# Diaspora revolt

The term "Diaspora Revolt" (115–117; Hebrew: מרד הגלויות, romanized: mered ha-galuyot, or מרד התפוצות mered ha-tfutzot; "rebellion of the diaspora" Latin: Tumultus Iudaicus) refers to a series of uprisings that occurred in Jewish diaspora communities across the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire during Emperor Trajan's reign. These revolts occurred while Trajan was in Mesopotamia, engaged in his Parthian campaign. The ancient sources do not specify the exact motivations, but they were likely influenced by the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, long-standing tensions between Jews and Greeks, the Fiscus Judaicus tax, and messianic expectations.
The uprisings unfolded almost simultaneously across various provinces of the Roman East. In Egypt, Libya and Cyprus, Jewish actions were primarily directed against local populations rather than the Roman authorities, with accounts from historians like Cassius Dio, as well as epigraphical evidence, documenting extreme violence, including mass killings and the destruction of temples. In contrast, the rebellion in Mesopotamia seems to have been part of a broader resistance against Roman expansion into Parthian-ruled territories.
Marcius Turbo, one of Trajan's top generals, was dispatched with both land and naval forces to suppress the uprisings in Egypt and Libya. Literary sources suggest that the Jewish population in these regions faced severe reprisals and devastation. Meanwhile, General Lusius Quietus quelled the revolts in Mesopotamia, after which he was appointed governor of Judaea. It was possibly during this period that the lesser-known and less-understood Kitos War took place in the province. The uprisings were likely suppressed before autumn 117, possibly as early as the summer, shortly before Trajan's death.
The Diaspora revolt led to the devastation or annihilation of Jewish communities in Egypt, Libya, and other regions. In Oxyrhynchus, a festival celebrating the victory over the Jews continued to be observed eighty years later. Fifteen years after these uprisings, the Bar Kokhba revolt erupted, marking the last major Jewish attempt to regain independence in Judaea. After its failure, the Jewish population in Judaea was significantly reduced, and the community's center shifted to Galilee. In the Diaspora, the largest Jewish communities were now concentrated in Mesopotamia, Asia Minor and Italy.

## Background

The motivations behind the revolts are complex and not easily discernible due to the lack of direct sources addressing the underlying causes. However, a prevailing sense of unrest and dissatisfaction among the Jewish population of the time can be traced to several factors. The destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE left a profound impact, compounded by the imposition of the Fiscus Judaicus, a humiliating tax levied on all Jews. This period was also marked by widespread messianic expectations and a yearning for the restoration of the Jewish state, themes reflected in contemporary Jewish writings such as the Third Sibylline Oracle, 4 Ezra, and 2 Baruch. These texts emphasized the anticipation of a messianic figure, the ingathering of the exiles, and the eventual rebuilding of the Temple.
Local conditions further contributed to the unrest, particularly in Egypt, where longstanding social, economic, political, and ideological tensions between Jews and Greeks had escalated since the third century BCE. The situation deteriorated during Roman rule, with several incidents of anti-Jewish violence by Greeks occurring in 112 and the summer of 115 CE. These attacks, especially the latter, were likely direct catalysts for the Jewish uprising in the region. In Libya, earlier disturbances in 73 CE, which resulted in the deaths and dispossession of many wealthy Jews, may have weakened the moderating influence of the Jewish elite, thereby enabling more radical elements to gain prominence and push for revolt.

## Uprisings

The Jewish uprisings erupted almost simultaneously across various Diaspora regions in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. In Egypt, Libya and Cyprus, Jewish actions were primarily directed against local populations rather than the Roman authorities. In contrast, the rebellion in Mesopotamia appears to have been part of a broader resistance against Roman expansion into areas ruled by the Parthians. Eusebius links the revolts in Libya and Egypt, while late Syriac sources mention that Jews from Egypt fled to Judaea. However, there is no definitive evidence of a coordinated effort.

### Egypt

Papyrological evidence indicates that the uprising in Egypt affected extensive areas, including the Athribite district, the region around Memphis (noted for its antisemitism), the Faiyum, Oxyrhynchus, and the Herakleopolite nome. Further south, fighting also impacted the Kynopolite, Hermopolite, Lycopolite, and Apollinopolite districts.
Previously, it was believed that the Jewish revolt in Egypt began around October 115, based on CPJ II 435, which was thought to indicate the start of the uprising. Pucci Ben Zeev, however, argues that this papyrus actually describes Greek attacks on Jews. Evidence from ostraca in the Jewish quarter of Edfu indicates that tax receipts for Jews ceased by the end of May 116, suggesting this date as the earliest possible start for the revolt in that city. The latest possible date for the revolt's start is the beginning of September 116, as indicated by a concerned letter from the wife of the strategos Apollonios in Hermoupolis.
Appian, who was in Egypt during the Jewish revolt, reports that the Jews destroyed the shrine of Nemesis near Alexandria during the uprising. This destruction, along with other attacks on pagan temples in Egypt and Cyrenaica, may explain the term "impious Jews" used in some papyri. Additionally, Appian also notes that the Jews took control of the waterways near Pelusium. Similar information is corroborated by CPJ II 441 and a later source, the Ethiopic chronicle by Jean de Nikiou, which discusses the fortress of Babylon.
Papyri indicate that the Greeks, led by strategoi, retaliated against the Jews, with assistance from Egyptian peasants and Romans. Prefect Rutilius Lupus is noted to have personally participated in these engagements. Some efforts were successful, as evidenced by the recorded "victory and success" of Apollonios near Memphis; however, due to many Roman forces being deployed in Mesopotamia, the remaining troops, including the Legio XXII Deiotariana and part of the Legio III Cyrenaica, were insufficient to restore order effectively.

### Libya

In Libya, Jews launched attacks against their Greek and Roman neighbors, led either by Andreas (according to Dio/Xiphilinus) or Lukuas (according to Eusebius). These could have been two separate individuals or a single person known by both names—a common practice at the time. Eusebius refers to Lukuas as "king", a title that has prompted some scholars to speculate on a possible messianic motivation behind the uprising, though evidence supporting this theory remains limited. Eusebius notes that the Jews of Libya collaborated with the Jews of Egypt, forming a symmachia (military alliance). He also mentions that, at one point, the Jews of Libya moved into Egypt.
Dio's account describes the Jews of Libya as engaging in shockingly violent and cruel behavior. They are said to have engaged in cannibalism, mutilation, and other brutal acts, including using the victims' skins and entrails to make clothing and belts, and staging gladiatorial and wild beast shows. Dio reported that the Jewish rebels in Cyrenaica were responsible for approximately 220,000 Gentile deaths. The 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia notes that "(Dio's) descriptions of the cruelties perpetrated by the Jews at Cyrene and on the island of Cyprus are probably exaggerated." Pucci Ben Zeev writes that this portrayal should be examined within the broader context of how revolts by "barbarians" against the Romans were typically described in periodical historiography. She notes that the atrocities attributed to the Jews by Dio are not more egregious than those he ascribes to the Britons during the Boudican revolt in 61 CE, or the Bucoli during their uprising in Egypt in 171 CE.
Epigraphical sources provide evidence of attacks on religious and civic structures, including temples and statues. In Cyrene, for instance, the sanctuary of Apollo witnessed the destruction and burning of the baths, porticoes, ball-courts, and other nearby structures during the Jewish revolt. The temple of Hecate also suffered destruction and was burned down in the uprising. Significant damage is also recorded at the Caesareum and the temple of Zeus. According to the original 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, Bishop Synesius, a native of Cyrene in the early 5th century, said of the devastations wrought by the Jews ("Do Regno," p. 2).
A Hadrianic milestone commemorates the repair of the road connecting Cyrene with its port, Apollonia, "which had been overturned and smashed up in the Jewish revolt." The Jews, possibly anticipating an advance by Roman military forces from the sea, sought to destroy this road. Reynolds notes that the sanctuary of Asclepius at Balagrae, west of Cyrene, was significantly damaged. The presence of a deeply incised seven-branched menorah on a road northwest of Balagrae suggests deliberate disruption of the route connecting Cyrene with neighboring regions to the west.

### Cyprus

Most of what we know about the events in Cyprus comes from literary sources, as epigraphical evidence is limited, indirect, and difficult to interpret. Dio reports that the Jews, led by Artemion, rebelled in Cyprus. Eusebius' Chronicon states that the Jews attacked the island's pagan inhabitants and destroyed Salamis. Both pagan and Christian sources describe the revolt as having a profound impact, with Dio claiming that "two hundred and forty thousand perished" in Cyprus, and Orosius asserting that "all the Greek inhabitants of Salamis were killed".

## Suppression

According to Eusebius, Trajan sent Marcius Turbo, one of his leading generals, "with land and sea forces including cavalry. He waged war vigorously against them in many battles for a considerable time and killed many thousands of Jews, not only those of Cyrene but also those of Egypt." Turbo was likely accompanied by the cohors I Ulpia Afrorum equitata and the cohors I Augusta praetoria Lusitanorum equitata, both present in Egypt in 117 CE, with the latter suffering heavy losses during the early summer of the same year.
Legio XXII Deiotariana and Legio III Cyrenaica fought against the Jews, with the names of specific Roman legionaries from these units recorded as being killed in combat. One papyrus details plans to mobilize large forces, including fleets from Misenum and Ravenna, the Legio III Cyrenaica, and auxiliary units such as the Cohors I Flavia Cilicum equitata.
Roman repression was severe, with Appian describing it as an extermination of the Jewish population in Egypt (BC 2.90), and the Jerusalem Talmud noting the destruction of the great Alexandrian synagogue (Sukk. 5.1.55b). Turbo's military actions may have extended to Libya, where a Roman praefectus castrorum was killed.
In Cyprus, the suppression of the Jewish revolt was led by Caius Valerius Rufus, one of Trajan's generals. The military actions there might also corroborate the Babylonian Talmud's claim that the blood of Jews killed in Egypt reached as far as Cyprus.
The Jewish uprising was likely suppressed before autumn 117, and possibly by summer, prior to Trajan's death. After Trajan's successor, Hadrian, came to the throne in August 117, Marcius Turbo was reassigned to Mauretania.

## Related events
### Events in Mesopotamia

Eusebius’ Chronicon reports a Jewish rebellion in Mesopotamia, which is not mentioned by Cassius Dio. According to Eusebius, Trajan suspected that the Jews in Mesopotamia "would also attack the inhabitants"; according to Christian sources, he ordered General Lusius Quietus to suppress them harshly, resulting in significant Jewish casualties.
Dio's account refers instead to a general uprising against Roman rule in the summer of 116, which Lusius Quietus was involved in, including recovering Nisibis and capturing Edessa. This suggests that the Jewish revolt might be the same as the broader rebellion Dio describes. Dio also connects Lusius Quietus with suppressing Jewish uprisings elsewhere, indicating that the Jewish revolt could have been part of a larger resistance against Roman expansion. This connection is supported by the Jews' relatively favorable position within the Parthian Empire, which contrasted with their harsher treatment under Roman rule.

### The "Kitos War" in Judaea

Around the time of the Diaspora revolt, a lesser-known and understood conflict called the "Kitos War" occurred in Judaea. After Trajan's military campaigns in Mesopotamia, General Lusius Quietus was appointed governor of Judaea and likely brought additional forces, including possibly the vexillatio of Legio III Cyrenaica. Jewish sources date the "Kitos War" to fifty-two years after the destruction of the Second Temple and sixteen years before the Bar Kokhba revolt, resulting in legislation and unrest.
Late Syriac sources mention unrest in Judaea, claiming that Jews from Egypt and Libya were defeated by Roman forces there.
An inscription from Sardinia mentions an "expeditio Judaeae" among Trajan's military campaigns. Additionally, Judaea's status changed from praetorian to consular, and a second legion was added before 120 CE.

## Aftermath
### Destruction of Jewish communities

After 117 CE, Jewish presence in Egypt and Libya virtually disappears from historical sources. In Egypt, Jewish lands were confiscated, and the Jewish court in Alexandria might have been abolished. After the war ended, laws were placed ordering the exile of Jews from Cyrene, which Renzo De Felice said "reduced the [Jewish] community of Cyrene to insignificance and set it on the road to an inevitable decline." According to De Felice many of the Jews expelled joined Berber tribes, particularly those around modern-day Sirte.
Cassius Dio reports that in Cyprus, "no Jew may set foot on that island, and even if one of them is driven upon the shores by a storm he is put to death." This claim is corroborated by archaeological evidence, which indicates no Jewish presence on the island until the fourth century.

### Impact on the eastern provinces

In Egypt, the aftermath of the revolts caused agricultural decline, shortages of slave labor and textiles, and an economic crisis with unstable prices and a shortage of essentials like bread. There was significant damage to buildings, temples, and roads, especially in Cyrene. The physical destruction of the city was significant enough that Hadrian had to completely rebuild the city at the beginning of his reign according to archaeological findings.
Eusebius' Chronicon and Orosius report extensive destruction in Salamis and Alexandria, with Orosius noting that Libya would have remained depopulated without Hadrian's resettlement efforts:
   The Jews [...] waged war on the inhabitants throughout Libya in the most savage fashion, and to such an extent was the country wasted that, its cultivators having been slain, its land would have remained utterly depopulated, had not Emperor Hadrian gathered settlers from other places and sent them thither, for the inhabitants had been wiped out.
The complete destruction of Salamis, however, is disputed, as it received the title of metropolis in 123 CE, suggesting not all damage was as severe as reported. Some Roman actions, such as Trajan's colony in Libya and Hadrian's edict favoring Egyptian peasants, may not be directly linked to the uprisings and could relate to pre-existing conditions.

### Impact on Trajan's Parthian campaign

The simultaneous Jewish uprisings across various regions forced Trajan to divert his top military leaders from the Parthian front, impacting his campaign. The resistance in Mesopotamia, though ultimately unsuccessful in its siege of Hatra, led to a compromise with the Parthians and coincided with Trajan's illness and death. The siege of Hatra continued throughout the summer of 117, but the years of constant campaigning in the baking eastern heat had taken their toll on Trajan, who suffered a heatstroke. He decided to begin the long journey back to Rome in order to recover. Sailing from Seleucia, the emperor's health deteriorated rapidly. He was taken ashore at Selinus in Cilicia, where he died, and his successor, Hadrian, assumed the reins of government shortly thereafter.
This shift in focus from the east may have influenced Hadrian's policy of avoiding further imperial expansion, contrasting with Trajan's approach. Despite a triumph celebrated at Trajan's funerals, the Parthian war ended in failure and ensured that Babylonian Jews remained outside Roman control, as reflected in the Babylonian Talmud's assertion of their protection from Roman decrees: "The Holy One, blessed be He, knows that Israel is unable to endure the cruel decrees of Edom, therefore He exiled them to Babylonia".

### Bar Kokhba revolt

Fifteen years after the Diaspora revolt, the Bar Kokhba revolt erupted in Judaea, representing the last major Jewish revolt and the final attempt to re-establish independence in the Land of Israel. One of the primary causes was Hadrian's founding of Aelia Capitolina on the ruins of Jerusalem, which had been largely destroyed during the First Jewish–Roman War. Initially, the Jews under Simon bar Kokhba were able to establish a short-lived Jewish state, but the Romans responded by amassing a large force to suppress the rebellion, which they did in 135 CE. The suppression had disastrous consequences for the Jewish population, leading to widespread destruction in Judea proper. The Romans renamed the province Syria Palaestina, and Jews were subjected to severe religious restrictions.
After the Bar Kokhba revolt, the Jewish population in Judaea was significantly diminished, and the Jewish center shifted to Galilee. Within the Roman Empire, the most significant Jewish diaspora communities were in Asia Minor and Italy, while the largest Jewish populations were concentrated in Central Mesopotamia, under Parthian and later Sasanian rule.

### Commemoration

At Oxyrhynchus, a festival celebrating the victory over the Jews was still being observed eighty years later.