# Kho-Bwa languages

The Kho-Bwa languages, also known as Kamengic, are a small family of languages, or pair of families, spoken in Arunachal Pradesh, northeast India. The name Kho-Bwa was originally proposed by George van Driem (2001). It is based on the reconstructed words *kho ("water") and *bwa ("fire"). Blench (2011) suggests the name Kamengic, from the Kameng area of Arunachal Pradesh. Alternatively, Anderson (2014) refers to Kho-Bwa as Northeast Kamengic.
Both Van Driem and Blench group the Sherdukpen (or Mey), Lishpa (or Khispi), Chug (Duhumbi) and Sartang languages together. These form a language cluster and are clearly related. The pair of Sulung (or Puroik) and Khowa (or Bugun) languages are included in the family by Van Driem (2001) but provisionally treated as a second family by Blench (2024).
These languages have traditionally been placed in the Tibeto-Burman group by the Linguistic Survey of India, but the justification of this is open to question. The languages have certainly been strongly influenced by the neighboring Sino-Tibetan languages, but this does not necessarily imply genetic unity and may possibly be a purely areal effect.
The entire language family has about 15,000 speakers (including Puroik) or about 10,000 speakers (excluding Puroik), according to estimates made during the 2000s.
Word lists and sociolinguistic surveys of Kho-Bwa languages have also been conducted by Abraham, et al. (2018).

## Classification

The internal structure of the Kho-Bwa group of languages is as follows. The similarities between Puroik–Bugun and Sherdukpen/Mey are sporadic and may be due to contact. Lieberherr (2015) considers Puroik to be a Tibeto-Burman language, which would imply that at least Bugun is as well.

### Blench & Post (2024)

* Puroik–Bugun
** Puroik (Sulung)
** Bugun (Khowa)
* Mey (Mö) [dialect cluster]
** Sherdukpen [2 languages]
*** Shergaon
*** Rupa (Mö)
** Sartang (But Monpa) [2 languages]
*** Rahung
*** Jergaon
** Chug–Lish [1 language]
*** Khispi (Lish)
*** Gompatse
*** Duhumbi (Chug)

### Lieberherr & Bodt (2017)

Lieberherr & Bodt (2017) consider Puroik to be a Kho-Bwa language, and classify the Kho-Bwa languages as follows.
* Kho-Bwa
** Puroik
** Bugun
** Western Kho-Bwa
*** Sherdukpen, Sartang
*** Chug (Duhumbi), Lish (Khispi)

### Tresoldi et al. (2022)

Based on computational phylogenetic analyses from Tresoldi et al. (2022), the phylogenetic tree of Kho-Bwa is roughly as follows:
* Kho-Bwa
** Western
*** Duhumbi–Khispi (Chug–Lish): Duhumbi (Chug), Khispi (Lish)
*** Mey–Sartang: Shergaon, Rupa, Jerigaon, Khoina, Rahung, Khoitam
** Bugun
*** A
**** Bulu, Rawa, Kojo Rojo
**** Sario Saria, Lasumpatte, Chayangtajo
*** B
**** Namphri, Kaspi
**** Wangho, Dikhyang
**** Singchaung, Bichom

## Vocabulary

The following table of Kho-Bwa basic vocabulary items is from Blench (2015).
| Gloss | Mey (Shergaon) | Mey (Rupa) | Sartang (Jergaon) | Sartang (Rahung) | Lish (Khispi) | Chug (Duhumbi) |
| one | hǎn | han | hèn | hân | hin | hin |
| two | ɲǐt | ɲik | nìk | ně | ɲes | niʃ |
| three | ùŋ | uŋ | ùŋ | ùún | ʔum | om |
| four | pʰʃì | bsi | sì | psì | pʰəhi | psi |
| five | kʰù | kʰu | kʰù | kʰu | kʰa | kʰa |
| six | ʧùk | kit | ʧìk | ʨěy | ʧʰuʔ | ʧyk |
| seven | ʃìt | sit | sìk | sǐ, sě | ʃis | his |
| eight | sàʤát | sarʤat | sàrgè | sàrʤɛ́ | saɾgeʔ | saɾgeʔ |
| nine | tʰkʰí | dʰikʰi | tʰkʰì | tɛ̀kʰɯ́ | ṱʰikʰu | ṱʰikʰu |
| ten | sɔ̀ ̃ | sõ | sã̀ | sɔ | ʃan | ʃan |
| head | kʰruk | kʰruk | kʰrǔk | kʰruʔ | kʰoloʔ | kʰloʔ |
| nose | nupʰuŋ | nəfuŋ | nfùŋ | apʰuŋ | hempoŋ | heŋpʰoŋ |
| eye | khibi | kivi | kábì | kʰaʔby | kʰumu | kʰum |
| ear | kʰtùŋ | gtʰiŋ | gtʰìŋ | ktèíŋ | kʰutʰuŋ | kʰutʰuŋ |
| tongue | laphõ | lapon | ? | le | loi | loi |
| tooth | nuthuŋ | tokʧe | mísìŋ | nitʰiŋ | ʃiŋtuŋ | hintuŋ |
| arm | ik | ik | ìk | ik | hu | hut |
| leg | là | lapon | lɛ̌ | lɛ̌ | lei | lai |
| belly | ʃrìŋ | sliŋ | srìŋ | sriŋ | hiɲiŋ | hiliŋ |
| bone | skìk | skik | àhík | skik | ʃukuʃ | ʃukuʃ |
| blood | hà | ha(a) | hɛ̀ | ha | hoi | hoi |
| face | dòŋpù | bo | mi | zə̀í | doʔ | doŋpa |
| tooth | ntùŋ | tokʧe | mísìŋ | ptə̀íŋ | ʃiŋtuŋ | hintuŋ |
| stomach | àlà | karbu | ʧàk | phriŋ | hiɲiŋ | hiliŋ |
| mouth | ʧàw | nəʧaw | so | ʨʨǒ | hoʧok | kʰoʧu |
| rain | ʧuuma | nimi | nʧʰù | ʧuʧuba | namu | namu |