OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Spectral risk measure

A Spectral risk measure is a risk measure given as a weighted average of outcomes where bad outcomes are, typically, included with larger weights. A spectral risk measure is a function of portfolio returns and outputs the amount of the numeraire (typically a currency) to be kept in reserve. A spectral risk measure is always a coherent risk measure, but the converse does not always hold. An advantage of spectral measures is the way in which they can be related to risk aversion, and particularly to a utility function, through the weights given to the possible portfolio returns.

## Definition

Consider a portfolio $X$ (denoting the portfolio payoff). Then a spectral risk measure $M_{\phi }:{\mathcal {L}}\to \mathbb {R}$ where $\phi$ is non-negative, non-increasing, right-continuous, integrable function defined on $[0,1]$ such that $\int _{0}^{1}\phi (p)dp=1$ is defined by
    $M_{\phi }(X)=-\int _{0}^{1}\phi (p)F_{X}^{-1}(p)dp$
where $F_{X}$ is the cumulative distribution function for X.
If there are $S$ equiprobable outcomes with the corresponding payoffs given by the order statistics $X_{1:S},...X_{S:S}$. Let $\phi \in \mathbb {R} ^{S}$. The measure $M_{\phi }:\mathbb {R} ^{S}\rightarrow \mathbb {R}$ defined by $M_{\phi }(X)=-\delta \sum _{s=1}^{S}\phi _{s}X_{s:S}$ is a spectral measure of risk if $\phi \in \mathbb {R} ^{S}$ satisfies the conditions
* Nonnegativity: $\phi _{s}\geq 0$ for all $s=1,\dots ,S$,
* Normalization: $\sum _{s=1}^{S}\phi _{s}=1$,
* Monotonicity : $\phi _{s}$ is non-increasing, that is $\phi _{s_{1}}\geq \phi _{s_{2}}$ if ${s_{1}}<{s_{2}}$ and ${s_{1}},{s_{2}}\in \{1,\dots ,S\}$.

## Properties

Spectral risk measures are also coherent. Every spectral risk measure $\rho :{\mathcal {L}}\to \mathbb {R}$ satisfies:
* Positive Homogeneity: for every portfolio X and positive value $\lambda >0$, $\rho (\lambda X)=\lambda \rho (X)$;
* Translation-Invariance: for every portfolio X and $\alpha \in \mathbb {R}$, $\rho (X+a)=\rho (X)-a$;
* Monotonicity: for all portfolios X and Y such that $X\geq Y$, $\rho (X)\leq \rho (Y)$;
* Sub-additivity: for all portfolios X and Y, $\rho (X+Y)\leq \rho (X)+\rho (Y)$;
* Law-Invariance: for all portfolios X and Y with cumulative distribution functions $F_{X}$ and $F_{Y}$ respectively, if $F_{X}=F_{Y}$ then $\rho (X)=\rho (Y)$;
* Comonotonic Additivity: for every comonotonic random variables X and Y, $\rho (X+Y)=\rho (X)+\rho (Y)$. Note that X and Y are comonotonic if for every $\omega _{1},\omega _{2}\in \Omega :\;(X(\omega _{2})-X(\omega _{1}))(Y(\omega _{2})-Y(\omega _{1}))\geq 0$.
In some texts the input X is interpreted as losses rather than payoff of a portfolio. In this case, the translation-invariance property would be given by $\rho (X+a)=\rho (X)+a$, and the monotonicity property by $X\geq Y\implies \rho (X)\geq \rho (Y)$ instead of the above.

## Examples

* The expected shortfall is a spectral measure of risk.
* The expected value is trivially a spectral measure of risk.
# Spectral slope

In astrophysics and planetary science, spectral slope, also called spectral gradient, is a measure of dependence of the reflectance on the wavelength.
In digital signal processing, it is a measure of how quickly the spectrum of an audio sound tails off towards the high frequencies, calculated using a linear regression.

## Spectral slope in astrophysics and planetary science

The visible and infrared spectrum of the reflected sunlight is used to infer physical and chemical properties of the surface of a body. Some objects are brighter (reflect more) in longer wavelengths (red). Consequently, in visible light they will appear redder than objects showing no dependence of reflectance on the wavelength.
The diagram illustrates three slopes:
* a red slope, the reflectance is increasing with the wavelengths
* flat spectrum (in black)
* And a blue slope, the reflectance actually diminishing with the wavelengths
The slope (spectral gradient) is defined as:
    $S={\frac {R_{F_{1}}-R_{F_{0}}}{\lambda _{1}-\lambda _{0}}}$
    where $R_{F_{0}},R_{F_{1}}$ is the reflectance measured with filters F$_0$, F$_1$ having the central wavelengths λ$_0$ and λ$_1$, respectively.
The slope is typically expressed in percentage increase of reflectance (i.e. reflexivity) per unit of wavelength: %/100 nm (or % /1000 Å)
The slope is mostly used in near infrared part of the spectrum while colour indices are commonly used in the visible part of the spectrum.
The trans-Neptunian object Sedna is a typical example of a body showing a steep red slope (20%/100 nm) while Orcus' spectrum appears flat in near infra-red.

## Spectral slope in audio

The spectral "slope" of many natural audio signals (their tendency to have less energy at high frequencies) has been known for many years, and the fact that this slope is related to the nature of the sound source. One way to quantify this is by applying linear regression to the Fourier magnitude spectrum of the signal, which produces a single number indicating the slope of the line-of-best-fit through the spectral data.
Alternative ways to characterise a sound signal's distribution of energy vs. frequency include spectral rolloff, spectral centroid.

## Animals that can sense spectral slope

The dung beetle can see the spectral gradient of the sky and polarised light, and they used this to navigate. Desert ants Cataglyphis use the polarization and spectral skylight gradients to navigate.
# Spectral signature

Spectral signature is the variation of reflectance or emittance of a material with respect to wavelengths (i.e., reflectance/emittance as a function of wavelength). The spectral signature of stars indicates the composition of the stellar atmosphere. The spectral signature of an object is a function of the incidental EM wavelength and material interaction with that section of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The measurements can be made with various instruments, including a task specific spectrometer, although the most common method is separation of the red, green, blue and near infrared portion of the EM spectrum as acquired by digital cameras. Calibrating spectral signatures under specific illumination are collected in order to apply a correction to airborne or satellite imagery digital images.
The user of one kind of spectroscope looks through it at a tube of ionized gas. The user sees specific lines of colour falling on a graduated scale. Each substance will have its own unique pattern of spectral lines.
Most remote sensing applications process digital images to extract spectral signatures at each pixel and use them to divide the image in groups of similar pixels (segmentation) using different approaches. As a last step, they assign a class to each group (classification) by comparing with known spectral signatures. Depending on pixel resolution, a pixel can represent many spectral signature "mixed" together - that is why much remote sensing analysis is done to "unmix mixtures". Ultimately correct matching of spectral signature recorded by image pixel with spectral signature of existing elements leads to accurate classification in remote sensing.
# Sperchopsis

Sperchopsis is a genus of water scavenger beetles in the family Hydrophilidae. There is one described species in Sperchopsis, S. tessellata.
# Sphagnum magellanicum

Sphagnum magellanicum, commonly called Magellanic bogmoss, Magellan's sphagnum, Magellan's peatmoss or midway peat moss, is a widespread species of moss found in wet boreal forest in the far south and southwest of South America and in northern North America and Eurasia.

## Description

The red-purple colour visible all or parts of the leaves is very distinctive. It forms low cushions and mats within freshwater bogs.

## Conservation

In the 2010s Sphagnum peat in Chile has begun to be harvested at large scales for export to countries like Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and the United States. Given Sphagnums property to absorb excess water and release it during dry months harvesting of Sphagnum, means that overexploitation may threaten the water supply in the fjords and channels of Chile. Extraction of Sphagnum in Chile is regulated by law since August 2, 2018. Since 2018 Chilean law allows only for the manual extraction of Sphagnum using only pitchforks or similar tools as aid. In a given area (polygon) at least 30% of Sphagnum coverage has to be left unharvested. Harvested Sphagnum fibers may not exceed 15 cm in length and the remaining Sphagnum after harvest may never have a length less than 5 cm over the water table. In the regions of Los Ríos (40°S) and Los Lagos (41–43°S) the same plots may be harvested after 12 years, while further south in Aysén (44–48°S) and Magallanes (49–56°S) 85 years have to pass before the same area is harvested again.
In Iceland, the species is found at only two locations and has the conservation status of a vulnerable species (VU).

## Response to herbicide exposure

In a study of the effect of the herbicide Asulam on moss growth, Sphagnum magellanicum was shown to have intermediate sensitivity to Asulam exposure.
# Sphagnum pulchrum

Sphagnum pulchrum is a species of moss belonging to the family Sphagnaceae.
It has almost cosmopolitan distribution.
# Sphaerodactylus gilvitorques

Sphaerodactylus gilvitorques, also known as the Jamaican collared sphaero or Jamaican least gecko, is a species of lizard in the family Sphaerodactylidae. It is endemic to Jamaica.
# Sphaerodactylus continentalis

Sphaerodactylus continentalis is a species of lizard in the family Sphaerodactylidae. It is found in Honduras and southern Mexico.
# Sphaerodactylus callocricus

Sphaerodactylus callocricus, also known as the beautifully ringed sphaero, rough-banded sphaero or rough-banded least gecko, is a species of lizard in the family Sphaerodactylidae . It is endemic to the Dominican Republic.

## Taxonomic history

This species was described in 1976 by Albert Schwartz, who received multiple specimen collected by Louis G. Thompson in the Samaná peninsula during malacological surveys.
The type locality is "2.9 mi. (4.6 km) S Las Galeras, Samaná Province, República Dominicana".

### Etymology

The name "callocricus" has a Greek origin, and bears reference to the banded color pattern of this species. The specific epithet can be translated to "beautifully ringed", with "kallos" meaning "beautiful" and "krikos" meaning "ring".

## Distribution and habitat

This species is endemic to the Samaná peninsula on eastern Dominican Republic. Within the peninsula, this species is not common, and is associated with karstic forests, where it can be encountered under stones, boulders, leaf litter and other debris. Specimen can also be seen during the day active on the forest floor.

## Morphology

S. callocricus is a moderately sized species of Sphaerodactylus, with relatively large, keeled and imbricate dorsal scales. Members of this species are conspicuously banded, with dark transverse bands on a pale, yellowish gray background color. A very large scapular patch is present, with paired ocelli at its center. The head pattern consists on a series of stripes, blotches or bands forming a "W" shape.
There is little sexual dimorphism in this species, and both adult males, females and juveniles resemble each other. The pattern in juveniles tends to be much more contrasting, and it gradually fades in intensity as the specimen matures.

## Conservation

According to the most recent IUCN Red List assessment, S. callocricus is listed as critically endangered (CR).The distribution of S. callocricus is very restricted, and the species has been estimated to occupy a range of less than 100 km².
Tourism development, small scale agriculture and pasture expansion are the main threats affecting this species. S. callocricus needs old growth karstic forests to thrive, and these ecosystems are disappearing from the Samaná at a fast rate. As they are very sensitive to habitat perturbations, this species is threatened by human activities. The home range of the species is likewise drastically reduced, and recent surveys have failed to find surviving populations of this species in historical locations where habitat has been modified.

## Images

* Intact habitat of Sphaerodactylus callocricus.
* Former habitat of S. callocricus after being destroyed by human activities.
# Spilosoma mediopunctata

Spilosoma mediopunctata is a moth in the family Erebidae. It was described by Arnold Pagenstecher in 1903. It is found in Ethiopia and Somalia.

## Description
### Female

Head, thorax, and abdomen orange yellow; antennae black, except basal joint; abdomen with lateral series of black points and two small sublateral spots towards extremity. Forewing pale yellow; a subbasal black point in cell, points in upper and lower angles of cell and two beyond lower angle. Hindwing pale yellow with black discoidal spot.
Wingspan 28 mm.
# Spondylometaphyseal dysplasia, East-African type

Spondylometaphyseal dysplasia, East-African type is a rare genetic disorder which is characterized by skeletal abnormalities involving the vertebrae and the metaphysis. Only two isolated cases have been reported.

## Description

People with this disorder usually have the following symptoms:
* Severe early-onset metaphyseal dysplasia which makes the metaphyses have the shape of a bracket
* Pelvis dysplasia
* Oval-shaped vertebrae

## Etiology

This disorder was first discovered in 2002, by Verloes et al, when they described two un-related patients from East Africa, both of them had additional features such as short-limbed short stature, brachydactyly, etc. to be more specific, one child came from healthy un-related Rwandanese parents and the other child came from healthy un-related parents from Madagascar. They concluded that the patients did not have SMD type A4, but rather a brand new type of SMD.
# Spitting Off Tall Buildings

Spitting Off Tall Buildings was a Berlin Punk rock band headlined by the former VJ and actress Jana Pallaske (vocals), who assumed the stage name Bonnie Riot.

## Career

Pallaske and Radermacher founded the band in 2002. In 2003, they were joined by Jürgens, Albrecht and Eberle, also from Treptow, where they met her. They recorded their first EP and played their first show in 2004. During one of their first concerts, they met Moses Schneider, a music producer known for his work with Tocotronic and Beatsteaks. They soon signed with Sanctuary Records and released their debut album, Spitting Off Tall Buildings, on 30 September 2005. Moses produced their live recordings while Gordon Raphael, previously known for his work with The Strokes, produced the studio version. The album was mixed by Michael Ilbert of Sweden, who had worked with The Hives, The Hellacopters and Fireside.
The band's name is the title of a novel by American author Dan Fante.
Following the release of their second album, Good Night And Good Luck, on the label Exile On Mainstream on 11 May 2007, the band announced their separation (in late 2007). The album was recorded in a week at Electrical Audio in Chicago and was produced by Steve Albini.

## Discography
### Studio albums

* 2005: Spitting Off Tall Buildings (Sanctuary Records)
* 2007: Good Night And Good Luck (Exile on Mainstream)

### Live albums

* 2004: Spitting Off Tall Buildings (Self-distribution)
# Spitting Venom

Professional ratings :
| Review scores ||
| Source | Rating |
| Allmusic | |
| Metalcrypt | (4.25/5) |
| Metal-rules | |
| Revelationz | |
Spitting Venom is the debut, self-released EP from English heavy metal band Savage Messiah. It was released on 1 October 2007 on SMR Productions.

## Track listing

All tracks are written by Savage Messiah
# Squire (disambiguation)

A squire is a feudal follower of a knight, a lord of the manor, a member of the post-feudal landed gentry, or a modern informal appellation deriving from this.
Squire may also refer to:

## People

* Squire (name)

### Nickname

* Jaime Alguersuari, Spanish racing driver and DJ under the stage name Squire
* George W. Ebbert (1810–1890), mountain man and early settler in the Oregon Country
* Squire Gersh (born 1913), American jazz musician
* Richard "Squire" Lee (1726-1795), Virginian colonist and American politician active in the American Revolutionary War
* Squire Moore (1897-?), American baseball pitcher in the Negro leagues
* Mick Murray (Irish republican) (c. 1936-1999) or Squire Murray, IRA Volunteer named as a ringleader of the Birmingham Pub Bombings
* Dave Taylor (born 1957), English professional wrestler

## Places

* Squire, West Virginia, an unincorporated community
* Squire, a community in the township of Georgian Bluffs, Ontario, Canada
* Squire Island, Wilhelm Archipelago, off the coast of Antarctica
* Hundred of Squire, a cadastral unit in South Australia

## Transportation

* Squire Car Manufacturing Company, a British auto manufacturer of the 1930s
* Ford Squire, a car produced for the United Kingdom market between 1955 and 1959
* Squire sidecars, a British sidecar manufacturer

## Entertainment

* Squire (album), by Alan Hull
* Squire (novel), by Tamora Pierce
* Squire (comics), the name of three DC Comics superheroes

## Other

* The Squire Law Library, Cambridge, England
# St. Frances de Chantal's Church (Bronx)

The Church of St. Frances de Chantal is a Roman Catholic parish church under the authority of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York, located at Harding Avenue at Throggs Neck Blvd., Bronx, New York City. The parish was established in 1927.
The present Brutalist-style church structure was built 1971 to designs by Paul W. Reilly. Colorful chunks of stained glass are set directly into the concrete in the style of the then-contemporary European post-war stained-glass work. Larry Lawton was once an altar boy there.
The abstract style stained glass in the church was designed by Albinas Elksus. Correct spelling is Albinas Elskus. [1926-2007]

## Clergy and Staff

* Rev. Stephen A. Asomah - Administrator
* Rev. Dennis Iddamalgoda, O.M.I. - Parochial Vicar
* Rev. Michael McDonnell, OFM - Weekend Assistant
* Deacon George Coppola
* Sr. Joan Marie O’Leary, O.P. - Pastoral Associate
* Ms. Christi Chiapetti - Cantor/Coordinator of Religious Education
# St Armand

St-Armand, St. Armand, Saint Armand, or variation, may refer to:

## People

* Saint Herman (disambiguation), aka Saint Armand
* Barton Levi St. Armand, professor of literature

## Places

* Saint-Armand, Quebec, Canada
* St. Armand, New York, USA
* St. Armand's Key in Florida, USA
# St. Louis Golf Classic

The St. Louis Golf Classic was a golf tournament on the Nike Tour. It ran from 1994 to 1998. From 1994 to 1996 it was played at Lake Forest Golf & Country Club in Lake St. Louis, Missouri. In 1997 and 1998 it was played at Missouri Bluffs Golf Course in St. Charles.
In 1998 the winner earned $40,500.

## Winners

| Year | Winner | Score | To par | Margin of victory | Runner(s)-up |
| Nike St. Louis Golf Classic ||||||
| 1998 | Chris Starkjohann | 263 | −17 | 1 stroke | Notah Begay III |
| 1997 | Todd Gleaton | 261 | −23 | 3 strokes | Ardon Knoll |
| Nike Gateway Classic ||||||
| 1996 | Tim Conley | 278 | −10 | Playoff | Javier Sanchez |
| 1995 | Chris Smith | 203 | −13 | Playoff | Glen Hnatiuk |
| 1994 | Brad Fabel | 279 | −9 | 1 stroke | Jim Carter Chris Perry |
# St. Mary's College, Manarcaud

St. Mary's College, Manarcaud is a government aided college of higher education located in Manarcaud town, Kerala, India. It was founded on August 7, 1981, by the St. Mary's Jacobite Syrian Cathedral Manarcad. The college is affiliated to Mahatma Gandhi University Kottayam and was re-accredited with B grade by NAAC in May 2015. The college is recognized under the sections 2(f) and 12B of the UGC Act 1956. The Government of Kerala has recognized the college as a Special Grade College.

## Notable alumni

* Kalabhavan Shajohn, Actor
# St. Maria ad Gradus

St. Maria ad Gradus ("Our Lady of the Steps", also colloquially called Mariengraden in German language) is the name of a former church located East of the Cathedral of Cologne, Germany, situated between the cathedral and the Rhine.
Founded by Herman II, Archbishop of Cologne, the church was the burial site of blessed Richeza of Lotharingia (died March 1063), a former Queen of Poland and a grandchild of Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor and his wife Theophanu. The Romanesque building, 55m long and 42m wide, was probably completed by Archbishop Anno II in 1075, when the relics of St. Agilulfus of Cologne (died 750) were transferred there. St Mary's functioned as a ceremonial reception church. In 1080 it burned down, but was rebuilt in 1085 and later expanded. Also on the premises was the separate Afrakapelle, a chapel dedicated to Saint Afra.
The remains of Richeza and others were later translated to the cathedral, which had been begun in 1248. Konrad von Hochstaden was canon of St. Maria ad Gradus and Archbishop of Cologne at this time, from 1238 to 1261.
Following the French occupation of the Rhineland in 1794, monasteries and religious foundations were dissolved, and churches abandoned. Most of the members left the monastery, which was dissolved in 1802.
As St. Maria ad Gradus was too close to other churches (the Cathedral, Great St. Martin's, and St. Andreas), it was partially demolished in 1817; and most of what remained was removed in 1827 when the area was cleared to allow the Cathedral's restoration and completion. Only a few fragments remain. After excavations at the cathedral in 1866, finds related to St. Mariengraden were sent to various museums.

## Other burials

* Conrad I, Duke of Bavaria
* Agilulfus of Cologne
# St. Maria in der Kupfergasse

St. Maria in der Kupfergasse is a Baroque church in Cologne, western Germany, in the district of Innenstadt. The pilgrimage church is dedicated to St. Mary, the Black Madonna. It was completed in 1715 and measures 37.20 meters in length and 17.30 metres in width.
# St. Theresa's Church, Haining

St. Theresa's Church, Haining (Chinese: 圣女小德肋撒天主堂) is a Roman Catholic church located in the town of Chang'an, Haining, Zhejiang, China.

## History

The church was originally built in 1929 by Chinese believers and belonged to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Hangzhou.
In January 2017, it was declared a provincial cultural relic preservation organ by the Zhejiang government.

## Architecture

The church is seven rooms wide with a Gothic style. It has a 17-metre (56 ft) high bell tower.
# St. Stephen's Episcopal Church (Schuylerville, New York)

St. Stephen's Episcopal Church is a historic Episcopal church at 1 Grove Street in Schuylerville, Saratoga County, New York. It was built in 1868 and is a cruciform plan church building in the Gothic Revival style. It is built of quarry faced stone block laid in random ashlar. It features a steeply pitched gable roof and polygonal steeple, both covered in ornate polychrome slate.
It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2005.
# St Clair Leacock

St Clair Leacock is a Vincentian politician. He is an opposition parliament member in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. Leacock is also the New Democratic Party Central Kingstown candidate for 2020 Vincentian general election.
In 2000, Leacock was President of the Employers' Federation in St. Vincent and the Grenadines

## Political career

In 2010, Leacock joined the New Democratic Party. In the 13 December 2010 general election Leacock contested and ran for Central Kingstown and was elected to the House of Assembly as member of the opposition in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines after winning 54.09% of the vote. His party was unable to get in government but he was able to win his seat in Parliament.
In the 2015 election, Leacock was once again elected to the House of Assembly after winning his seat for Central Kingstown. He and his party colleagues claim that the election was stolen, and his party is currently in the process of a court case willing to get in government.