OpenLLM-France/wikimedia huggingface dataset:
# Velvety manakin

The velvety manakin (Lepidothrix velutina) is a species of bird in the family Pipridae. It is found from Costa Rica to Ecuador. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forest.
The velvety manakin was formerly considered to be conspecific with Lepidothrix coronata and together they were known under the common name "blue-crowned manakin". A study published in 2022 found that there were significant vocal and phylogenetic differences between the west of Andes taxa and those from the east of the Andes. The velvety manakin was therefore promoted to species status and the "blue-crowned manakin" renamed to the blue-capped manakin.
# Khatchik

Khatchík or Khatchig is an Armenian given name (now it is a diminutive of Khachatur). Notable people with the name include:
* Khachig I — Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church between 973 and 992.
* Gurgen-Khachik Artsruni (died 1003) — Lord of Rechtuniq, King of Vaspurakan (991-1003) — Brother of Ashot-Sahak
* Khachik Dashtents - writer
* Khatchig Babikian (1924-1999) was a philanthropist, attorney, former member of the Lebanese Parliament (1957-1999) a Lebanese politician of Armenian origin.
* Khachik Babayan — renowned Iranian violin player.
# Variance decomposition of forecast errors

In econometrics and other applications of multivariate time series analysis, a variance decomposition or forecast error variance decomposition (FEVD) is used to aid in the interpretation of a vector autoregression (VAR) model once it has been fitted. The variance decomposition indicates the amount of information each variable contributes to the other variables in the autoregression. It determines how much of the forecast error variance of each of the variables can be explained by exogenous shocks to the other variables.

## Calculating the forecast error variance

For the VAR (p) of form
    $y_{t}=\nu +A_{1}y_{t-1}+\dots +A_{p}y_{t-p}+u_{t}$ .
This can be changed to a VAR(1) structure by writing it in companion form (see general matrix notation of a VAR(p))
    $Y_{t}=V+AY_{t-1}+U_{t}$ where
       $A={\begin{bmatrix}A_{1}&A_{2}&\dots &A_{p-1}&A_{p}\\\mathbf {I} _{k}&0&\dots &0&0\\0&\mathbf {I} _{k}&&0&0\\\vdots &&\ddots &\vdots &\vdots \\0&0&\dots &\mathbf {I} _{k}&0\\\end{bmatrix}}$ , $Y={\begin{bmatrix}y_{1}\\\vdots \\y_{p}\end{bmatrix}}$, $V={\begin{bmatrix}\nu \\0\\\vdots \\0\end{bmatrix}}$ and $U_{t}={\begin{bmatrix}u_{t}\\0\\\vdots \\0\end{bmatrix}}$
where $y_{t}$, $\nu$ and $u$ are $k$ dimensional column vectors, $A$ is $kp$ by $kp$ dimensional matrix and $Y$, $V$ and $U$ are $kp$ dimensional column vectors.
The mean squared error of the h-step forecast of variable $j$ is
    $\mathbf {MSE} [y_{j,t}(h)]=\sum _{i=0}^{h-1}\sum _{l=1}^{k}(e_{j}'\Theta _{i}e_{l})^{2}={\bigg\sum _{i=0}^{h-1}\Theta _{i}\Theta _{i}'{\bigg )}_{jj}={\bigg\sum _{i=0}^{h-1}\Phi _{i}\Sigma _{u}\Phi _{i}'{\bigg )}_{jj},$
and where
   * $e_{j}$ is the jth column of $I_{k}$ and the subscript $jj$ refers to that element of the matrix
   * $\Theta _{i}=\Phi _{i}P,$ where $P$ is a lower triangular matrix obtained by a Cholesky decomposition of $\Sigma _{u}$ such that $\Sigma _{u}=PP'$, where $\Sigma _{u}$ is the covariance matrix of the errors $u_{t}$
   * $\Phi _{i}=JA^{i}J',$ where $J={\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {I} _{k}&0&\dots &0\end{bmatrix}},$ so that $J$ is a $k$ by $kp$ dimensional matrix.
The amount of forecast error variance of variable $j$ accounted for by exogenous shocks to variable $l$ is given by $\omega _{jl,h},$
    $\omega _{jl,h}=\sum _{i=0}^{h-1}(e_{j}'\Theta _{i}e_{l})^{2}/MSE[y_{j,t}(h)].$
# Swami silver

Swami silver is the name given to a distinctive style of silverware that originated in the South Indian city of Chennai (then called Madras) under the British Raj. It is characterised by figures of Hindu deities. A variety of designs emerged these included: trays, tea sets, tankards, jugs, goblets, ewers, trophies and visiting card cases called Swami, meaning God in Tamil, from its depiction of deities.
Swami silver was pioneered and popularised by an English company, P.Orr & Sons. The Orr brothers, Peter and Alexander, arrived in Madras from Scotland in 1843. They made their initial fortune by selling ice, before joining the watchmaker George Gordon & Co. When Gordon retired in 1849, they took over the business and diversified into gold, diamonds and silverware. The jewellery business closed in 1944 at the height of The Second World War. The company went back to its original business of selling watches.
In 1875, and when the Prince of Wales visited India in 1876, they were commissioned to make special ceremonial gifts by various maharajas. The maharajas of Indore and Baroda had tea services made, while the maharaja of Cochin commissioned a complete dessert service. In 1876, P Orr and Sons was designated as "Manufacturing Jewellers, Gold and Silversmiths to His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, By Special Appointment". The silversmiths who worked in their atelier were initially British, but soon Indian craftsmen became better in this work. Swami silver combined English form with Hindu motifs and was characterized by extraordinary attention to detail. The deities were fashioned in exceptionally crisp high relief achieved by brilliant repoussé, and included Rama, Krishna, Shiva, Ganesha, Hanuman and Lakshmi. Many pieces were monogrammed "ORR & Sons, Madras.", "P. Orr & Sons of Madras," or just "ORR".
Competition began emerging for P Orr and Sons, mainly in Bangalore and Tiruchirappalli. The first was Krishnaiah Chetty & Sons in Bangalore. Though highly prized for its ornate design, swami silver had critics in England for the excessive use of Hindu motifs. Omarsi Maoji of Kutch cashed in on this demand for secular designs and their version of swami silver featured more animals and birds and fewer gods.
# Ventabren

Ventabren (French pronunciation:) is a commune in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in Southern France.

## Geography

The historical village of Ventabren is close to Aix-en-Provence (to the east), 6 km (3.7 mi) away from Coudoux and Velaux to the west.

## History

The village dates back to 920–940 AD, when Guillaume I, Count of Provence, had a castle built there.
In 1851 the village comprised 327 houses. Six years later, a railway was built.
The 393-metre long Roquefavour Aqueduct (Aqueduc de Roquefavour), located on the territory of the commune, was built from 1842 to 1847 to convey water from the Durance to Marseille, as part of the Canal de Marseille. It is the world's largest stone aqueduct.

## Demographics

| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
| 1793 | 1,678 | — |
| 1800 | 960 | −7.67% |
| 1806 | 1,301 | +5.20% |
| 1821 | 1,408 | +0.53% |
| 1831 | 1,357 | −0.37% |
| 1836 | 1,309 | −0.72% |
| 1841 | 1,600 | +4.10% |
| 1846 | 1,844 | +2.88% |
| 1851 | 1,245 | −7.56% |
| 1856 | 1,290 | +0.71% |
| 1861 | 1,301 | +0.17% |
| 1866 | 1,151 | −2.42% |
| 1872 | 1,130 | −0.31% |
| 1876 | 1,121 | −0.20% |
| 1881 | 1,075 | −0.83% |
| 1886 | 1,015 | −1.14% |
| 1891 | 1,019 | +0.08% |
| 1896 | 1,011 | −0.16% |
| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
| 1901 | 985 | −0.52% |
| 1906 | 988 | +0.06% |
| 1911 | 889 | −2.09% |
| 1921 | 951 | +0.68% |
| 1926 | 896 | −1.18% |
| 1931 | 832 | −1.47% |
| 1936 | 787 | −1.11% |
| 1946 | 889 | +1.23% |
| 1954 | 509 | −6.73% |
| 1962 | 603 | +2.14% |
| 1968 | 934 | +7.57% |
| 1975 | 1,537 | +7.38% |
| 1982 | 2,717 | +8.48% |
| 1990 | 3,742 | +4.08% |
| 1999 | 4,552 | +2.20% |
| 2009 | 4,674 | +0.26% |
| 2014 | 5,067 | +1.63% |
| 2020 | 5,381 | +1.01% |
Source: EHESS and INSEE (1968–2020) :
# Khodair al-Khozaei

Khodair al-Khozaei (also transliterated as Khudayir al-Khuza'i; born 20 June 1947) served as Vice President of Iraq between 2011 and 2014. He is a member of the Islamic Dawa Party - Iraq Organisation party.
He was appointed by Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki in May 2006.
He was born in 1947 in Maysan and obtained Doctorate in the Philosophy of Islamic thought and Quranic Studies. He worked in universities and has written books on Quranic interpretation.
He was elected to the Iraqi National Assembly in January 2005 and December 2005 as part of the United Iraqi Alliance list.
# Vermont Route 225

Vermont Route 225 (VT 225) is a short 1.59-mile-long (2.56 km) state highway in Grand Isle County, Vermont, United States. It runs from U.S. Route 2 (US 2) north of Alburgh and runs due north to the Canadian border, where it becomes Quebec Route 225, from which it derives its number. The route is entirely within Alburgh in Grand Isle County. The entirety of VT 225 is maintained by the town of Alburgh.
Route 225 most practically serves as part of a connection between Vermont and the city of Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu in Quebec, located about 31 mi (50 km) southeast of Montreal, Quebec. Quebec Route 225 ends in Sainte-Anne-de-Sabrevois, roughly eight miles (13 km) from Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu.

## Route description

VT 225 is essentially a northern spur of US 2, which approaches running northward through the town of Alburgh. US 2 turns westward towards its final approach to New York, and VT 225 begins to the north. The route only intersects two through roads: a short former alignment of US 2 literally mere yards long, and Blair Road, a secondary road which parallels VT 225 northward to the border. Both of these intersections occur within a quarter mile of VT 225's southern terminus. VT 225, appropriately named Border Road, runs almost directly north to the Canadian border at the Alburgh–Noyan Border Crossing, only passing a few isolated homes along the way. Upon crossing the border into Quebec, the road becomes Quebec Route 225.

## History

The length of VT 225 was designated as part of VT 104, a highway extending from VT 15 in Cambridge north to the Canadian border near Alburgh, by 1938. VT 104 was truncated on its northern end to St. Albans in the mid-to-late 1950s, at which time the former routing of VT 104 between Alburgh and the border was re-designated VT 68. It was renumbered to VT 225 between 1976 and 1985 to match the designation of the highway it connected to (Quebec Route 225) in Quebec.

## Major intersections

The entire route is in Alburgh, Grand Isle County.
| mi | km | Destinations | Notes |
| 0.00 | 0.00 | US 2 – St. Albans, Burlington, Rouses Point NY | Southern terminus |
| 1.59 | 2.56 | R-225 north – Noyan | Continuation into Quebec |
| 1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi ||||
# Kibby Wind Power Project

45°23′52″N 70°32′04″W﻿ / ﻿45.397802°N 70.534354°W﻿ / 45.397802; -70.534354 Kibby Wind Power Project is a wind farm on Kibby Mountain in Franklin County, Maine, United States of America.

## History

In the mid 1990s, Kibby Mountain entered the public spotlight when a wind farm was proposed for the mountain and neighboring peaks. The project was subject to much public debate and was revised repeatedly. TransCanada Corporation's third proposal, in 2006, was for 44 3-megawatt (MW) wind turbines strung along the ridges of Kibby Mountain and nearby Kibby Range. While still opposed by the advocacy group Friends of the Boundary Mountains, other environmental groups including the Appalachian Mountain Club, Maine Audubon, and Natural Resources Council of Maine announced their support for the project in 2007. Among other conditions, TransCanada agreed not to develop wind facilities on approximately 1,324 acres (536 ha) of land above 2,700 feet (820 m) near the project area.
On January 15, 2008, Maine's Land Use Regulation Commission (LURC) unanimously approved TransCanada's preliminary development plan and rezoning request for 2,367 acres (958 ha). The commission rejected another, smaller wind power project on Black Nubble but concluded that the Kibby mountains have "relatively low use by the public, and these mountains have not been designated as having regionally scenic significance." The LURC gave final approval on July 10, 2008.
The wind farm — at a capacity of 132 MW, New England's largest — is expected to generate about 357 million kilowatt-hours (41 MW·yr) of electricity annually. Half the turbines were put online in October 2009, and the remainder in 2010. The capital cost of the project has grown to approximately US $350 million. An expansion, of perhaps 45 MW, is under consideration.
# Verducci

Verducci is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
* Joe Verducci (1910–1964), American football player and coach and college athletics administrator
* Tom Verducci (born 1960), American sportswriter
# Swimming at the 2010 South American Games – Women's 200 metre freestyle

The Women's 200m freestyle event at the 2010 South American Games was held on March 28, with the heats at 10:54 and the Final at 18:15.

## Medalists

| Gold | Silver | Bronze |
| Cecilia Biagioli Argentina | Tatiana Barbosa Brazil | Yanel Pinto Venezuela |

## Records

Standing records prior to the 2010 South American Games :
| World record | Federica Pellegrini (ITA) | 1:52.98 | Rome, Italy | 29 July 2009 |
| Competition Record | Cecilia Biagioli (ARG) | 2:02.70 | Buenos Aires, Argentina | 17 November 2006 |
| South American record | Monique Ferreira (BRA) | 1:59.78 | Rio de Janeiro, Brazil | 6 May 2009 |

## Results
### Heats

| Rank | Heat | Lane | Athlete | Result | Notes |
| 1 | 1 | 5 | Nicole Maria Gilbert (ECU) | 2:06.67 | Q |
| 2 | 1 | 4 | Yanel Adriana Pinto (VEN) | 2:06.77 | Q |
| 3 | 3 | 6 | Valentina Hurtado (COL) | 2:07.98 | Q |
| 4 | 3 | 4 | Tatiana Barbosa (BRA) | 2:08.10 | Q |
| 5 | 3 | 5 | Sarah Correa (BRA) | 2:08.50 | Q |
| 6 | 2 | 4 | Cecilia Biagioli (ARG) | 2:08.70 | Q |
| 7 | 2 | 5 | Virginia Bardach (ARG) | 2:09.74 | Q |
| 8 | 2 | 3 | Maria Alejandra Perez (PER) | 2:09.93 | Q |
| 9 | 3 | 3 | Darneyis Orozco (VEN) | 2:10.07 | |
| 10 | 1 | 6 | Samantha Michelle Salinas (ECU) | 2:10.85 | |
| 11 | 1 | 3 | Daniela Kaori Coello (PER) | 2:10.87 | |
| 12 | 2 | 2 | Ines Remersaro (URU) | 2:11.09 | |
| 13 | 1 | 2 | Mariana Ramirez (CHI) | 1:11.76 | |
| 14 | 2 | 6 | Carmen Maury (COL) | 2:12.20 | |
| 15 | 3 | 2 | Chinyere Pigot (SUR) | 2:14.36 | |
| 16 | 3 | 7 | Daniella van den Berg (ARU) | 2:14.50 | |
| 17 | 2 | 1 | Maria Jose Quintanilla (BOL) | 2:18.37 | |
| 18 | 2 | 7 | Josefina Meneses (CHI) | 2:21.11 | |
| 19 | 3 | 1 | Chandel Domaso (SUR) | 2:22.75 | |
| 20 | 1 | 7 | Maria Nery Huerta (PAR) | 2:23.55 | |

### Final

| Rank | Lane | Athlete | Result |
| | 7 | Cecilia Biagioli (ARG) | 2:03.28 |
| | 6 | Tatiana Barbosa (BRA) | 2:05.00 |
| | 5 | Yanel Pinto (VEN) | 2:05.07 |
| 4 | 2 | Sarah Correa (BRA) | 2:05.99 |
| 5 | 3 | Valentina Hurtado (COL) | 2:06.73 |
| 6 | 4 | Nicole Maria Gilbert (ECU) | 2:06.86 |
| 7 | 8 | Maria Alejandra Perez (PER) | 2:10.14 |
| 8 | 1 | Virginia Bardach (ARG) | 2:10.16 |
# Syllectra erycata

Syllectra erycata is a moth in the family Erebidae first described by Pieter Cramer in 1780. It is found from Florida, Texas and the Antilles (Jamaica, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Kitts, Hispaniola, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Saint Lucia, Grenada) to Brazil, Peru, Suriname and Bolivia.
The wingspan is about 35 mm.
# Syllegomydas

Syllegomydas is a genus of flies in the family Mydidae.

## Species

* Syllegomydas algiricus (Gerstaecker, 1868)
* Syllegomydas arnoldi Béquaert, 1938
* Syllegomydas astrictus Dikow, 2010
* Syllegomydas berlandi Séguy, 1941
* Syllegomydas bezzii Arias, 1914
* Syllegomydas botta (Macquart, 1850)
* Syllegomydas brachiatus Séguy, 1941
* Syllegomydas bueni Arias, 1914
* Syllegomydas cinctus (Macquart, 1835)
* Syllegomydas claripennis Becker, 1906
* Syllegomydas dallonii Séguy, 1936
* Syllegomydas dispar (Loew, 1852)
* Syllegomydas efflatouni Bezzi, 1924
* Syllegomydas elachys Dikow, 2010
* Syllegomydas gestroi Séguy, 1932
* Syllegomydas guichardi Béquaert, 1961
* Syllegomydas heothinos Dikow, 2010
* Syllegomydas lamborni Béquaert, 1951
* Syllegomydas maroccanus Séguy, 1928
* Syllegomydas merceti Arias, 1914
* Syllegomydas palestinensis Béquaert, 1961
* Syllegomydas proximus Séguy, 1928
* Syllegomydas rhodesiensis Béquaert, 1938
* Syllegomydas spinipes Bezzi, 1924
* Syllegomydas vittatus (Wiedemann, 1828)
# Kiezgeschichten

Kiezgeschichten is an East German television series.
# Swimming at the 2022 Mediterranean Games – Women's 200 metre freestyle

The women's 200 metre freestyle competition at the 2022 Mediterranean Games was held on 2 July 2022 at the Aquatic Center of the Olympic Complex in Bir El Djir.

## Records

Prior to this competition, the existing world and Mediterranean Games records were as follows:
| World record | Federica Pellegrini (ITA) | 1:52.98 | Rome, Italy | 29 July 2009 |
| Mediterranean Games record | Patricia Castro (ESP) | 1:58.91 | Pescara, Italy | 30 June 2009 |
The following records were established during the competition:
| Date | Event | Name | Nationality | Time | Record |
| 2 July | Final | Janja Šegel | Slovenia | 1:56.68 | GR |

## Results
### Heats

The heats were started at 10:20.
| Rank | Heat | Lane | Name | Nationality | Time | Notes |
| 1 | 2 | 4 | Janja Šegel | Slovenia | 2:00.04 | Q |
| 2 | 3 | 4 | Katja Fain | Slovenia | 2:00.17 | Q |
| 3 | 2 | 3 | Lucile Tessariol | France | 2:00.42 | Q |
| 4 | 1 | 4 | Alice Mizzau | Italy | 2:01.04 | Q |
| 5 | 3 | 5 | Océane Carnez | France | 2:01.11 | Q |
| 6 | 2 | 3 | Noemi Cesarano | Italy | 2:01.54 | Q |
| 7 | 1 | 3 | Ainhoa Campabadal | Spain | 2:02.20 | Q |
| 8 | 2 | 6 | Francisca Martins | Portugal | 2:02.38 | Q |
| 9 | 3 | 2 | Tamila Holub | Portugal | 2:02.45 | |
| 10 | 2 | 5 | Merve Tuncel | Turkey | 2:02.47 | |
| 11 | 1 | 6 | Xanthi Mitsakou | Greece | 2:02.91 | |
| 12 | 3 | 6 | Paula Juste | Spain | 2:03.51 | |
| 13 | 1 | 5 | Beril Böcekler | Turkey | 2:04.53 | |
| 14 | 2 | 2 | Chrysoula Mitsakou | Greece | 2:06.42 | |
| 15 | 1 | 2 | Lilia Sihem Midouni | Algeria | 2:11.14 | |
| 16 | 2 | 7 | Sara Dande | Albania | 2:19.31 | |

### Final

The final was held at 18:18.
| Rank | Lane | Name | Nationality | Time | Notes |
| | 4 | Janja Šegel | Slovenia | 1:56.68 | GR |
| | 5 | Katja Fain | Slovenia | 1:57.49 | |
| | 6 | Alice Mizzau | Italy | 1:59.95 | |
| 4 | 3 | Lucile Tessariol | France | 2:00.40 | |
| 5 | 2 | Océane Carnez | France | 2:01.12 | |
| 6 | 7 | Noemi Cesarano | Italy | 2:01.21 | |
| 7 | 8 | Francisca Martins | Portugal | 2:02.02 | |
| 8 | 1 | Ainhoa Campabadal | Spain | 2:02.20 | |
# Swimming at the 2022 Mediterranean Games – Women's 400 metre individual medley

The women's 400 metre individual medley competition at the 2022 Mediterranean Games was held on 1 July 2022 at the Aquatic Center of the Olympic Complex in Bir El Djir.

## Records

Prior to this competition, the existing world and Mediterranean Games records were as follows:
| World record | Katinka Hosszú (HUN) | 4:26.36 | Rio de Janeiro, Brazil | 6 August 2016 |
| Mediterranean Games record | Catalina Corró (ESP) | 4:39.42 | Tarragona, Spain | 23 June 2018 |

## Results
### Heats

The heats were started at 10:20.
| Rank | Heat | Lane | Name | Nationality | Time | Notes |
| 1 | 1 | 4 | Deniz Ertan | Turkey | 4:46.28 | Q |
| 2 | 2 | 4 | Sara Franceschi | Italy | 4:46.75 | Q |
| 3 | 2 | 5 | Alba Vázquez | Spain | 4:49.60 | Q |
| 4 | 2 | 2 | Raquel Pereira | Portugal | 4:50.36 | Q |
| 5 | 2 | 3 | Lara Grangeon | France | 4:50.47 | Q, WD |
| 6 | 1 | 6 | Viktoriya Zeynep Güneş | Turkey | 4:51.67 | Q |
| 7 | 1 | 5 | Carlotta Toni | Italy | 4:51.99 | Q |
| 8 | 2 | 6 | Paula Juste | Spain | 4:53.58 | Q |
| 9 | 1 | 3 | Camille Tissandié | France | 4:54.84 | Q |
| 10 | 2 | 7 | Hamida Rania Nefsi | Algeria | 5:01.05 | |
| 11 | 1 | 7 | Imène Kawthar Zitouni | Algeria | 5:04.81 | |
| 12 | 1 | 2 | Chrysoula Mitsakou | Greece | 5:07.27 | |

### Final

The final was held at 18:18.
| Rank | Lane | Name | Nationality | Time |
| | 5 | Sara Franceschi | Italy | 4:40.86 |
| | 4 | Deniz Ertan | Turkey | 4:40.97 |
| | 3 | Alba Vázquez | Spain | 4:45.63 |
| 4 | 2 | Viktoriya Zeynep Güneş | Turkey | 4:46.30 |
| 5 | 6 | Raquel Pereira | Portugal | 4:48.92 |
| 6 | 1 | Paula Juste | Spain | 4:52.16 |
| 7 | 8 | Camille Tissandié | France | 4:52.18 |
| 8 | 7 | Carlotta Toni | Italy | 4:54.80 |
# Versonnex, Haute-Savoie

Versonnex is a commune in the Haute-Savoie department of the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in south-eastern France.
# Verschaeve

Verschaeve is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
* Cyriel Verschaeve (1874–1949), Flemish nationalist priest
* Roger Verschaeve (born 1951), Belgian racing cyclist
* Viktor Verschaeve (born 1998), Belgian former cyclist
# Khunale exclosure

Khunale is an exclosure located in the Dogu'a Tembien woreda of the Tigray Region in Ethiopia. The area has been protected since 1990 by the local community.

## Environmental characteristics

Source:
* Aspect: the exclosure is oriented towards the northwest
* Minimum altitude: 2420 metres
* Maximum altitude: 2480 metres
* Lithology: mixed sandstone and limestone lithology, partly covered by transported vertic clay material

## Management

As a general rule, cattle ranging and wood harvesting are not allowed. The grasses are harvested once yearly and taken to the homesteads of the village to feed livestock. Physical soil and water conservation has been implemented to enhance infiltration, and vegetation growth.

## Benefits for the community

Setting aside such areas fits with the long-term vision of the communities were hiza’iti lands are set aside for use by the future generations. It has also direct benefits for the community:
* improved infiltration
* improved ground water availability
* honey production
* climate ameliorator (temperature, moisture)
* carbon sequestration, dominantly sequestered in the soil, and additionally in the woody vegetation)

## Water conservation

In the Khunale exclosure, more than 600 precise measurements were done in 2003 and 2004, using seven runoff plots, where the volume of runoff was measured daily. The rock type (Amba Aradam Sandstone and Antalo Limestone), slope gradient and slope aspect were the same, the only difference was the land management and vegetation density. Whereas in degraded rangeland, 11.8% of the rainfall flows directly away to the river (runoff coefficient), this happens only for 4.7% of the rain in a recent exclosure and 0.3% in an old exclosure.

## Improved ecosystem

With vegetation growth, biodiversity in this exclosure has strongly improved: there is more varied vegetation and wildlife.
In the oldest parts of this exclosure, humus profiles are best developed. The old exclosures are also characterised by a variety of humus forms, caused by the variation in shrub and tree density and species composition.