# Magar Kham language

Magar Kham (मगर खाम), also known as Kham, Kham Magar, and Khamkura, is the Sino-Tibetan language variety of the Northern Magar people of Nepal. The language is situated in the upper elevations of Baglung, East Rukum, and Rolpa districts. Based on census data taken in 2011, the total population of Magar Kham is estimated to be about 69,000 speakers.

## Language classification

Magar Kham is a Sino-Tibetan language, and it is classified by David Bradley as “Central Himalayan,” and as being related to Magar and Chepang and more distantly related to the Kiranti languages. George van Driem also classifies Magar Kham as “Para-Kiranti,” emphasizing that Magar Kham, Magar, and Chepang are united more by their differences from the Kiranti cluster than by their similarity to one another. Within this cluster, Magar Kham possesses a number of unique grammatical features, and shares only 44% lexical similarity with Magar and 38% with Chepang.

## Dialects

Magar Kham speakers generally refer to their dialect using the name of an important village or river in conjunction with the Nepali instrumental suffix [-le] or the genitive suffix [-i]. Thus, it can be said that Magar Kham has as many dialects as there are villages and rivers in their native territory. The table below presents the major dialects of the Magar Kham language as they have been classified by David E. Watters. The ISO 639-3 codes associated with each major dialect are presented in brackets.

### Magar Kham varieties

| Gamal Kham [kgj] | Sheshi Kham [kip] | Parbate Kham | Parbate Kham |
| Ghusbangi Kham Tamali Kham | Jangkoti Kham Tapnangi Kham | Western Parbate Kham [kjl] | Eastern Parbate Kham [kif] |
| Ghusbangi Kham Tamali Kham | Jangkoti Kham Tapnangi Kham | Maikoti Kham Takale Kham Thabangi Kham Wale Kham | Nisel Kham Bhujel Kham |
At the highest level in the table, Kham has been divided into Gamal Kham, Sheshi Kham, and Parbate Kham, which is further divided into Eastern and Western Parbate Kham. As previously stated, these four major dialects are mutually unintelligible and bear unique grammatical innovations indicative of different languages. For this reason, each of these dialects have been given its own ISO 639-3 designation.

## Speakers

Based on the census data taken in 2011, the total population of Magar Kham speakers is estimated to be about 69,000 persons. The tables below presents the homeland population estimates by district and by dialect. It is estimated that about 15,000 Magar Kham speakers live in diaspora.

### Magar Kham population by district

| Province | District | Estimated Population |
| Gandaki | Baglung | 5,000 |
| Lumbini | East Rukum | 17,000 |
| Lumbini | Rolpa | 29,000 |

### Magar Kham population by dialect/variety

According to Ethnologue:
| Dialect | ISO 639-3 | Native speakers (year) | L2 speakers (year) | Total speakers (year) |
| Gamal Kham | kgj | 7,000 (2011) | 3,000 (2011) | 10,000 (2011) |
| Sheshi Kham | kip | — | — | 15,000 (2011) |
| Eastern Parbate | kif | — | — | 5,000 (2011) |
| Western Parbate | kjl | 44,000 (2003) | 25,000 (2011) | 69,000 (2003–2011) |
| All varieties | — | — | — | 99,000 (2003–2011) |
Estimates are based on the number of persons registering their mother tongue as either “Magar” or “Kham” within the territory of the northern Magars.

## Language vitality

Although their homeland is fairly homogeneous, northern Magars are multilingual. The national language of Nepali is spoken confidently by all individuals under 35 years old. In some communities (Sheshi and Eastern Parbate), parents have shifted to speaking Nepali with their children, and the speaker population is gradually decreasing. However, in all of East Rukum and in the Gam river valley of Rolpa, the language is being vigorously transmitted. Ethnologue has assigned the following EGIDS levels to each variety:
* Western Parbate Kham [kjl]: level 5 (Developing)
* Eastern Parbate Kham [kif]: level 6b (Threatened)
* Gamal Kham [kgj]: level 6a (Vigorous)
* Sheshi Kham [kip]: level 6b (Threatened)
The UNESCO Endangered Languages Project has classified Gamal Kham as "Vulnerable."

## Phonology
### Consonants

The Taka dialect of Western Parbate Kham has 22 consonant phonemes while Gamal Kham possesses around 29 to 30 consonant phonemes.
| | | Labial | Alveolar | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal |
| | | Labial | plain | sibilant | Palatal | Velar | Glottal |
| Nasal | voiceless | m̥$^2$ | n̥$^2$ | | | ŋ̊$^1$ | |
| Nasal | voiced | m | n | | | ŋ | |
| Plosive/ Affricate | voiceless | p | t | t͡s | | k | ʔ$^2$ |
| Plosive/ Affricate | voiced | b | d | d͡z | | ɡ | |
| Plosive/ Affricate | aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | t͡sʰ | | kʰ | |
| Fricative | voiceless | | ɬ$^2$ | s | ç$^1$ | | h |
| Fricative | voiced | | | z | | | |
| Rhotic | Rhotic | | ɾ$^3$ | | | | |
| Approx. | voiceless | ɥ̊$^2$ | | | | ʍ$^2$ | |
| Approx. | voiced | ɥ$^2$ | l | | j | w | |
* These phonemes only appear in Ghusbang and Sheram dialect. All others appear in every Kham dialect.
* These phonemes do not occur in Parbate Kham.
* The rhotic /ɾ/ is realized as a trill [r] at the end of words. Otherwise, it is a flap.

### Vowels

Taka dialect of Western Parbate has 25 vowel phonemes.
| | Front | Front | Front | Front | Front | Central | Central | Central | Back | Back | Back | Back | Back | Back |
| | unrounded | unrounded | unrounded | rounded | rounded | Central | Central | Central | unrounded | unrounded | unrounded | rounded | rounded | rounded |
| | short | long | nasal | short | long | short | long | nasal | short | long | nasal | short | long | nasal |
| Close | i$^1$ | iː | ĩː | y | yː | | | | ɯ | ɯː | ɯ̃ː | u$^1$ | uː | ũː |
| Mid | e$^1$ | eː | ẽː | ø | øː | ə$^1$ | əː | ə̃ː | | | | o$^1$ | oː | õː |
| Open mid | ɛ | ɛ | ɛ | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Open | | | | | | ɐ$^1$ | ɐː | ɐ̃ː | | | | | | |
* These vowels occur in every dialect of Kham.

### Tone

See vocal registers.

## Writing
### Consonants

| | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
| Deva. | ज़ | झ़ | न्ह | म्ह | व़ | ह्ल | ह्व | ह्व़ |
| trans. | z | zh | nh | mh | ẏ | hl | hw | hẏ |
| IPA | z | zV̤ | n̥ | m̥ | ɥ | ɬ | ʍ | ɥ̊ |
| क | ख | ग | घ | ङ |
| /kə/ | /kʰə/ | /ɡə/ | /ɡə̤/ | /ŋə/ |
| च | छ | ज | झ | ञ |
| /t͡sə/ | /t͡sʰə/ | /d͡zə/ | /d͡zə̤/ | /nə/ |
| ट | ठ | ड | ढ | ण |
| /tə/ | /tʰə/ | /də/ | /də̤/ | /nə/ |
| त | थ | द | ध | न |
| /tə/ | /tʰə/ | /də/ | /də̤/ | /nə/ |
| प | फ | ब | भ | म |
| /pə/ | /pʰə/ | /bə/ | /bə̤/ | /mə/ |
| य | र | ल | व |
| /jə/ | /rə/ | /lə/ | /wə/ |
| श | ष | स | ह |
| /çə/ | /sə/ | /sə/ | /hə/ |
| क्ष | त्र | ज्ञ |
| /t͡sʰə/ | /trə/ | /ɡjə/ |

### Vowels

Vowels for Parbate Kham :
| Devanagari | Roman | IPA |
| अ | a | ə |
| आ | ā | ɐ |
| इ | i | i |
| इ़ | ü | y |
| ई | ī | iː |
| उ | u | u |
| उ़ | ï | ɯ |
| ऊ | ū | uː |
| ए | e | e, ɛ |
| ए़ | ø | ø |
| ऐ | ai | əj |
| ओ | o | o |
| औ | au | əw |
| ः | h, ḥ | V̤ |
| ँ | ◌̃ | ◌̃ː |
| ं | ◌̃, ṅ, n, ṇ, ñ | ◌̃ː, ŋ, n |
| ॱ, . °, ॰, ऽ | ' | ◌ː |
| ॽ | ’ | ʔ |

### Vowels for Gamal Kham

| Orthography | अ | आ | इ/ई | उ/ऊ | ए | ऐ | ओ | औ | अं | अः | अँ | ॱअ |
| Roman | a | ā | i/ī | u/ū | e | ai | o | au | aṃ | aḥ | ã | a' |
| IPA | ə | ɐ | i | u | e, ɛ | əj | o | əw | ə̃ | ə̤ | ə̃ | əʔ |

## Reconstruction

Proto-Kham has been reconstructed by Watters (2002). Proto-Kham reconstructions from Watters (2002: 443–456) are given below.

### A. Body parts

* *r-dzəŋ ~ *b-dzəŋ 'back'
* *yep 'back (upper)'
* *phuː 'belly'
* *dziːh 'blood'
* *klaŋ 'body'
* *s-rus 'bone'
* *nun 'breast'
* *sək 'breath'
* *r-mehsiŋ 'buttocks'
* *r-tso 'cheek'
* *r-na 'ear'
* *(ba)r-zut 'egg'
* *mik 'eye'
* *s-ŋa 'face'
* *sot 'fat'
* *r-sin 'fingernail'
* *kəŋ 'foot'
* *r-nihl 'gums'
* *r-ta 'guts'
* *muhl 'hair (body)'
* *p-tsem 'hair (head)'
* *kut 'hand'
** *r-la 'the under-arm area; side of the body'
* *s-r-ŋat 'head'
* *s-yiŋ 'heart'
* *b-rəhŋ 'horn'
* *sya 'animal'
* *r-khap 'jawbone'
* *kəl 'kidney'
* *p-sin 'liver'
* *yaːh 'mouth'
* *s-məŋ 'mustache'
* *r-dehŋ 'neck'
* *s-nat 'nose'
* *r-dzihs 'piss'
* *s-nis 'pus'
* *b-rəhm 'rib'
* *p-s-til 'saliva'
* *kli 'shit'
** *r-kək 'excrement in the intestine of a slaughtered animal'
* *s-pum 'shoulder'
* *r-sa 'sinew'
* *l-kota 'skin'
* *r-nahp 'snot'
* *r-meh 'tail'
* *r-pihl 'tears'
* *r-b-yah 'thigh (upper side)'
* *p-s-le 'tongue'
* *ha-p-sya 'tooth'
* *wohs 'vomit'
* *hwaŋ 'waist'
* *r-mil ~ *s-mil 'wind pipe'
* *kər 'wing'

### B. Pronouns/kinship terms/nouns referring to humans'

* *dahpa 'bachelor'
* *za 'child'
* *nan 'friend'
* *b-re 'husband'
* *dahme 'maiden'
* *r-min 'name'
* *r-mi; *ruː 'person'
** *s-lepa 'man, male human'
** *miːma 'woman, female human' < *mi 'person' + *ma 'female'
* *nana 'sister (older)'
* *nam 'sister (younger)'
* *nəŋ 'thou'
* *dzya 'wife'

### C. Foodstuff

* *bəhres 'bread'
* *tsip 'curry'
* *r-zəm 'food'
* *s-ŋən 'herbs'
* *raŋrəi 'millet'
* *r-mo 'mushroom'
* *hek 'parched grain'
* *tuk 'poison'
* *(ya)kaŋ 'rice (cooked)'
* *plima 'wheat'

### D. Animal names or animal products

* *səhr 'antelope'
* *nim 'bear'
* *r-pen 'bedbug'
* *b-zin 'bee'
* *bwa 'bird'
** *s-puŋ 'chick'
* *gəl 'boar (wild)'
* *b-s-rut 'bug'
* *s-raŋ 'cat'
* *har 'cow'
* *kaːh 'dog'
* *ŋah 'fish'
* *tek 'frog'
* *ra 'goat'
* *r-ta 'horse'
* *r-pəti 'leech'
* *la 'leopard'
* *syar 'louse'
* *s-p-yu; *s-p-ya 'monkey'
* *srəm 'otter'
* *b-rəhŋ 'pheasant'
* *wə 'pig'
* *bi 'rat'
* *luk 'sheep'
* *guhl 'snake'
** *daŋ 'python, constricting snake'
* *p-s-yap 'squirrel (flying)'
* *s-kyar 'woodpecker'
* *p-sən 'wool'

### E. Natural objects or phenomena; the inanimate landscape; vegetable and mineral kingdoms

* *r-plah 'ashes'
* *kər 'branch'
* *r-pup 'cave'
* *la 'day'
** *tshyam 'a certain day'
* *b-rih 'dirt'
* *r-gəm 'earth'
* *rihm 'evening'
* *ehŋ 'field'
** *baŋ 'a field, meadow, bowl shaped valley'
* *meh 'fire'
* *p-set 'fruit'
* *tshi 'grass'
* *kuŋ 'hole'
* *dzəhŋ 'iron'
* *s-la 'leaf'
* *r-nahm 'low country'
* *p-s-ya + *hwot 'moon'
* *goŋ 'mountain'
* *rik; *mun 'night'
* *r-wa 'rain'
* *bəih 'river'
* *yem 'road'
* *s-rin 'root'
* *sa + *pik 'salt'
* *nup 'set (sun)'
* *saŋ 'shadow'
* *nəm 'sky'
* *mihkut 'smoke' < *meːh 'fire' + *ku 'smoke'
* *r-pom 'snow'
* *səro 'star'
* *r-dzuht 'stick'
* *luŋ 'stone'
* *nəmi(y) 'sun'
* *b-zu 'thorn'
* *siŋ 'tree'
* *riːh 'water'
** *rihmun 'cooking water' < *riːh 'water' + *mun 'warm'
* *rəhm 'weed'

### F. Artifacts and social organization

* *r-wan 'arrowhead'
* *r-wa 'axe'
* *r-beh(k) 'basket'
* *li 'bow'
* *tshəm 'bridge'
* *pəsi(-s) 'broom'
* *kwa 'cloth'
* *yahm 'door'
* *b-rihŋ 'drum'
* *'gor 'circle'
* *muhthap 'hearth' < *muh 'burn' + *thap 'hearth'
* *zihm 'house'
** *r-bəŋ 'lower storey of house; cattle byre'
* *khor 'knife'
* *gur 'load'
* *tən 'sleeping mat'
* *b-lo 'large bamboo mat'
* *tshum 'mortar'
* *r-gəp 'a small needle'
* *r-khap 'a large needle'
* *b-zəhn 'net'
* *r-gum 'pillow'
* *gohr 'plow'
* *b-dza 'pot'
* *p-sip 'sheath'
* *tsihŋ 'snare'
* *gel 'spirit'
* *naŋkhar; *nam 'village'
* *ehn 'work'
* *kum 'yoke'

### G. Spatial/directional

* *glahŋ 'across'
* *chin 'behind'
* *khar 'center'
* *me 'down'
* *s-ŋa 'front'
* *thək 'upright'
* *a-sniŋ 'year'
** *rta-sniŋ 'last year'
** *pərniŋ 'next year'

### H. Numerals and quantifiers

* *tə 'one'
* *nehs 'two'
* *sohm 'three'
* *b-zi 'four'
* *r-ŋa 'five'

### I. Verbs of utterance, body position or function

* *sən; *so 'awaken'
* *klik 'cry'
* *eh 'defecate'
* *si 'die'
* *b-yi 'fart'
* *sas 'laugh'
** *p-s-rat 'to play'
** *b-s-res 'toy, plaything'
* *nah 'rest'
* *tsuŋ 'sit'
* *r-ŋəhl; *em; *ruk ~ *ru-t 'sleep'
** *s-ip 'to put to sleep'
* *p-tshis 'sneeze'
* *s-paŋ 'speak'
* *tsyahŋ 'stand'
* *kəlet 'tickle'
* *r-dzihs 'urinate'
* *who-t 'vomit' < CAUS. of wohs 'to spurt out'
* *gəhr 'weep'

### J. Verbs of motion

* *kles 'arrive'
* *rə-t 'bring'
* *plu-s 'climb'
* *huŋ 'come'
* *plu-s 'emerge'
** *s-plu-t 'cause to emerge, expel'
* *te-s 'fall'
* *s-bur 'fly'
* *z-ba 'go'
* *b-la 'graze'
* *mohŋ 'hide'
* *zok 'run'

### K. Verbs of emotion, cognition, perception

* *r-məŋ 'dream'
* *p-tshet 'fear'
* *s-meŋ 'forget'
* *that 'hear'
** *thas 'to be heard, audible'
* *sən 'know'
* *r-ses 'something, to know how'
* *r-sək 'proud'
* *rəhŋ 'see'
** *p-tsyu 'to look'
* *s-ŋər; *s-nəm 'smell'
* *b-ris 'tingle'

### L. Stative verbs with human patients

* *məhŋ 'drunk'
* *sot 'fat'
* *kre 'hunger'
* *na 'ill'
* *so 'itchy'
* *tshaŋ 'pure'
* *tsos 'thirst'

### M. Stative verbs with non-human patients

* *pək 'bad'
* *li 'be'
* *p-se 'bear fruit'
* *s-ta-s 'become'
* *ka 'bitter'
* *pak 'broken'
* *mom 'bud'
* *p-set 'bud'
* *r-pu-s 'burst'
* *zihm; *gim 'cold'
* *s-ta 'collapsed'
* *s-kluŋ 'detach'
* *thəŋ 'dried'
* *yək 'full'
* *p-tsa 'good'
* *s-len 'greasy'
* *piŋ 'green'
* *gis < *s-lis 'heavy'
* *s-gwaŋ 'hole'
* *b-rah 'hot'
* *wyi 'leak'
* *bom 'light'
* *s-lo; *b-re 'long'
* *dzöhl 'loose'
* *mah 'lost'
* *s-dem ~ *them 'low'
* *khət 'matched'
* *sahr 'new'
* *gyahm 'red'
* *mihn 'ripe'
* *tsik 'rotten'
* *lum 'round'
* *p-tsha 'sharp'
* *tun 'short'
* *zim 'small'
* *b-sir 'sour'
* *tuk 'spicy'
* *sli-s 'stale'
* *b-rehk 'sweet'
* *ruhŋ 'thick'
* *plek 'thin'
** *wa 'to be thin (esp. of boards)'
* *mun 'warm'
* *pal 'white'
** *plaŋ 'bright, illuminated'

### N. Action verbs with human agent

* *s-po 'beat'
* *ŋih 'beg'
* *kəi 'bite'
* *s-mut 'blow'
** *phut 'to blow with bellows'
* *r-lap 'bore'
* *s-kle(t) 'break'
* *hip 'burn'
* *r-duhp 'butt'
* *ləhŋ 'buy'
** *b-lot 'to lend to someone'
** *b-los 'to borrow'
* *guhr 'carry'
* *kloh 'catch'
* *kwa-t 'clothe'
* *r-sat 'comb'
* *phin 'cook'
** *mihn 'to cook until done'
** *tso 'to boil'
* *kəp 'cover'
* *pəl 'cut'
** *kri 'to cut meat'
* *p-syah 'dance'
* *goh 'dig'
* *gəp 'draw water'
* *zya 'eat'
** *kəi 'to eat things which require chewing'
* *hat 'extract'
* *z-dət 'find'
* *z-dup 'gather'
* *ya 'give'
* *p-set 'grind'
* *r-guh 'guard'
* *tup 'hammer'
* *tsho 'herd'
* *phok 'husk'
* *lut 'insert'
* *tak 'install'
* *r-then 'kick'
* *saht 'kill'
* *kek 'ladle'
* *b-rihm 'lay wall'
* *lep 'lick'
* *dzət 'make'
* *pek 'milk'
* *z-bra-t 'mix'
* *pho-t 'open'
* *phok 'pay'
* *tik 'pick up'
* *s-krəp 'pin closed'
* *p-tsil 'pinch'
* *p-sut 'plug'
* *tek 'press'
* *dzəhk 'put'
** *nat 'to set down, place'
* *ra-s 'release'
* *phit 'remove from fire'
* *tsep 'ride'
* *s-ŋo 'roast'
* *b-zu 'rub'
** *p-sil 'to scrub'
* *s-lom 'scald'
* *sim 'scoop'
* *s-pik 'scrape'
** *pur 'to scratch'
* *s-nan 'seize'
* *p-yet 'sell'
* *s-priŋ 'send'
* *ruhp 'sew'
* *p-yen 'shave'
* *gap 'shoot'
* *s-tən 'show'
* *kok 'skin, peel'
* *phyak 'snap'
* *tshim 'soak'
* *was 'sow seed'
* *khəl 'spin wool'
* *p-si 'split firewood'
* *tser 'squeeze'
* *ku 'steal'
** *rok 'to ransack, rummage'
* *r-wal 'stir'
* *on 'stop'
* *sit 'sweep'
* *p-sik ~ *p-sis 'teach'
* *p-tsit 'tear'
* *khya 'throw'
* *s-ki 'tie'
* *s-to 'trade'
* *kil 'twist'
* *s-krup 'unfold'
* *bohk 'uproot'
* *tse 'wash'
** *r-za 'to wash hair'
* *rəhk 'weave'
** *rihn 'to set up a loom'
* *hul 'whet'