanus sp. *pu-pulana white fish, the tarpon; herringMegalops cyprinoides *tiqogoatfishfamily Mullidae *mwanoReunicornfishNaso unicornis *taRashort snouted unicornfishNaso spp. *laua fish, the banded sweetlipsPlectorhinchus spp. *lio-liobrown triggerfishPseudobalistes fuscus *kitoŋrabbitfishSiganus punctatus (family Siganidae) *palajarabbitfishSiganus sp. *takuayellowfin tunaThunnus albacares *piRa₂sailfin tangZebrasoma veliferum

#### Birds

    Proto-OceanicCommon nameScientific name *pusiRastarlingAplonis spp. *kaRamale eclectus parrotEclectus roratus *kaoheronprobably Egretta sp. *kiki₁kingfisherHalcyon spp. *kikau, *kipauBismarck scrub fowlMegapodius eremita *saua bird, the Golden WhistlerPachycephala spp. *takerea bird, the fantailRhipidura sp. *bunefruit doveprobably Treron spp. *pwiripparrotprobably Trichoglossus sp.

#### Other animals

    Proto-OceanicCommon nameScientific name *poñuthe green turtleChelonia mydas *kasito scrape; scraper or grater made from circular bivalve shellAsaphis spp. *buliq₁cowrie shellCypraea mauritiana *sapulubivalve molluscpossibly Pinna sp.

### Plant names
#### Pawley and Ross (2006)

Reconstructed Proto-Oceanic terms for horticulture and food plants (other than coconuts):

##### Tubers and their culture

    Proto-OceanicMeaning *mwapo(q)taro (possibly all Araceae) *talo(s)taro, Colocasia esculenta *piRaqgiant taro, elephant ear taro, Alocasia macrorrhiza *bulakaswamp taro, Cyrtosperma merkusii *kamwakind of wild taro (?) *qupigreater yam, Dioscorea alata; yam (generic) *pwatikpotato yam, aerial yam, Dioscorea bulbifera *(s,j)uli(q)banana or taro sucker, slip, cutting, shoot (i.e. propagation material) *wasi(n)taro stem (used for planting) *bwaŋonew leaves or shoots, or taro tops for planting *up(e,a)taro seedling *pasoq[-i]to plant (tubers) *kotiŋto cut off taro tops

##### Bananas

    Proto-OceanicMeaning *pudibanana, Musa cultivars *joRagabanana, Australimusa group *sakupkind of cooking banana: long with white flesh (presumably Eumusa group)

##### Other food plants

    Proto-OceanicMeaning *topusugar cane, Saccharum officinarum *pijoa kind of edible wild cane or a reed, Saccharum spontaneum *[ka]timuncucurbit (generic); cucumber, Cucumis sativus *laqiaginger, Zingiber officinale *yaŋoturmeric, Curcuma longa *kuluRbreadfruit, Artocarpus altilis *baReqobreadfruit fruit (?) *padranpandanus (generic); coastal pandanus, Pandanus tectorius *kiRecoastal pandanus, Pandanus tectorius *pakumPandanus dubius *imakind of pandanus with useful leaves *Rabiasago, Metroxylon spp., mainly Metroxylon sagu *sag(u)sago starch *qatopsago fronds, thatch *taliseJava almond, Indian almond, Terminalia catappa *qipiTahitian chestnut, Pacific chestnut, Inocarpus fagifer *[ka]ŋaRicanarium almond, Canarium spp. *moliscitrus fruit or citrus-like fruit *pau(q)mango, probably Mangifera indica *wai, *waiwaimango (generic) *kapikaMalay apple and rose apple, Eugenia spp. *ñonumMorinda citrifolia *tawanPometia pinnata *wasaedible greens, Abelmoschus manihot *m(w)asokuwild cinnamon, Cinnamomum spp. *quRisPolynesian plum, hog plum, Tahitian apple, Spondias cytherea *ñatu(q)kind of tree with avocado-like fruit and hard wood, Burckella obovata *raqu(p)New Guinea walnut, Dracontomelon dao *buaqareca palm, Areca catechu

##### Gardening practices

    Proto-OceanicMeaning *qumagarden *tanoqsoil, earth *pokito clear ground for planting *sarato dig a hole *tanum[-i]to plant

#### Ross (2008)

Reconstructed plant terms from Malcolm Ross (2008):

##### Proto-Oceanic plant terms inherited from Proto-Austronesian or Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (65 reconstructions)

    Proto-OceanicMeaning *[a]ñuliŋPisonia sp. *aRua shore tree, Casuarina equisetifolia *bai-bai(t)a cycad, Cycas rumphii *[baR]baRcoral tree, Erythrina variegata *bitu(ŋ)bamboo sp. *botu(ŋ)large bamboo, presumably Bambusa sp. *buaqbetelnut, areca nut, palm, Areca catechu *drokolsmall Dillenia sp. *droRu(ŋ)Trema orientalis *guRu(n)sword grass, Imperata cylindrica *[ja]latoŋLaportea and Dendrocnide spp. *kanawa(n)Cordia subcordata *[ka]tim(o,u)nCucumis spp. (generic?); cucumber, Cucumis sativus *kati(p)ala palm with black wood, Caryota sp. *kayutree or shrub: generic name for plants with woody stems and branches, probably not including palms or tree-ferns; wood, stick *kiRecoastal Pandanus sp., probably Pandanus tectorius *kulapu(R)Dillenia schlechteri *kuluRbreadfruit, Artocarpus altilis *laqiaginger, Zingiber officinale (?) *m(ʷ)aso(q)uwild cinnamon, Cinnamomum sp., probably Cinnamomum xanthoneuron; possibly also Cananga odorata *malopaper mulberry, Broussonetia papyrifera; barkcloth, loincloth *naRaPterocarpus indicus *ñatuqBurckella obovata *nini(q)shrub, Donax cannaeformis *nipaqNypa fruticans *niuRcoconut palm and/or fruit, Cocos nucifera *nunukfig trees, Ficus taxon *ŋiRacPemphis acidula *p(ʷ)atoRua cycad, Cycas rumphii *padrancoastal pandanus, Pandanus tectorius; pandanus (generic) *pali[s,j]igeneric term for grasses and other grass-like plants *(p,b)anaRoThespesia populnea *para(k)Zingiberaceae spp. with edible rhizomes *paRuHibiscus tiliaceus *pila(q)uCasuarina equisetifolia *pinu(q)anMacaranga spp., perhaps Macaranga involucrata *piRaqgiant taro, elephant ear taro, Alocasia macrorrhizos *piRu(q)fan palm, Licuala sp. *pitaquRCalophyllum inophyllum *pudibanana, Musa cultivars *[pu-]pulubetel pepper, Piper betle *punavine used for fish poison, probably Derris elliptica *putunBarringtonia asiatica *qa(l,R)aFicus sp. *qaramʷaqiPipturus argenteus *qasamfern used for tying and binding, Lygodium circinnatum *(qate-)qateWedelia biflora *qauRbamboo spp. *qipila taxon of hardwood trees including Intsia bijuga and Casuarina equisetifolia *qu(w)erattan, Calamus spp. *qupigreater yam, Dioscorea alata: yam (generic) *Rabiasago, Metroxylon spp., mainly Metroxylon sagu (syn. Metroxylon rumphii) *raqu(p)New Guinea walnut, Dracontomelon dao *rarapcoral tree, Erythrina spp. *taliseTerminalia catappa *talo(s)taro, Colocasia esculenta *toŋoRmangrove, Bruguiera spp.; mangroves (generic) *topusugarcane, Saccharum officinarum *toRasa taxon of hardwood trees including Intsia bijuga (?) *tuiDolichandrone spathacea *tupaclimbing shrubs, Derris spp. *wai, *waiwaimango (generic) *walasitree sp. with poisonous sap, Semecarpus forstenii *waR[e]Flagellaria indica *waRocgeneric term for vines and creepers, plants with creeping or climbing growth structure; string, rope

##### Proto-Oceanic plant terms inherited from Proto-Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian (11 reconstructions)

    Proto-OceanicMeaning *[bual]bualspecies of palm used for making spears and bows; palm-wood spear or bow, probably Caryota sp. *daloCalophyllum inophyllum *dradrapHoya sp. *imaPandanus sp. with useful leaves *jasiCordia subcordata *kai(k)Albizia sp. *[ka]ŋaRicanarium almond, Canarium indicum *lowaŋaLitsea sp. *pailFalcataria moluccana *pau(q)mango, Mangifera sp. (not Mangifera indica) *Reqisword grass, Imperata cylindrica

##### Proto-Oceanic plant terms inherited from Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian (4 reconstructions)

    Proto-OceanicMeaning *na[su]-nasuScaevola taccada *qayawanFicus, strangler fig taxon *tawanPometia pinnata *tuRi-tuRicandlenut tree, Aleurites moluccanus (?)

##### Proto-Oceanic plant terms with no known non-Oceanic cognates (97 reconstructions)

    Proto-OceanicMeaning *ba(k,g)abanyan tree, medium-sized Ficus spp., not stranglers *babakFalcataria moluccana *balataxon including various Euodia spp. (?) *baqunbanana cultivar *baRekobreadfruit *bauhardwood taxon *beleAbelmoschus manihot *betabreadfruit *biRi-biRiHernandia nymphaefolia *bosia forest tree with white wood, probably Euodia elleryana *bouFagraea spp. *buluGarcinia sp., perhaps Garcinia novo-guineensis *b(ʷ)alatree fern, Cycas or Cyathea sp. *bʷaubamboo *bʷelebamboo sp. *bʷeraMusa cultivar *dralashrub sp., Vitex trifolia *(dr,d)aRa(q,k)awild nutmeg, Myristica sp. *i(u)buCorynocarpus cribbianus *iguRaFicus sp. with sandpapery leaves, either Ficus copiosa or Ficus wassa or both *ipiTahitian chestnut, Inocarpus fagifer *jajalcroton, Codiaeum variegatum *jamaRCommersonia bartramia *jiRitaxon consisting of Cordyline fruticosa and Dracaena angustifolia *joRagabanana, Fei (?) cultivars *ka(mʷa)-kamʷaFicus sp., perhaps Ficus nodosa *ka[(r,l)a]qabusiAcalypha spp. *kalakaPlanchonella sp. *kapikaMalay apple, rose apple, Syzygium malaccense *karagʷamseaweed, seagrass *kaRi(q)ataxon of decorative plants *kaRi(q)anaPandanus lamekotensis *kayu qoneHeritiera littoralis *kokaMacaranga spp. *koma(r,R)(o,u)Endospermum sp. *kopubamboo sp. *koRawild mango, Mangifera minor *kuratthe dye produced from Morinda citrifolia *m(ʷ)asewild mulberry, paper mulberry, Broussonetia papyrifera *ma(i)tagaR(a)Kleinhovia hospita *mapuqanFlueggea flexuosa (?) *maqotaDysoxylum spp. *maRakitathe putty nut, probably Parinari laurina and Parinari glaberrima *maRakoTrichospermum peekelii *mari(a)sapaSyzygium sp. *moliscitrus fruit or citrus-like fruit, perhaps Clymenia polyandra *mʷala(q)uGlochidion philippicum *mʷalak (?)spider lily, Crinum asiaticum *mʷañaPandanus sp., perhaps Pandanus conoideus *mʷapo(q)taro, Colocasia esculenta *mʷaruqeDioscorea sp. or perhaps a cultivar of Dioscorea alata *nipusCryptocarya sp. *ñoñuMorinda citrifolia *olaŋaCampnosperma brevipetiolatum *pakumPandanus dubius *pala(ŋ)cut nut, bush nut, Barringtonia novae-hiberniae (green variety?) *paliaRuaa vine, Merremia peltata *paqoHeliconia sp. *paquKleinhovia hospita *pasa(r,R)Vitex cofassus *pesia coastal forest tree, perhaps Pongamia pinnata *pi(y)uŋMiscanthus floridulus *pijocane or reed taxon, including Saccharum spontaneum *poipoiPandanus sp., perhaps Pandanus tectorius *poka(q)variety of Malay apple *(p,b)osokind of taro *puRetaxon of beach creepers; perhaps prototypically Ipomoea grandiflora and Ipomoea pes-caprae *pʷa(k,g)ekind of green vegetable (?) *pʷabosifree-standing small or medium-sized Ficus sp., probably Ficus wassa *p(ʷ)asa(r,R)large Pandanus sp. *pʷatikapotato yam, aerial yam, Dioscorea bulbifera *p(ʷ)awa(t)Cerbera spp., probably Cerbera floribunda and Cerbera manghas *pʷetebird's nest fern, Asplenium nidus *pʷi(r,R)aCananga odorata *qaropPremna spp. *qat(V)Terminalia sp. with edible nut *(q,k)atitathe putty nut, probably Parinari laurina and Parinari glaberrima *(q)alipa, *lalipanut sp., possibly canarium almond, Canarium sp. (?) *qopeGyrocarpus americanus *quRisSpondias cytherea *(quta)qutagrass and weeds (generic) *rabumgrass *Rigirosewood, Pterocarpus indicus *sabakapAlstonia scholaris *sakupbanana cultivar with long fruit (?) *seRaFicus sp., perhaps Ficus adenosperma *silaJob's tears, Coix lacryma-jobi *tamanuCalophyllum sp. *taŋaFicus tinctoria *tapi(l)puzzlenut tree, Xylocarpus granatum (?) *tapoRaa nut-bearing tree sp. *tawasiRhus taitensis *toRuCordia subcordata *udu(r,R)Dioscorea alata cultivar (?) *wasaAbelmoschus manihot; green vegetables in general *wasi-wasiAbroma augusta *yaŋoturmeric, Curcuma longa

##### Proto-Western Oceanic plant terms with no known external cognates (22 reconstructions)

    Proto-OceanicMeaning *baraMacaranga spp. *basimango *baulmangrove, Rhizophora sp. (?) *bʷanaIntsia bijuga *bʷatiqbanana cultivar *gobuDioscorea sp. *ka(p)ulseed yam *kamisalesser yam, Dioscorea esculenta *kam(ʷ)apaRCryptocarya sp. *kasuwaimango *kobotaxon of Macaranga spp. *kokoimushroom sp. *[ku,i]Rim(a,o)Octomeles sumatrana *lapukakind of tree with fruit similar to breadfruit, Parartocarpus venenosa (?) *m(ʷ)aliDerris sp. *mamisalesser yam, Dioscorea esculenta *mokePandanus sp. *mʷa(r,R)etaxon including Codiaeum variegatum and Cordyline fruticosa *nagiCordia sp. *(s,j)a(q,k)umuPandanus sp. *tabunGarcinia sp. *tabuqaRSaccharum edule

##### Proto-Eastern Oceanic plant terms with no known external cognates (15 reconstructions)

    Proto-OceanicMeaning *bakuRaCalophyllum sp., probably Calophyllum kajewskii *bukataxon of littoral trees, including Pisonia spp. and Gyrocarpus americanus *bulipaFicus sp. *gamaFinschia cloroxantha *(k)a(r,l)adroŋaAcalypha sp. *kokatree sp., Bischofia javanica *mabʷeTahitian chestnut, Inocarpus fagifer *meloElaeocarpus angustifolius *miloThespesia populnea *mʷa(q)elea cycad, Cycas rumphii *pakalo, *pʷakala (?)Hibiscus sp. *paRagePangium edule *pinuaqa nut tree, perhaps Canarium sp. (?) *rakoHeliconia sp., usually Heliconia indica *sinutaxon of shrubs whose sap causes irritation, including species of Phaleria

##### Proto-Remote Oceanic plant terms with no known external cognates (6 reconstructions)

    Proto-OceanicMeaning *buavuHernandia sp. *maRibreadfruit *sasaRuAbelmoschus manihot *vaRoNeisosperma oppositifolium *vubakind of vine, probably Derris elliptica *wasi-wasiSterculia vitiensis

#### Blust and Trussel (2020)

Selected reconstructed Proto-Oceanic terms of various plants from the Austronesian Comparative Dictionary:
    Proto-OceanicCommon nameScientific name *kalaqabusia shrubAcalypha sp. *piRaq₂wild taro, elephant-ear or itching taroAlocasia spp. *sabakapa treeAlstonia scholaris *putun₁a shore treeBarringtonia spp. *querattanCalamus sp. *pitaquRa shore treeCalophyllum inophyllum *kaŋaRitree with edible nut, the Canarium almondCanarium commune *(q)alipaa nut treeCanarium sp. *aRua shore treeCasuarina equisetifolia *talostaroColocasia esculenta *toRua treeCordia subcordata *aŋoturmericCurcuma longa *punata plant used to stun fishDerris elliptica *tupa₂fish poisonDerris spp. *pwatikapotato yam, aerial yamDioscorea bulbifera *rarapa tree with dense clusters of red flowers, the Indian coral treeErythrina indica *buRata tree with sweet-smelling flowersFagraea berteroana *paila plantFalcataria moluccana *taŋa₃a shrub with edible figsFicus tinctoria *baka₂kind of banyan treeFicus sp. *pwano-pwanoa plantGuettarda speciosa *paqoa plantHeliconia spp. *kuRun; *pitu₂sword grassImperata cylindrica *ipi₂the ‘Tahitian chestnut’Inocarpus fagiferus or Inocarpus edulis *puRe₂beach creepersincluding Ipomoea grandiflora and Ipomoea pes-caprae *paua plantKleinhovia hospita *karat₂a small stinging plantperhaps Laportea interrupta *latoŋ, *la-latoŋ, *salatoŋ, *silatoŋstinging nettleLaportea spp. *piRufan palmLicuala rumphii *pinuana treeMacaranga spp. *kokaa treeMacaranga spp., Euphorbiaceae *koRawild mangoMangifera minor *paliaRuaa vineMerremia peltata *gurata tree with roots that furnish a red dyeMorinda citrifolia tree *kuratthe dye produced from the Morinda citrifoliaMorinda citrifolia dye *ñoñutree with inedible white fruit and root that yields a useful dyeMorinda citrifolia tree *paoq (ʔ)a treeOchrosia oppositifolia *mwañapandanus sp.probably Pandanus conoideus *kiRea pandanusPandanus odoratissimus; a mat made from the leaves of this plant *katitaputty nutParinari laurinum *pu-pulubetel pepperPiper betle *pesicoastal treeperhaps Pongamia pinnata *tawasia treeRhus taitensis *pijokind of reed or caneincluding Saccharum spontaneum *kapika, *kapikuthe Malay appleSyzygium malaccense *talise₁a shore tree with edible nutsTerminalia catappa *pasa(r,R)a woody plant or treeVitex cofassus

### Pottery

There are several known reconstructed words evident of material pottery culture among the Lapita:
* *kuroŋ – earthernware pot
* *kalala(ŋ) – water jar
* *palaŋa – frying pan (cf. Malay belanga)

## Example sentences

From Lynch, Ross, and Crowley (2002):
*I=kaRat-i=a
3SG=bite-TR=3SG
a
ART
tau
person
na
ART
ᵐboRok.
pig
*I=kaRat-i=a a tau na ᵐboRok.
3SG=bite-TR=3SG ART person ART pig
'The pig bit a/the person.'
*A
ART
na=ᵑgu
CL=3SG
a
ART
Rumaq.
house
*A na=ᵑgu a Rumaq.
ART CL=3SG ART house
'The house is mine.'
From Ross (2004):
*Au=papa-i=a
1SG=carry-TR=3SG
natu-mu
child-2SG
i=ua
3SG=go
i
PREP
laur.
coast
*Au=papa-i=a natu-mu i=ua i laur.
1SG=carry-TR=3SG child-2SG 3SG=go PREP coast
'I brought your child (to you) to the beach.'
*Ra=sipo
3PL=go.down
ra=paqus-i=a
3PL=bind-TR=3SG
na
ART
waᵑga.
canoe
*Ra=sipo ra=paqus-i=a na waᵑga.
3PL=go.down 3PL=bind-TR=3SG ART canoe
'They went down to bind up the canoe.'