# Lau language

Lau (Law) is a Jukunoid language of Lau LGA, Taraba State, Nigeria. Lau speakers claim that their language is mutually intelligible with the Jukunoid language varieties spoken in Kunini, Bandawa, and Jeshi. They also live alongside the Central Sudanic-speaking Laka (Hausa name: Lakawa), who live in Laka ward of Lau LGA.
Lau had been previously misclassified as a Mbum language along with Laka.
Laru is a Niger-Kordofanian language (Schadeberg 1981) in the Heiban group, with three main dialects: Yilaru, Yïdündïlï, and Yogo'romany. The Laru region's geographical features, such as mountains and hills, influence the language, particularly in terms of locatives that indicate location and direction. Locatives in Laru are encliticised or follow various word classes, including nouns, adjectives, demonstratives, possessive pronouns, verbs, and an accompaniment postposition.

## Phonology
### Consonants

Consonant Phonemes :
| | bilabial | dental | alveolar | palatal | velar | labialised velar |
| voiceless plositives | p | t | t | c | k | k$^w$ |
| voiced plosives | b | d⁴ | ɖ | ɟ | ɡ | g$^w$ |
| nasals | m | | n | ɲ | ŋ | ŋ$^w$ |
| prenasalized plosives | $^m$b | $^n$d | | ɲɟ | $^ŋ$ɡ | $^ŋ$g$^w$ |
| approxiamants | w | | l | j | | |
| flap | | | ɽ | | | |
| trill | | | r | | | |
(Consonant Phonemes in Laru Locatives, adapted from Abdalla 2015:2)
The table shows the consonant phonemes of a language, categorized by their place of articulation (bilabial, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, and labialised velar). Each category has rows for different types of consonants, such as voiceless plosives, voiced plosives, nasals, prenasalized plosives, approximants, flap, and trill. Some cells in the table are empty, indicating that the language does not have a phoneme in that category.
The language has six places of articulation for consonants. The language has voiceless and voiced plosives in all six categories. The language has nasals in four categories, with two different phonemes for the alveolar category.The language has prenasalized plosives in five categories, with two different phonemes for the labialised velar category. The language has approximants in four categories, with one phoneme for each category. The language has a flap phoneme in the alveolar category.The language has a trill phoneme in the alveolar category.
The table provides a comprehensive overview of the consonant phonemes in the language, organized by place of articulation and type of consonant. The presence or absence of certain phonemes in each category can give insights into the phonological patterns of the language. The table can be used as a reference for linguists studying the language or for language learners trying to understand its phonology.
The highlighted text contains a table that shows the vowel inventory of a language. The table has two rows for ATR (Advanced Tongue Root) feature, one for [-ATR] and the other for [+ATR]. The table also has three columns for vowel height, namely high, mid, and low, and three rows for vowel backness, namely front, central, and back. “The [+ATR] vowel quality is dominant in Laru, spreading to both prefixes and suffixes from both noun and verb roots, as well as spreading from verb suffixes to the root .”(Abdalla 2012).

### Vowel

Vowel Insertion :
| a | ɡ-ɲɛn  → ɡɪɲɛ̀n | 'CM-dog' |
| b | ɡ-bəɽu  → ɡɪbəɽu | 'CM-cloud' |
| c | ɡ-ɛn   → ɡɛn | 'CM-mountain' |
(Vowel Insertion in Laru Locatives, adapted from Abdalla 2015: 3)
Vowel insertion occurs in the language when a consonant-only prefix joins a consonant-initial root, resulting in a short /ɪ/ vowel being inserted between the adjacent consonants.

#### Vowel Elision

A linguistic phenomenon called "vowel elision" in the language being studied. Vowel elision occurs when two vowels are joined through affixation, which means adding a prefix or suffix to a word.The language does not allow vowel sequences, which means that two vowels cannot appear next to each other in a word. To prevent a sequence of two vowels from occurring, the first of the two vowels is elided, which means it is deleted or omitted from the word.
Examples: Vowel Elision:
    a. daɽɪ - ala → daɽala ‘on the tree’
    b. ɡʊlʊ - ala → ɡʊlala ‘on the fence’ (Abdalla 2015:3)
It appears to be a list of phonetic transcriptions of words in a language, with the abbreviation "CM" likely referring to a particular morpheme or word root. The "VIR" mentioned may refer to a process of vowel insertion or alternation in the language. Without further context or knowledge of the language in question, it is difficult to provide more insights or conclusions.
Vowel elision is a common feature in many languages, and it often occurs to avoid the repetition of sounds or to simplify pronunciation. In some cases, vowel elision can also be used to indicate a specific grammatical function or to distinguish between different forms of a word. In the examples given, the elision of the vowel sound in "daɽɪ" and "ɡʊlʊ" helps to create a smoother and more natural-sounding combination with the locative enclitic "ala". It is important to note that vowel elision is not always predictable or consistent, and it can vary depending on the specific language, dialect, or context.

## Locatives

Locatives :
| Locative | Gloss | Meaning |
| -ala | 'on.above' | above the ground level |
| -alu | 'on.level' | on the ground level |
| -anʊ | 'under, inside' | under the ground level, inside |
| nɔnɔ | 'around' | around the ground level |
(Locatives in Laru Locatives, adapted from Abdalla 2015: 3)
The locatives specify geographical locations and positions in relation to the ground level. The locative clitics -ala, -alu, -anu, and nən indicate above the ground level, on the ground level, under or inside the ground level, and around the ground level, respectively. this text is introducing the topic of locatives and providing some basic information about the different types of locatives that will be discussed in more detail later on.
Laru has a noun class system with nine classes that categorize different types of objects, including big things, hollow and round things, small and thin things, liquids and abstract concepts, and relational nominals like pronouns and kinship terms. This system consists of nine classes, which are categorized based on five areas of semantic identification(Kuku 2015:4). The first and second classes are used for big things like people, trees, and animals.The third and fourth classes are used for hollow and round things. The fifth and sixth classes are used for small, thin, long, or pointed things.The seventh class is used for liquids and abstract things or ideas. Lastly, the eighth and ninth classes are used for relational nominals such as pronouns and kinship terms.
This noun class system is important in understanding the grammar and syntax of Laru, as it affects how words are formed and used in sentences.

## Grammar
### Noun Classes

Noun Classes :
| Class | Class markers | Singualr | Plural | Gloss | Semantic area |
| 1-2 | d-/ŋʷ- | dìɟì | ŋʷùɟì | person | big things |
| 3-4 | l-/ŋʷ- | ləbləⁿdí | ŋʷəbləⁿdí | rifle | hollow, round things |
| 5-6 | ɡ-/j- | ɡìɟì | jìɟì | child | small, thin, long, pointed things |
| 7 | j- | jáʷ | | water | liquids, abstract things |
| 8-9 | -0/-ŋə | mə́ | məŋə́ | grandmother | relational terms |
(Noun Classes in Laru Locatives, adapted from Abdalla 2015: 4)
The table shows different class markers, singular and plural forms, gloss, and semantic areas for different categories of objects in a language.
The language has 9 classes of objects, each with its own class marker.
The plural form of class 1-2 is formed by adding the sound "nw" to the singular form.
The plural form of class 8-9 is formed by adding the sound "y" to the singular form.
The table provides information on the different categories of objects in the language and how they are classified into different classes.
The table shows how the plural form of some classes is formed.
The table provides gloss and semantic area information for each class.

#### Noun Roots

The table shows minimal and contrastive pairs of noun roots in Laru language.
| vowels | Laru | English | Laru | English |
| ɪ-ɛ | d-ìl | ‘horn’ | d-ɛ̀l | ‘well' |
| | dˈ-ɽɪ́ | k.o.stick | g'-ɽɛ́ | ‘k.o.tree' |
| | d-ìrà | ‘lion’ | g-ɛ̀rá | ‘girl’ |
| | g-ìlíɲ | ‘k.o.mushroom' | d-ɛ̀lɛ́ɲ | ‘chief |
| | d'-l:í | ‘shoulder' | ǀˈ-ǀːɛ́ | ‘grinding stone’ |
| ɛ-a | j-ɛ̀n | ‘mountains’ | j-àn | ‘milk’ |
| | g'-ɽɛ̀ | ‘tree' | gˈ-ɽà | ‘head’ |
| | ɡ-ɛ̀rá | ‘girl’ | g-ɛ̀rɛ́ | ‘sky’ |
| | d-ɔ̀rɛ́ | ‘basket' | d-ɔ̀rá | ‘anus’ |
| | g-ɔ̀ɽɛ̀ | ‘shelter' | g-ɔra | ‘k.o.wood' |
| a-ɔ | j-àn | ‘milk’ | j-ɔn | ‘grain |
| ɔ-ʊ | d-ɔ̀ɽá | ‘thresher' | d-ʊ̀ɽà | ‘winder' |
| | d-ɔ̀rá | ‘anus’ | d-ʊ̀rà | ‘magic stick |
| | g-ɔ̀bɔ̀ | ‘temple' | g-ʊ̀bʊ̀ | ‘compound’ |
| | g-ɔ̀ʈà | ‘k.o.fruit’ | g-ʊ̀dá | ‘k.o.fruit' |
| | g-ɔ̀ɲ | ‘thing | g-ʊ̀ɲ | ‘veranda’ |
| ɪ -i | d-ìrìɲ | 'waist | d-ìrìɲ | ‘boar' |
| a-ə | d-àmà | ‘locust’ | d-ə̀mə̀ | ‘wound' |
| | d-ádáɲ | ‘knife’ | d-ə́də́ɲ | ‘cave lizard’ |
| | g-áɲá | ‘grass | d-ə̀ɲə̀ | 'vegetables |
| | d'-ráɲ | ‘k.o.grass’ | dˈ-rə́ŋ | ‘seal of bee' |
| | g'-ɽà | ‘head’ | g'-ɽə́ | ‘bird’ |
| ʊ -u | g'-lʊ̀ | ‘clay | d'-lù | ‘smoke' |
| | g'ɟʊ̀r | ‘stream’ | d'-ɟúr | ‘rock’ |
| | g'-bʊ̀ŋ | 'hole in tree' | g'-bùŋ | ‘pool’ |
| | d-ʊ̀wà | ‘buffalo’ | d-úwə́ | ‘moon’ |
| | g-úwá | ‘root’ | g-úwə́ | ‘he-goat’ |
(Noun Roots in Laru Vowel Harmony from Abdalla 2012: 28)
The table shows minimal and contrastive pairs of noun roots in Laru language. Laru language has 8 vowels in noun roots.The class marker prefix is separated from the root by a hyphen.The table provides examples of noun roots with different vowel combinations, such as "d-11" for "hom" and "d-t" for "well".
The table also shows examples of noun roots with different consonant combinations, such as "d^{\prime} \cdot t^{\prime}" for "k.e. stick" and "g^{\prime} \cdot d" for "k.o. tree".
The table demonstrates the importance of vowel and consonant combinations in distinguishing between different noun roots in Laru language.

#### Affixes of Nouns

Affixes of Nouns :
| Direction Marker | Class Marker | | Accuative Marker | Locative |
| ɡ- | d- | Root | -ɲ | -ala |
| ⁿd- | ɡ- | | -u | -alʊ |
| C length | l- j- | | | -anʊ |
| | ŋʷ- | | | |
(Affixes of Nouns in Laru Locatives, adapted from Abdalla 2015:7)
The table highlights the complexity of Laru language and the importance of understanding its unique features for effective communication.
The table shows different affixes that can be added to nouns in the language being studied. The Direction Marker column shows two affixes: "g-" and "nd-". The Class Marker column shows five affixes: "d-", "g-", "l-", "j-", and "g"-". The Accusative Marker column shows two affixes: "Roo T" and "-u". The Locative column shows three affixes: "-ala", "-alu", and "-anu". The affixes in the Direction Marker column indicate the direction of the noun, while the affixes in the Class Marker column indicate the class of the noun.
The Accusative Marker column shows two different markers that can be used to indicate the accusative case of the noun. The Locative column shows three different markers that can be used to indicate the locative case of the noun.

### Verbs
#### Affixes of verbs

Affixes of verbs :
| Subject Agreement | | Finite Markers | Derivational Morphemes | Locative Enclitics |
| ɡ- | ROOT | -di(transitive continuative) | -nɪ (REF) | -ala 'on.above' |
| ɡ$^w$- | | -ti(transitive perfective) | - ni (PASS) | -alu 'on.level' |
| l- | | -u(default) | -ɟɪ (MAN) | -anu 'inside, under' |
| ŋ$^w$- | | | -dɪ (REC) | |
| d- | | | -cɪ (DIR) | |
| | | | -tɪ (SIM) | |
| | | | -ʈɪ (REP) | |
| | | | -jɪ (CAU) | |
(Affixes of verbs in Laru Locatives, adapted from Abdalla 2015: 14)
The table has five columns: Subject Agreement, Finite Markers, Derivational Morphemes, Locative Enclitics, and Locative Enclitics.
The table shows different subject agreement prefixes (ɡ-, ɡʷ-, l-, ɡʷ-, d-) that can be combined with finite markers (-di, -ti, -u) and derivational morphemes (-nI, -ni, -jI, -di, -cI, -ti, -ti, -ji) to form different verb forms.The locative enclitics (-ala, -alu, -anu) can be added to these verb forms to indicate geographical locations and positions in relation to the ground level. The table provides a comprehensive overview of the different morphemes and enclitics used in locative constructions in the language.The table can be used as a reference for researchers and linguists studying the language and its grammar.

#### Derived Verb Forms

Derived Verb Forms :
| Suffix | Function | Infinitive verb | Infinitive verb | Derived verb | Derived verb |
| -nɪ | reflexive (REF) | èŋɡá | 'to see' | èŋɡà-nɪ́ | 'to look at oneself' |
| -ni | passive (PASS) | lɛŋɛ́ | 'to know' | lɛŋɛ-ní | 'to be known' |
| -ɟɪ | manipulative (MAN) | rʊ́ | 'to be' | rʊ̀-ɟɪ́ | 'to make to be' |
| -dɪ | reciprocal (REC) | pí | 'to beat' | pɪ̀-dɪ́ | 'to fight each other' |
| -cɪ | directive (DIR) | mànɪ́ | 'to cook' | mànɪ̀-cɪ́ | 'to cook for someone' |
| -ti | simultaneous (SIM) | lʊ́ | 'to dig' | lʊ̀-tí | 'to dig' |
| -ʈi | repetitive (REP) | ùɽí | 'to cut' | ùɽì-ʈí | 'to cut several times' |
| -jɪ | causative (CAU) | rɪ̀tɪ́ | 'to play' | rɪ̀tɪ̀-jɪ́ | 'to cause something to play' |
(Derived Verb Forms in Laru Locatives, adapted from Abdalla 2015:13)
The table includes columns for the suffix, function, infinitive verb, gloss, derived verb, and gloss. The table shows different types of verb suffixes, including reflexive, passive, manipulative, reciprocal, directive, simultaneous, repetitive, and causative.
Each suffix is demonstrated with an example of an infinitive verb and a derived verb, showing how the suffix changes the meaning of the verb.
For example, the reflexive suffix "-nI" changes the verb "èngá" (to see) to "èygà-ní" (to look at oneself). By using these suffixes, speakers can convey more nuanced meanings and actions in their speech. The table also highlights the complexity of the language's grammar and syntax, as well as the importance of understanding these features for effective communication.

## Names

Names for the Lau language, people, and town:
* Town name: Làw (literally ‘mud’)
* People: Wĩ̄ Lâw ‘people of Lau’
* People (Hausa name): Lau haaɓe ‘the indigenous of Lau’ (from Fula haaɓe ‘servants, slaves, non-Fulani’)
* Language: Wĩ̄ Lâwmã̄ ‘the language of the people of Lau’

## Sample words

Some sample words in Lau from Idiatov (2017):
| English | Lau |
| animal | nɛ̃́wkũ̂ |
| cow | nâw |
| chicken | zǟw |
| man | jĩ̂nə̀nwò |
| medicine | gâj |