# Writing systems of Formosan languages

The writing systems of the Formosan languages are Latin-based alphabets. Currently, 16 languages (45 dialects) have been regulated. The alphabet was made official in 2005.

## History

The Sinckan Manuscripts are one of the earliest written materials of several Formosan languages, including Siraya. This writing system was developed by Dutch missionaries in the period of Dutch rule (1624–1662).
After 1947, with the need for translation of Bible, Latin scripts for Bunun, Paiwan, Taroko, Atayal, and Amis were created. Currently, all 16 Formosan languages are written with similar systems. The Pe̍h-ōe-jī of Taiwanese Hokkien and Pha̍k-fa-sṳ of Taiwanese Hakka were also created with by the western missionaries.
In 2005, standardized writing systems for the languages of Taiwan's 16 recognized indigenous peoples were established by the government.

## Alphabets

The table shows how the letters and symbols are used to denote sounds in the 16 officially recognized Formosan languages.
| | a | ae | b | c | d | dh | dj | dr | e | é | f | g | h | hl | i | ɨ | j | k | l | lh | lj | lr | m | n | ng | o | oe | p | q | R | r | ṟ | S | s | sh | t | th | tj | tr | u | ʉ | v | w | x | y | z | ' | ^ |
| Amis | a | | | t͡s | d, ð, ɬ | | | | e | | b, f, v | | ħ | | i | | | k | ɾ | | | | m | n | ŋ | o | | p | | | r | | | s | | t | | | | u | | | w | x | j | | ʡ | ʔ |
| Atayal | a | | β, v | t͡s | | | | | e | | | ɣ | h | | i | | | k | l | | | | m | n | ŋ | o | | p | q | | r | ɾ | | s | | t | | | | u | | | w | x | j | z | ʔ | |
| Bunun | a | | b | t͡s, t͡ɕ | d | | | | e, ə | | | | x, χ | | i | | | k | l, ɬ | | | | m | n | ŋ | o | | p | q | | | | | s | | t | | | | u | | v | | | | ð | ʔ | |
| Kanakanavu | a | | | t͡s | | | | | e | | | | | | i | | | k | | | | | m | n | ŋ | o | | p | | | ɾ | | | s | | t | | | | u | ɨ | v | | | | | ʔ | |
| Kavalan | a | | b | | ɮ | | | | ə | | | | h | | i | | | k | ɾ | | | | m | n | ŋ | o | | p | q | ʁ | | | | s | | t | | | | u | | | w | | j | z | ʔ | |
| Paiwan | a | | b | t͡s | d | | ɟ | ɖ | e | | | g | h | | i | | | k | ɭ | | ʎ | | m | n | ŋ | | | p | q | | r | | | s | | t | | c | | u | | v | w | | j | z | ʔ | |
| Puyuma | a | | b | t͡s | d | | | ɖ | ə | | | g | h | | i | | | k | ɭ | | | ɮ | m | n | ŋ | | | p | | | r | | | s | | t | | | ʈ | u | | v | w | | j | z | ʔ | |
| Rukai | a | | b | t͡s | d | ð | | ɖ | ə | e | | g | h | | i | ɨ | | k | l | | | ɭ | m | n | ŋ | o | | p | | | r | | | s | | t | θ | | ʈ | u | | v | w | | j | z | ʔ | |
| Saaroa | a | | | t͡s | | | | | | | | | | ɬ | i | | | k | ɾ | | | | m | n | ŋ | | | p | | | r | | | s | | t | | | | u | ɨ | v | | | | | ʔ | |
| Saisiyat | a | æ | β | | | | | | ə | | | | h | | i | | | k | l | | | | m | n | ŋ | o | œ | p | | | r | | ʃ | s, θ | | t | | | | | | | w | | j | z, ð | ʔ | |
| Sakizaya | a | | b | t͡s | d, ð, ɬ | | | | ə | | | | ħ | | i | | | k | ɾ | | | | m | n | ŋ | o | | p | | | | | | s | | t | | | | u | | | w | | j | z | ʡ | |
| Seediq | a | | b | t͡s | d | | | | e, ə | | | g | ħ | | i | | ɟ | k | l | | | | m | n | ŋ | o | | p | q | | r | | | s | | t | | | | u | | | w | x | j | | | |
| Taroko | a | | b | t͡ɕ | d | | | | ə | | | ɣ | ħ | | i | | ɟ | k | ɮ | | | | m | n | ŋ | o | | p | q | | ɾ | | | s | | t | | | | u | | | w | x | j | | | |
| Thao | a | | b | | d | | | | | | ɸ | | h | | i | | | k | l | ɬ | | | m | n | ŋ | | | p | q | | r | | | s | ʃ | t | θ | | | u | | | β, w | | j | ð | ʔ | |
| Tsou | a | | ɓ | t͡s | | | | | e | | f | | x | | i | | | k | ɗ | | | | m | n | ŋ | o | | p | | | | | | s | | t | | | | u | | v | | ɨ | j | z | ʔ | |
| Yami | a | | b | t͡s, t͡ɕ | ɖ | | | | ə | | | g | ɰ | | i | | d͡ʒ, d͡ʝ | k | l | | | | m | n | ŋ | o, u | | p | | | ɻ | | | ʂ | | t | | | | | | f | w | | j | r | ʔ | |

## Revision

Revision of the alphabets is under discussion. The table below is a summary of the proposals and decisions (made by the indigenous peoples and linguists). Symbols enclosed with angle brackets ‹› are letters, while those enclosed with square brackets are from the International Phonetic Alphabet. The names of dialects are written in Chinese.
| Language | Proposal | 2017 Decision |
| Amis | 1. Amis, Sakizaya use ‹^› for glottal stop [ʔ] and ‹’› for epiglottal stop [ʡ], while other languages use ‹’› for glottal stop 2. ‹u› and ‹o› seem to be allophones 3. 馬蘭: add ‹i’› for [ε] 4. 南勢: change ‹f› to ‹b› | 1. Continue to use the standard 2. Advised to use only ‹u› or ‹o› 3. Rejected 4. Accepted |
| Atayal | 1. 賽考利克, 四季: add ‹f›; 萬大: add ‹z› 2. The use of ‹_› to: (1) separate ‹n› and ‹g› sequence from ‹ng›, (2) represent reduced vowel 3. 萬大, 宜蘭澤敖利: delete ‹q› | 1. Rejected 2. Continue to use the standard 3. Accepted |
| Paiwan | 1. 中排, 南排: use ‹gr› in place of ‹dr› 2. Inconsistent use of ‹w› and ‹v› | 1. To be discussed; 力里 needs a letter for [ɣ] 2. To be discussed |
| Bunun | 1. Add vowels ‹e› and ‹o› 2. 郡群: ‹ti› changes to ‹ci› (palatalization) 3. 郡群: ‹si› (palatalization) 4. 郡群 uses ‹-› for glottal stop 5. The loss of [ʔ] may cause ‹y› become a phoneme | 1. Accepted 2. To be discussed 3. Remain ‹si› 4. Remain ‹-› |
| Puyuma | 1. 知本, 初鹿, 建和: add ‹b› 2. 建和: add ‹z› 3. 知本: add ‹dr› 4. 南王: delete ‹’› and ‹h› 5. 知本, 初鹿, 建和, 南王: add ‹o› and ‹ē› 6. The original practice of using ‹l› for retroflex [ɭ] and ‹lr› for [ɮ] (which is [l] in南王) is confusing. It is suggested to use ‹lr› [ɭ], ‹lh› [ɮ], ‹l› [l] | 1. Only in loanwords 2. Only in loanwords 3. Advised not to add 4. Delete ‹h› 5. Only in loanwords 6. Can’t reach agreement 7. Delete ‹’› and use ‹q› for [ʔ] and [ɦ] |
| Rukai | 1. 大武: add ‹tr› 2. 萬山: add ‹b› and ‹g› 3. 霧台: add ‹é› 4. 多納: Use ‹u› in place of ‹o› | 1. Only in loanwords 2. Only in loanwords 3. Only in loanwords 4. Accepted |
| Saisiyat | 1. Long vowel sign ‹:› 2. Add ‹c, f, g› | 1. Delete 2. To be discussed |
| Tsou | 1. Delete ‹r› for [ɽ] 2. Use ‹x› for vowel ‹ʉ› for convenience 3. Add ‹g› 4. ‹l› has two sounds: [ɗ] and [l] | 1. Reserve the letter for 久美 2. Accepted 3. Only in loanwords 4. To be studied |
| Yami | 1. Churches use ‹h› for both [ʔ] and [ɰ] | 1. ‹’› should be used for [ʔ] |
| Thao | 1. ‹.› should be used to distinguish ‹lh› (vs. ‹l.h›) and ‹th› (vs. ‹t.h›) | 1. Continue to use the standard 2. Add ‹aa, ii, uu› |
| Kavalan | 1. The confusion of ‹o› and ‹u› 2. Add trill ‹r› for 樟原 | 1. Add ‹o› to distinguish from ‹u› 2. People from the tribe decided not to add 3. Add ‹y, w› |
| Taroko | 1. Add ‹’› 2. Add ‹aw, ay, uy, ow, ey› 3. Reduced vowel ‹e› should not be omitted | 1. To be discussed 2. Add ‹ey› [e] 3. People from the tribe wish not to change the current spelling rules |
| Seediq | 1. 都達、德路固: add ‹aw, ay, uy, ow, ey› 2. Add ‹j› 3. ‹w› should not be omitted 4. Reduced vowel ‹e› should not be omitted | 1. Add ‹ey› [e]; ‹aw, ay, uy› added only in loanwords 2. Only in loanwords 3. People from the tribe wish not to change the current spelling rules 4. People from the tribe wish not to change the current spelling rules |
| Sakizaya | 1. Delete ‹^› for epiglottal stop 2. Loss of distinction between ‹x› and ‹h› 3. ‹l›, ‹r› seem to be allophones | 1. Accepted; use ‹’› for [ʔ] and [ʡ] 2. Delete ‹x› and keep ‹h› 3. To be discussed 4. Use ‹b› [b] in place of ‹f› |
| Hla’alua | 1. Add ‹ʉ› for [ɨ] 2. Delete central vowel ‹e› [ə] | 1. Accepted 2. Accepted 3. Remain ‹r› for [r] and ‹l› for [ɾ] |
| Kanakanavu | 1. Change ‹e› [ə] to ‹e› [e] 2. Add ‹ʉ› for [ɨ] 3. Delete ‹l› | 1. Accepted 2. Accepted 3. Delete ‹l› and use ‹r› for [r, ɾ] |