Skill: wpank/clear-writing (version 0.1.0)

--- name: clear-writing model: standard version: 1.0.0 description: > Write clear, concise prose for humans — documentation, READMEs, API docs, commit messages, error messages, UI text, reports, and explanations. Combines Strunk's rules for clearer prose with technical documentation patterns, structure templates, and review checklists. tags: [writing, documentation, style, technical-writing, prose] --- # Clear Writing Write with clarity and force. This skill covers what to do (Strunk's rules), how to structure technical documentation (Divio patterns, templates), and what not to do (AI anti-patterns, doc anti-patterns). ## When to Use Use this skill whenever you write prose for humans: - Documentation, README files, technical explanations - API documentation, endpoint references, integration guides - Tutorials, how-to guides, architecture docs - Commit messages, pull request descriptions - Error messages, UI copy, help text, comments - Reports, summaries, or any explanation - Editing existing prose to improve clarity **If you're writing sentences for a human to read, use this skill.** ## Limited Context Strategy When context is tight: 1. Write your draft using judgment 2. Dispatch a subagent with your draft and the relevant reference file 3. Have the subagent copyedit and return the revision Loading a single reference (~1,000–4,500 tokens) instead of the full skill saves significant context. ## Elements of Style William Strunk Jr.'s *The Elements of Style* (1918) teaches you to write clearly and cut ruthlessly. ### Rules **Elementary Rules of Usage (Grammar/Punctuation)**: 1. Form possessive singular by adding 's 2. Use comma after each term in series except last 3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas 4. Comma before conjunction introducing co-ordinate clause 5. Don't join independent clauses by comma 6. Don't break sentences in two 7. Participial phrase at beginning refers to grammatical subject **Elementary Principles of Composition**: 8. One paragraph per topic 9. Begin paragraph with topic sentence 10. **Use active voice** 11. **Put statements in positive form** 12. **Use definite, specific, concrete language** 13. **Omit needless words** 14. Avoid succession of loose sentences 15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form 16. **Keep related words together** 17. Keep to one tense in summaries 18. **Place emphatic words at end of sentence** ### Reference Files For complete explanations with examples: | Section | File | ~Tokens | |---------|------|---------| | Grammar, punctuation, comma rules | `references/elements-of-style/02-elementary-rules-of-usage.md` | 2,500 | | Paragraph structure, active voice, concision | `references/elements-of-style/03-elementary-principles-of-composition.md` | 4,500 | | Headings, quotations, formatting | `references/elements-of-style/04-a-few-matters-of-form.md` | 1,000 | | Word choice, common errors | `references/elements-of-style/05-words-and-expressions-commonly-misused.md` | 4,000 | **Most tasks need only `03-elementary-principles-of-composition.md`** — it covers active voice, positive form, concrete language, and omitting needless words. ## AI Writing Patterns to Avoid LLMs regress to statistical means, producing generic, puffy prose. Avoid: - **Puffery:** pivotal, crucial, vital, testament, enduring legacy - **Empty "-ing" phrases:** ensuring reliability, showcasing features, highlighting capabilities - **Promotional adjectives:** groundbreaking, seamless, robust, cutting-edge - **Overused AI vocabulary:** delve, leverage, multifaceted, foster, realm, tapestry - **Formatting overuse:** excessive bullets, emoji decorations, bold on every other word Be specific, not grandiose. Say what it actually does. For comprehensive research on why these patterns occur, see `references/signs-of-ai-writing.md`. Wikipedia editors developed this guide to detect AI-generated submissions — their patterns are well-documented and field-tested. ## Document Types (Divio Framework) | Type | Purpose | Structure | |------|---------|-----------| | README | First impression, project overview | Title, description, quick start, install, usage | | Tutorial | Learning-oriented, guided experience | Numbered steps with expected outcomes | | How-to Guide | Task-oriented, solve a specific problem | Problem statement → steps → result | | Reference | Information-oriented, complete and accurate | Alphabetical or grouped, consistent format | | Explanation | Understanding-oriented, context and rationale | Narrative prose, diagrams, history | | Architecture Doc | System design, component relationships | Context → components → data flow → decisions | | API Documentation | Endpoint contracts, integration guide | Endpoint → params → request → response → errors | ## Structure Patterns ### Inverted Pyramid Lead with the most important information. Each subsequent section adds detail. ``` 1. What it does (one sentence) 2. How to use it (quick start) 3. Configuration options 4. Advanced usage 5. Internals / implementation details ``` ### Problem-Solution ``` 1. Problem — what goes wrong, symptoms, error messages 2. Cause — why it happens (brief) 3. Solution — step-by-step fix 4. Prevention — how to avoid it in the future ``` ### Sequential Steps Every step is a single action with a verifiable outcome. ``` 1. Step — one action, one verb Expected result: what the reader should see 2. Step — next action Expected result: confirmation of success ``` ## Writing Rules | Rule | Guideline | Example | |------|-----------|---------| | Short sentences | Keep under 25 words | "The server restarts automatically after config changes." | | Active voice | Subject does the action | "The function returns a promise" not "A promise is returned" | | Present tense | Describe current behavior | "This endpoint accepts JSON" not "will accept JSON" | | One idea per paragraph | Each paragraph has one point | Split compound paragraphs at the topic shift | | Define jargon on first use | Never assume vocabulary | "The ORM (Object-Relational Mapper) translates..." | | Second person | Address the reader directly | "You can configure..." not "One can configure..." | | Consistent terminology | Pick one term and stick with it | Don't alternate between "repo" and "repository" | | Concrete over abstract | Specifics beat generalities | "Returns a 404 status code" not "Returns an error" | ## Code Examples in Documentation Every code example must follow these rules: 1. **Complete and runnable** — copy-paste and execute without modification 2. **Annotated** — comments on the non-obvious parts, not the obvious ones 3. **Progressive complexity** — simplest case first, then advanced usage 4. **Language-tagged** — always specify the language in fenced code blocks 5. **Current** — examples must work with the documented version 6. **Minimal** — show only what is relevant; strip unrelated boilerplate ```python # Good: complete, annotated, minimal import httpx # Create a client with a base URL to avoid repeating it client = httpx.Client(base_url="https://api.example.com") # Fetch a user by ID — returns a User dict or raises for 4xx/5xx response = client.get("/users/42") response.raise_for_status() user = response.json() print(user["name"]) # "Ada Lovelace" ``` ## README Template ```markdown # Project Name One-line description of what this project does and who it is for. ## Quick Start The fastest path from zero to working. Three commands or fewer. ## Installation Prerequisites, system requirements, and step-by-step install. ## Usage Common use cases with code examples. Cover the 80% case. ## API Public API surface — functions, classes, CLI flags, endpoints. ## Configuration Environment variables, config files, and their defaults. ## Contributing How to set up the dev environment, run tests, and submit changes. ## License License name and link to the full LICENSE file. ``` **README rules:** - Keep the quick start under 60 seconds of reader time - Include a badge row only if badges are kept current - Link to deeper docs rather than bloating the README - Update the README whenever the public interface changes ## API Documentation Pattern Document every endpoint with this structure: ```markdown ### GET /users/:id Retrieve a single user by their unique identifier. **Authentication:** Bearer token required **Path Parameters:** | Parameter | Type | Required | Description | |-----------|--------|----------|----------------------| | id | string | Yes | The user's unique ID | **Response: 200 OK** {json response example} **Error Responses:** | Status | Code | Description | |--------|--------------|--------------------------| | 401 | UNAUTHORIZED | Missing or invalid token | | 404 | NOT_FOUND | User does not exist | ``` Always document errors with: HTTP status, machine-readable error code, human-readable message, and resolution steps. ## Audience Adaptation | Audience | Context Level | Focus | Tone | |----------|--------------|-------|------| | Beginner | High — define terms, explain prerequisites | What and how, step by step | Encouraging, patient | | Intermediate | Medium — assume basic knowledge | How and best practices | Direct, practical | | Expert | Low — skip fundamentals | Why, edge cases, tradeoffs | Concise, precise | **Rules:** - State the assumed audience at the top of the document - Link to prerequisite knowledge rather than re-explaining it - Use expandable sections (`<details>`) for beginner context in expert docs - Never mix audience levels in the same section ## Review Checklist Before publishing any documentation: - [ ] **Accurate** — all code examples run, all commands work, all links resolve - [ ] **Complete** — covers setup, happy path, error cases, and cleanup - [ ] **Consistent** — terminology, formatting, and voice match the rest of the docs - [ ] **Readable** — passes a cold read by someone unfamiliar with the project - [ ] **Scannable** — headings, tables, and lists allow skimming for answers - [ ] **Examples work** — every code block tested against the current version - [ ] **Links valid** — no broken internal or external links - [ ] **Audience-appropriate** — context level matches the stated audience - [ ] **Up to date** — no references to deprecated features or old versions - [ ] **Spellchecked** — no typos, no inconsistent capitalization ## Documentation Anti-Patterns | Anti-Pattern | Problem | Fix | |--------------|---------|-----| | Wall of text | Readers bounce | Break into sections with headings and lists | | Outdated docs | Erodes trust | Tie doc updates to PR checklists; date-stamp pages | | No examples | Readers can't apply abstract descriptions | Add code examples for every public function | | Assumed knowledge | Excludes beginners | Define terms on first use, link to prerequisites | | Copy-paste unfriendly | Code with `$` prompts or line numbers breaks when pasted | Provide clean, runnable code blocks | | Screenshot-only instructions | Can't be searched, go stale, inaccessible | Pair screenshots with text and commands | ## NEVER Do 1. **NEVER publish docs without testing every code example** — broken examples destroy credibility faster than anything else 2. **NEVER write docs after the fact as an afterthought** — write docs alongside the code; if you cannot explain it, the design needs work 3. **NEVER use "simply", "just", or "obviously"** — these words shame readers who are struggling and add no information 4. **NEVER mix multiple audiences in one document** — write separate beginner and advanced guides, or use clear section boundaries 5. **NEVER leave placeholder text in published docs** — "TODO", "TBD", and "lorem ipsum" signal abandonment 6. **NEVER duplicate content across documents** — link to a single source of truth; duplicates inevitably drift apart 7. **NEVER omit the date or version** — readers must know if they are looking at current information 8. **NEVER use AI puffery words** — pivotal, crucial, seamless, robust, groundbreaking, tapestry, and their ilk add nothing and signal lazy writing

path: README.md
content: # Clear Writing

Write clear, concise prose for humans — documentation, READMEs, API docs, commit messages, error messages, UI text, reports, and explanations. Combines Strunk's rules for clearer prose with technical documentation patterns, structure templates, and review checklists.

## What's Inside

- Elements of Style rules (grammar, punctuation, composition principles)
- AI writing anti-patterns to avoid (puffery, empty phrases, overused vocabulary)
- Document types using the Divio Framework (README, Tutorial, How-to, Reference, Explanation, Architecture, API)
- Structure patterns (Inverted Pyramid, Problem-Solution, Sequential Steps)
- Writing rules table (short sentences, active voice, present tense, concrete language)
- Code examples in documentation guidelines
- README and API documentation templates
- Audience adaptation (beginner, intermediate, expert)
- Review checklist and documentation anti-patterns
- Reference files for Strunk's Elements of Style chapters

## When to Use

- Writing documentation, README files, technical explanations
- API documentation, endpoint references, integration guides
- Tutorials, how-to guides, architecture docs
- Commit messages, pull request descriptions
- Error messages, UI copy, help text, comments
- Reports, summaries, or any explanation
- Editing existing prose to improve clarity

## Installation

```bash
npx add https://github.com/wpank/ai/tree/main/skills/writing/clear-writing
```

### OpenClaw / Moltbot / Clawbot

```bash
npx clawhub@latest install clear-writing
```

### Manual Installation

#### Cursor (per-project)

From your project root:

```bash
mkdir -p .cursor/skills
cp -r ~/.ai-skills/skills/writing/clear-writing .cursor/skills/clear-writing
```

#### Cursor (global)

```bash
mkdir -p ~/.cursor/skills
cp -r ~/.ai-skills/skills/writing/clear-writing ~/.cursor/skills/clear-writing
```

#### Claude Code (per-project)

From your project root:

```bash
mkdir -p .claude/skills
cp -r ~/.ai-skills/skills/writing/clear-writing .claude/skills/clear-writing
```

#### Claude Code (global)

```bash
mkdir -p ~/.claude/skills
cp -r ~/.ai-skills/skills/writing/clear-writing ~/.claude/skills/clear-writing
```

## Related Skills

- **professional-communication** — For emails, Slack messages, and meeting agendas
- **prompt-engineering** — For writing effective LLM prompts

---

Part of the [Writing](..) skill category.


path: references/elements-of-style/01-introductory.md
content: ## I. Introductory

This handbook summarizes the essentials of plain English style. It focuses on the rules of usage and principles of composition most often broken, offering a compact alternative to exhaustive manuals. Master the guidance here, then look to the best authors for finer points of style.


path: references/elements-of-style/02-elementary-rules-of-usage.md
content: ## II. Elementary Rules Of Usage

### Rule 1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's.

Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write,

Charles's friend

Burns's poems

the witch's malice

This is the usage of the United States Government Printing Office and of the Oxford University Press.

Exceptions are the possessive of ancient proper names in *-es* and *-is*, the possessive *Jesus'*, and such forms as *for conscience' sake*, *for righteousness' sake*. But such forms as *Achilles' heel*, *Moses' laws*, *Isis' temple* are commonly replaced by

the heel of Achilles

the laws of Moses

the temple of Isis

The pronominal possessives *hers*, *its*, *theirs*, *yours*, and *oneself* have no apostrophe.

### Rule 2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last.

Thus write,

red, white, and blue

gold, silver, or copper

He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its contents.

This is also the usage of the Government Printing Office and of the Oxford University Press.

In the names of business firms the last comma is omitted, as,

Brown, Shipley & Co.

### Rule 3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas.

The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to travel on foot.

This rule is difficult to apply; it is frequently hard to decide whether a single word, such as *however*, or a brief phrase, is or is not parenthetic. If the interruption to the flow of the sentence is but slight, the writer may safely omit the commas. But whether the interruption be slight or considerable, he must never insert one comma and omit the other. Such punctuation as

Marjorie's husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit yesterday,

or

My brother you will be pleased to hear, is now in perfect health,

is indefensible.

If a parenthetic expression is preceded by a conjunction, place the first comma before the conjunction, not after it.

He saw us coming, and unaware that we had learned of his treachery, greeted us with a smile.

Always to be regarded as parenthetic and to be enclosed between commas (or, at the end of the sentence, between comma and period) are the following:

\(1\) the year, when forming part of a date, and the day of the month, when following the day of the week:

February to July, 1916.

April 6, 1917.

Monday, November 11, 1918.

\(2\) the abbreviations *etc.* and *jr.*

\(3\) non-restrictive relative clauses, that is, those which do not serve to identify or define the antecedent noun, and similar clauses introduced by conjunctions indicating time or place.

The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and more interested.

In this sentence the clause introduced by *which* does not serve to tell which of several possible audiences is meant; what audience is in question is supposed to be already known. The clause adds, parenthetically, a statement supplementing that in the main clause. The sentence is virtually a combination of two statements which might have been made independently:

The audience had at first been indifferent. It became more and more interested.

Compare the restrictive relative clause, not set off by commas, in the sentence,

The candidate who best meets these requirements will obtain the place.

Here the clause introduced by *who* does serve to tell which of several possible candidates is meant; the sentence cannot be split up into two independent statements.

The difference in punctuation in the two sentences following is based on the same principle:

Nether Stowey, where Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, is a few miles from Bridgewater.

The day will come when you will admit your mistake.

Nether Stowey is completely identified by its name; the statement about Coleridge is therefore supplementary and parenthetic. The *day* spoken of is identified only by the dependent clause, which is therefore restrictive.

Similar in principle to the enclosing of parenthetic expressions between commas is the setting off by commas of phrases or dependent clauses preceding or following the main clause of a sentence.

Partly by hard fighting, partly by diplomatic skill, they enlarged their dominions to the east, and rose to royal rank with the possession of Sicily, exchanged afterwards for Sardinia.

Other illustrations may be found in sentences quoted under Rules 4, 5, 6, 7, 16, and 18.

The writer should be careful not to set off independent clauses by commas: see under Rule 5.

### Rule 4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing a co-ordinate clause.

The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.

The situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of escape.

Sentences of this type, isolated from their context, may seem to be in need of rewriting. As they make complete sense when the comma is reached, the second clause has the appearance of an afterthought. Further, *and* is the least specific of connectives. Used between independent clauses, it indicates only that a relation exists between them without defining that relation. In the example above, the relation is that of cause and result. The two sentences might be rewritten:

As the early records of the city have disappeared, the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.

Although the situation is perilous, there is still one chance of escape.

Or the subordinate clauses might be replaced by phrases:

Owing to the disappearance of the early records of the city, the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.

In this perilous situation, there is still one chance of escape.

But a writer may err by making his sentences too uniformly compact and periodic, and an occasional loose sentence prevents the style from becoming too formal and gives the reader a certain relief. Consequently, loose sentences of the type first quoted are common in easy, unstudied writing. But a writer should be careful not to construct too many of his sentences after this pattern (see Rule 14).

Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by *as* (in the sense of *because*), *for*, *or*, *nor*, and *while* (in the sense of *and at the same time*) likewise require a comma before the conjunction.

If the second member is introduced by an adverb, a semicolon, not a comma, is required (see Rule 5). The connectives *so* and *yet* may be used either as adverbs or as conjunctions, accordingly as the second clause is felt to be co-ordinate or subordinate; consequently either mark of punctuation may be justified. But these uses of *so* (equivalent to *accordingly* or to *so that*) are somewhat colloquial and should, as a rule, be avoided in writing. A simple correction, usually serviceable, is to omit the word *so* and begin the first clause with *as* or *since*:

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| I had never been in the place before; so I had difficulty in finding my way about. | As I had never been in the place before, I had difficulty in finding my way about. |

If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off by a comma, precedes the second independent clause, no comma is needed after the conjunction.

The situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to act promptly, there is still one chance of escape.

When the subject is the same for both clauses and is expressed only once, a comma is required if the connective is *but*. If the connective is *and*, the comma should be omitted if the relation between the two statements is close or immediate.

I have heard his arguments, but am still unconvinced.

He has had several years' experience and is thoroughly competent.

### Rule 5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma.

If two or more clauses, grammatically complete and not joined by a conjunction, are to form a single compound sentence, the proper mark of punctuation is a semicolon.

Stevenson's romances are entertaining; they are full of exciting adventures.

It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark.

It is of course equally correct to write the above as two sentences each, replacing the semicolons by periods.

Stevenson's romances are entertaining. They are full of exciting adventures.

It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark.

If a conjunction is inserted the proper mark is a comma (Rule 4).

Stevenson's romances are entertaining, for they are full of exciting adventures.

It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before dark.

A comparison of the three forms given above will show clearly the advantage of the first. It is, at least in the examples given, better than the second form, because it suggests the close relationship between the two statements in a way that the second does not attempt, and better than the third, because briefer and therefore more forcible. Indeed it may be said that this simple method of indicating relationship between statements is one of the most useful devices of composition. The relationship, as above, is commonly one of cause or of consequence.

Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as *accordingly*, *besides*, *then*, *therefore*, or *thus*, and not by a conjunction, the semicolon is still required.

Two exceptions to the rule may be admitted. If the clauses are very short, and are alike in form, a comma is usually permissible:

Man proposes, God disposes.

The gate swung apart, the bridge fell, the portcullis was drawn up.

Note that in these examples the relation is not one of cause or consequence. Also in the colloquial form of expression,

I hardly knew him, he was so changed,

a comma, not a semicolon, is required. But this form of expression is inappropriate in writing, except in the dialogue of a story or play, or perhaps in a familiar letter.

### Rule 6. Do not break sentences in two.

In other words, do not use periods for commas.

I met them on a Cunard liner several years ago. Coming home from Liverpool to New York.

He was an interesting talker. A man who had traveled all over the world and lived in half a dozen countries.

In both these examples, the first period should be replaced by a comma, and the following word begun with a small letter.

It is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression serve the purpose of a sentence and to punctuate it accordingly:

Again and again he called out. No reply.

The writer must, however, be certain that the emphasis is warranted, and that he will not be suspected of a mere blunder in syntax or in punctuation.

Rules 3, 4, 5, and 6 cover the most important principles in the punctuation of ordinary sentences; they should be so thoroughly mastered that their application becomes second nature.

### Rule 7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject.

Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two children.

The word *walking* refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the woman. If the writer wishes to make it refer to the woman, he must recast the sentence:

He saw a woman accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the road.

Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition, nouns in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases come under the same rule if they begin the sentence.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| On arriving in Chicago, his friends met him at the station. | When he arrived (or, On his arrival) in Chicago, his friends met him at the station. |
| A soldier of proved valor, they entrusted him with the defence of the city. | A soldier of proved valor, he was entrusted with the defence of the city. |
| Young and inexperienced, the task seemed easy to me. | Young and inexperienced, I thought the task easy. |
| Without a friend to counsel him, the temptation proved irresistible. | Without a friend to counsel him, he found the temptation irresistible. |

Sentences violating this rule are often ludicrous.

Being in a dilapidated condition, I was able to buy the house very cheap.

Wondering irresolutely what to do next, the clock struck twelve.


path: references/elements-of-style/03-elementary-principles-of-composition.md
content: ## III. Elementary Principles Of Composition

### Rule 8. Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic.

If the subject on which you are writing is of slight extent, or if you intend to treat it very briefly, there may be no need of subdividing it into topics. Thus a brief description, a brief summary of a literary work, a brief account of a single incident, a narrative merely outlining an action, the setting forth of a single idea, any one of these is best written in a single paragraph. After the paragraph has been written, examine it to see whether subdivision will not improve it.

Ordinarily, however, a subject requires subdivision into topics, each of which should be made the subject of a paragraph. The object of treating each topic in a paragraph by itself is, of course, to aid the reader. The beginning of each paragraph is a signal to him that a new step in the development of the subject has been reached.

The extent of subdivision will vary with the length of the composition. For example, a short notice of a book or poem might consist of a single paragraph. One slightly longer might consist of two paragraphs:

- A. Account of the work.
- B. Critical discussion.

A report on a poem, written for a class in literature, might consist of seven paragraphs:

- A. Facts of composition and publication.
- B. Kind of poem; metrical form.
- C. Subject.
- D. Treatment of subject.
- E. For what chiefly remarkable.
- F. Wherein characteristic of the writer.
- G. Relationship to other works.

The contents of paragraphs C and D would vary with the poem. Usually, paragraph C would indicate the actual or imagined circumstances of the poem (the situation), if these call for explanation, and would then state the subject and outline its development. If the poem is a narrative in the third person throughout, paragraph C need contain no more than a concise summary of the action. Paragraph D would indicate the leading ideas and show how they are made prominent, or would indicate what points in the narrative are chiefly emphasized.

A novel might be discussed under the heads:

- A. Setting.
- B. Plot.
- C. Characters.
- D. Purpose.

An historical event might be discussed under the heads:

- A. What led up to the event.
- B. Account of the event.
- C. What the event led up to.

In treating either of these last two subjects, the writer would probably find it necessary to subdivide one or more of the topics here given.

As a rule, single sentences should not be written or printed as paragraphs. An exception may be made of sentences of transition, indicating the relation between the parts of an exposition or argument. Frequent exceptions are also necessary in textbooks, guidebooks, and other works in which many topics are treated briefly.

In dialogue, each speech, even if only a single word, is a paragraph by itself; that is, a new paragraph begins with each change of speaker. The application of this rule, when dialogue and narrative are combined, is best learned from examples in well-printed works of fiction.

### Rule 9. As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence, end it in conformity with the beginning.

Again, the object is to aid the reader. The practice here recommended enables him to discover the purpose of each paragraph as he begins to read it, and to retain this purpose in mind as he ends it. For this reason, the most generally useful kind of paragraph, particularly in exposition and argument, is that in which

\(a\) the topic sentence comes at or near the beginning;

\(b\) the succeeding sentences explain or establish or develop the statement made in the topic sentence; and

\(c\) the final sentence either emphasizes the thought of the topic sentence or states some important consequence.

Ending with a digression, or with an unimportant detail, is particularly to be avoided.

If the paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relation to what precedes, or its function as a part of the whole, may need to be expressed. This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase (*again*; *therefore*; *for the same reason*) in the topic sentence. Sometimes, however, it is expedient to precede the topic sentence by one or more sentences of introduction or transition. If more than one such sentence is required, it is generally better to set apart the transitional sentences as a separate paragraph.

According to the writer's purpose, he may, as indicated above, relate the body of the paragraph to the topic sentence in one or more of several different ways. He may make the meaning of the topic sentence clearer by restating it in other forms, by defining its terms, by denying the contrary, by giving illustrations or specific instances; he may establish it by proofs; or he may develop it by showing its implications and consequences. In a long paragraph, he may carry out several of these processes.

1 Now, to be properly enjoyed, a walking tour should be gone upon alone. 2 If you go in a company, or even in pairs, it is no longer a walking tour in anything but name; it is something else and more in the nature of a picnic. 3 A walking tour should be gone upon alone, because freedom is of the essence; because you should be able to stop and go on, and follow this way or that, as the freak takes you; and because you must have your own pace, and neither trot alongside a champion walker, nor mince in time with a girl. 4 And you must be open to all impressions and let your thoughts take colour from what you see. 5 You should be as a pipe for any wind to play upon. 6 “I cannot see the wit,” says Hazlitt, “of walking and talking at the same time. 7 When I am in the country, I wish to vegetate like the country,” which is the gist of all that can be said upon the matter. 8 There should be no cackle of voices at your elbow, to jar on the meditative silence of the morning. 9 And so long as a man is reasoning he cannot surrender himself to that fine intoxication that comes of much motion in the open air, that begins in a sort of dazzle and sluggishness of the brain, and ends in a peace that passes comprehension.—Stevenson, Walking Tours.

1 Topic sentence. 2 The meaning made clearer by denial of the contrary. 3 The topic sentence repeated, in abridged form, and supported by three reasons; the meaning of the third (“you must have your own pace”) made clearer by denying the contrary. 4 A fourth reason, stated in two forms. 5 The same reason, stated in still another form. 6–7 The same reason as stated by Hazlitt. 8 Repetition, in paraphrase, of the quotation from Hazlitt. 9 Final statement of the fourth reason, in language amplified and heightened to form a strong conclusion.

1 It was chiefly in the eighteenth century that a very different conception of history grew up. 2 Historians then came to believe that their task was not so much to paint a picture as to solve a problem; to explain or illustrate the successive phases of national growth, prosperity, and adversity. 3 The history of morals, of industry, of intellect, and of art; the changes that take place in manners or beliefs; the dominant ideas that prevailed in successive periods; the rise, fall, and modification of political constitutions; in a word, all the conditions of national well-being became the subject of their works. 4 They sought rather to write a history of peoples than a history of kings. 5 They looked especially in history for the chain of causes and effects. 6 They undertook to study in the past the physiology of nations, and hoped by applying the experimental method on a large scale to deduce some lessons of real value about the conditions on which the welfare of society mainly depend.—Lecky, The Political Value of History.

1 Topic sentence. 2 The meaning of the topic sentence made clearer; the new conception of history defined. 3 The definition expanded. 4 The definition explained by contrast. 5 The definition supplemented: another element in the new conception of history. 6 Conclusion: an important consequence of the new conception of history.

In narration and description the paragraph sometimes begins with a concise, comprehensive statement serving to hold together the details that follow.

The breeze served us admirably.

The campaign opened with a series of reverses.

The next ten or twelve pages were filled with a curious set of entries.

But this device, if too often used, would become a mannerism. More commonly the opening sentence simply indicates by its subject with what the paragraph is to be principally concerned.

At length I thought I might return towards the stockade.

He picked up the heavy lamp from the table and began to explore.

Another flight of steps, and they emerged on the roof.

The brief paragraphs of animated narrative, however, are often without even this semblance of a topic sentence. The break between them serves the purpose of a rhetorical pause, throwing into prominence some detail of the action.

### Rule 10. Use the active voice.

The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than the passive:

I shall always remember my first visit to Boston.

This is much better than

My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me.

The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and less concise. If the writer tries to make it more concise by omitting “by me,”

My first visit to Boston will always be remembered,

it becomes indefinite: is it the writer, or some person undisclosed, or the world at large, that will always remember this visit?

This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely discard the passive voice, which is frequently convenient and sometimes necessary.

The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed to-day.

Modern readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the Restoration.

The first would be the right form in a paragraph on the dramatists of the Restoration; the second, in a paragraph on the tastes of modern readers. The need of making a particular word the subject of the sentence will often, as in these examples, determine which voice is to be used.

As a rule, avoid making one passive depend directly upon another.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Gold was not allowed to be exported. | It was forbidden to export gold (The export of gold was prohibited). |
| He has been proved to have been seen entering the building. | It has been proved that he was seen to enter the building. |

In both the examples above, before correction, the word properly related to the second passive is made the subject of the first.

A common fault is to use as the subject of a passive construction a noun which expresses the entire action, leaving to the verb no function beyond that of completing the sentence.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| A survey of this region was made in 1900. | This region was surveyed in 1900. |
| Mobilization of the army was rapidly effected. | The army was rapidly mobilized. |
| Confirmation of these reports cannot be obtained. | These reports cannot be confirmed. |

Compare the _sentence,_ “The export of gold was prohibited,” in which the predicate “was prohibited” expresses something not implied in “export.”

The habitual use of the active voice makes for forcible writing. This is true not only in narrative principally concerned with action, but in writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence of description or exposition can be made lively and emphatic by substituting a verb in the active voice for some such perfunctory expression as *there is*, or *could be heard*.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| There were a great number of dead leaves lying on the ground. | Dead leaves covered the ground. |
| The sound of a guitar somewhere in the house could be heard. | Somewhere in the house a guitar hummed sleepily. |
| The reason that he left college was that his health became impaired. | Failing health compelled him to leave college. |
| It was not long before he was very sorry that he had said what he had. | He soon repented his words. |

### Rule 11. Put statements in positive form.

Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating, non-committal language. Use the word *not* as a means of denial or in antithesis, never as a means of evasion.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| He was not very often on time. | He usually came late. |
| He did not think that studying Latin was much use. | He thought the study of Latin useless. |
| The Taming of the Shrew is rather weak in spots. Shakespeare does not portray Katharine as a very admirable character, nor does Bianca remain long in memory as an important character in Shakespeare's works. | The women in The Taming of the Shrew are unattractive. Katharine is disagreeable, Bianca insignificant. |

The last example, before correction, is indefinite as well as negative. The corrected version, consequently, is simply a guess at the writer's intention.

All three examples show the weakness inherent in the word *not*. Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfied with being told only what is not; he wishes to be told what is. Hence, as a rule, it is better to express even a negative in positive form.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| not honest | dishonest |
| not important | trifling |
| did not remember | forgot |
| did not pay any attention to | ignored |
| did not have much confidence in | distrusted |

The antithesis of negative and positive is strong:

Not charity, but simple justice.

Not that I loved Caesar less, but Rome the more.

Negative words other than *not* are usually strong:

The sun never sets upon the British flag.

### Rule 12. Use definite, specific, concrete language.

Prefer the specific to the general, the definite to the vague, the concrete to the abstract.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| A period of unfavorable weather set in. | It rained every day for a week. |
| He showed satisfaction as he took possession of his well-earned reward. | He grinned as he pocketed the coin. |
| There is a general agreement among those who have enjoyed the experience that surf-riding is productive of great exhilaration. | All who have tried surf-riding agree that it is most exhilarating. |

If those who have studied the art of writing are in accord on any one point, it is on this, that the surest method of arousing and holding the attention of the reader is by being specific, definite, and concrete. Critics have pointed out how much of the effectiveness of the greatest writers, Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, results from their constant definiteness and concreteness. Browning, to cite a more modern author, affords many striking examples. Take, for instance, the lines from My Last Duchess,

Sir, 'twas all one! My favour at her breast,

The dropping of the daylight in the west,

The bough of cherries some officious fool

Broke in the orchard for her, the white mule

She rode with round the terrace—all and each

Would draw from her alike the approving speech,

Or blush, at least,

and those which end the poem,

Notice Neptune, though,

Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity,

Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me.

These words call up pictures. Recall how in The Bishop Orders his Tomb in St. Praxed's Church “the Renaissance spirit—its worldliness, inconsistency, pride, hypocrisy, ignorance of itself, love of art, of luxury, of good Latin,” to quote Ruskin's comment on the poem, is made manifest in specific details and in concrete terms.

Prose, in particular narrative and descriptive prose, is made vivid by the same means. If the experiences of Jim Hawkins and of David Balfour, of Kim, of Nostromo, have seemed for the moment real to countless readers, if in reading Carlyle we have almost the sense of being physically present at the taking of the Bastille, it is because of the definiteness of the details and the concreteness of the terms used. It is not that every detail is given; that would be impossible, as well as to no purpose; but that all the significant details are given, and not vaguely, but with such definiteness that the reader, in imagination, can project himself into the scene.

In exposition and in argument, the writer must likewise never lose his hold upon the concrete, and even when he is dealing with general principles, he must give particular instances of their application.

“This superiority of specific expressions is clearly due to the effort required to translate words into thoughts. As we do not think in generals, but in particulars—as whenever any class of things is referred to, we represent it to ourselves by calling to mind individual members of it, it follows that when an abstract word is used, the hearer or reader has to choose, from his stock of images, one or more by which he may figure to himself the genus mentioned. In doing this, some delay must arise, some force be expended; and if by employing a specific term an appropriate image can be at once suggested, an economy is achieved, and a more vivid impression produced.”

Herbert Spencer, from whose Philosophy of Style the preceding paragraph is quoted, illustrates the principle by the sentences:

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| In proportion as the manners, customs, and amusements of a nation are cruel and barbarous, the regulations of their penal code will be severe. | In proportion as men delight in battles, bull-fights, and combats of gladiators, will they punish by hanging, burning, and the rack. |

### Rule 13. Omit needless words.

Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that he make every word tell.

Many expressions in common use violate this principle:

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| the question as to whether | whether (the question whether) |
| there is no doubt but that | no doubt (doubtless) |
| used for fuel purposes | used for fuel |
| he is a man who | he |
| in a hasty manner | hastily |
| this is a subject which | this subject |
| His story is a strange one. | His story is strange. |

In especial the expression *the fact that* should be revised out of every sentence in which it occurs.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| owing to the fact that | since (because) |
| in spite of the fact that | though (although) |
| call your attention to the fact that | remind you (notify you) |
| I was unaware of the fact that | I was unaware that (did not know) |
| the fact that he had not succeeded | his failure |
| the fact that I had arrived | my arrival |

See also under *case*, *character*, *nature*, *system* in Chapter V.

*Who is*, *which was*, and the like are often superfluous.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| His brother, who is a member of the same firm | His brother, a member of the same firm |
| Trafalgar, which was Nelson's last battle | Trafalgar, Nelson's last battle |

As positive statement is more concise than negative, and the active voice more concise than the passive, many of the examples given under Rules 11 and 12 illustrate this rule as well.

A common violation of conciseness is the presentation of a single complex idea, step by step, in a series of sentences or independent clauses which might to advantage be combined into one.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Macbeth was very ambitious. This led him to wish to become king of Scotland. The witches told him that this wish of his would come true. The king of Scotland at this time was Duncan. Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth murdered Duncan. He was thus enabled to succeed Duncan as king. (51 words.) | Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth achieved his ambition and realized the prediction of the witches by murdering Duncan and becoming king of Scotland in his place. (26 words.) |
| There were several less important courses, but these were the most important, and although they did not come every day, they came often enough to keep you in such a state of mind that you never knew what your next move would be. (43 words.) | These, the most important courses of all, came, if not daily, at least often enough to keep one under constant strain. (21 words.) |

### Rule 14. Avoid a succession of loose sentences

This rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particular type, those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, the second introduced by a conjunction or relative. Although single sentences of this type may be unexceptionable (see under Rule 4), a series soon becomes monotonous and tedious.

An unskilful writer will sometimes construct a whole paragraph of sentences of this kind, using as connectives *and*, *but*, *so*, and less frequently, *who*, *which*, *when*, *where*, and *while*, these last in non-restrictive senses (see under Rule 3).

The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening, and a large audience was in attendance. Mr. Edward Appleton was the soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation. The interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10, when an equally attractive programme will be presented.

Apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph above is weak because of the structure of its sentences, with their mechanical symmetry and sing-song. Contrast with them the sentences in the paragraphs quoted under Rule 9, or in any piece of good English prose, as the preface (Before the Curtain) to Vanity Fair.

If the writer finds that he has written a series of sentences of the type described, he should recast enough of them to remove the monotony, replacing them by simple sentences, by sentences of two clauses joined by a semicolon, by periodic sentences of two clauses, by sentences, loose or periodic, of three clauses—whichever best represent the real relations of the thought.

### Rule 15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form.

This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of content and function. Familiar instances from the Bible are the Ten Commandments, the Beatitudes, and the petitions of the Lord's Prayer.

The unskillful writer often violates this principle, from a mistaken belief that he should constantly vary the form of his expressions. It is true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it he may have need to vary its form. For illustration, see the paragraph from Stevenson quoted under Rule _9_. But apart from this, he should follow the principle of parallel construction.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method, while now the laboratory method is employed. | Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method; now it is taught by the laboratory method. |

The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold to it. The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least made his choice and abided by it.

By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| The French, the Italians, Spanish, and Portuguese | The French, the Italians, the Spanish, and the Portuguese |
| In spring, summer, or in winter | In spring, summer, or winter (In spring, in summer, or in winter) |

Correlative expressions (*both, and*; *not, but*; *not only, but also*; *either, or*; *first, second, third*; and the like) should be followed by the same grammatical construction, that is, virtually, by the same part of speech. (Such combinations as “both Henry and I,” “not silk, but a cheap substitute,” are obviously within the rule.) Many violations of this rule (as the first three below) arise from faulty arrangement; others (as the last) from the use of unlike constructions.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| It was both a long ceremony and very tedious. | The ceremony was both long and tedious. |
| A time not for words, but action. | A time not for words, but for action. |
| Either you must grant his request or incur his ill will. | You must either grant his request or incur his ill will. |
| My objections are, first, the injustice of the measure; second, that it is unconstitutional. | My objections are, first, that the measure is unjust; second, that it is unconstitutional. |

See also the third example under Rule 12 and the last under Rule 13.

It may be asked, what if a writer needs to express a very large number of similar ideas, say twenty? Must he write twenty consecutive sentences of the same pattern? On closer examination he will probably find that the difficulty is imaginary, that his twenty ideas can be classified in groups, and that he need apply the principle only within each group. Otherwise he had best avoid difficulty by putting his statements in the form of a table.

### Rule 16. Keep related words together.

The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of showing their relationship. The writer must therefore, so far as possible, bring together the words, and groups of words, that are related in thought, and keep apart those which are not so related.

The subject of a sentence and the principal verb should not, as a rule, be separated by a phrase or clause that can be transferred to the beginning.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Wordsworth, in the fifth book of The Excursion, gives a minute description of this church. | In the fifth book of The Excursion, Wordsworth gives a minute description of this church. |
| Cast iron, when treated in a Bessemer converter, is changed into steel. | By treatment in a Bessemer converter, cast iron is changed into steel. |

The objection is that the interposed phrase or clause needlessly interrupts the natural order of the main clause. Usually, however, this objection does not hold when the order is interrupted only by a relative clause or by an expression in apposition. Nor does it hold in periodic sentences in which the interruption is a deliberately used means of creating suspense (see examples under Rule 18).

The relative pronoun should come, as a rule, immediately after its antecedent.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| There was a look in his eye that boded mischief. | In his eye was a look that boded mischief. |
| He wrote three articles about his adventures in Spain, which were published in Harper's Magazine. | He published in Harper's Magazine three articles about his adventures in Spain. |
| This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson of William Henry Harrison, who became President in 1889. | This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson of William Henry Harrison. He became President in 1889. |

If the antecedent consists of a group of words, the relative comes at the end of the group, unless this would cause ambiguity.

The Superintendent of the Chicago Division, who

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| A proposal to amend the Sherman Act, which has been variously judged. | A proposal, which has been variously judged, to amend the Sherman Act. |
| — | A proposal to amend the much-debated Sherman Act. |
| The grandson of William Henry Harrison, who | William Henry Harrison's grandson, who |

A noun in apposition may come between antecedent and relative, because in such a combination no real ambiguity can arise.

The Duke of York, his brother, who was regarded with hostility by the Whigs

Modifiers should come, if possible, next to the word they modify. If several expressions modify the same word, they should be so arranged that no wrong relation is suggested.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| All the members were not present. | Not all the members were present. |
| He only found two mistakes. | He found only two mistakes. |
| Major R. E. Joyce will give a lecture on Tuesday evening in Bailey Hall, to which the public is invited, on “My Experiences in Mesopotamia” at eight P. M. | On Tuesday evening at eight P. M., Major R. E. Joyce will give in Bailey Hall a lecture on “My Experiences in Mesopotamia.” The public is invited. |

### Rule 17. In summaries, keep to one tense.

In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should always use the present tense. In summarizing a poem, story, or novel, he should preferably use the present, though he may use the past if he prefers. If the summary is in the present tense, antecedent action should be expressed by the perfect; if in the past, by the past perfect.

An unforeseen chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo. Meanwhile, owing to her father's arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, Juliet has been compelled to drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that Balthasar informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar Lawrence learns of the non-delivery of the letter.

But whichever tense be used in the summary, a past tense in indirect discourse or in indirect question remains unchanged.

The Friar confesses that it was he who married them.

Apart from the exceptions noted, whichever tense the writer chooses, he should use throughout. Shifting from one tense to the other gives the appearance of uncertainty and irresolution (compare Rule 15).

In presenting the statements or the thought of some one else, as in summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, the writer should avoid intercalating such expressions as “he said,” “he stated,” “the speaker added,” “the speaker then went on to say,” “the author also thinks,” or the like. He should indicate clearly at the outset, once for all, that what follows is summary, and then waste no words in repeating the notification.

In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature, summaries of one kind or another may be indispensable, and for children in primary schools it is a useful exercise to retell a story in their own words. But in the criticism or interpretation of literature the writer should be careful to avoid dropping into summary. He may find it necessary to devote one or two sentences to indicating the subject, or the opening situation, of the work he is discussing; he may cite numerous details to illustrate its qualities. But he should aim to write an orderly discussion supported by evidence, not a summary with occasional comment. Similarly, if the scope of his discussion includes a number of works, he will as a rule do better not to take them up singly in chronological order, but to aim from the beginning at establishing general conclusions.

### Rule 18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end.

The proper place in the sentence for the word, or group of words, which the writer desires to make most prominent is usually the end.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways. | Humanity, since that time, has advanced in many other ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude. |
| This steel is principally used for making razors, because of its hardness. | Because of its hardness, this steel is principally used in making razors. |

The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is usually the logical predicate, that is, the *new* element in the sentence, as it is in the second example.

The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from the prominence which it gives to the main statement.

Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to the Indies as a set-off against the achievements of Portuguese discoverers, lighted on America.

With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourself unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful prosecution of this war.

The other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning. Any element in the sentence, other than the subject, may become emphatic when placed first.

Deceit or treachery he could never forgive.

So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem, at first sight, like works of nature.

A subject coming first in its sentence may be emphatic, but hardly by its position alone. In the sentence,

Great kings worshipped at his shrine,

the emphasis upon *kings* arises largely from its meaning and from the context. To receive special emphasis, the subject of a sentence must take the position of the predicate.

Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream.

The principle that the proper place for what is to be made most prominent is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence, to the sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs of a composition.


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content: ## IV. A Few Matters of Form

**Headings.** Leave a blank line, or its equivalent in space, after the title or heading of a manuscript. On succeeding pages, if using ruled paper, begin on the first line.

**Numerals.** Do not spell out dates or other serial numbers. Write them in figures or in Roman notation, as may be appropriate.

August 9, 1918 (9 August 1918)

Rule 3

Chapter XII

352nd Infantry

**Parentheses.** A sentence containing an expression in parenthesis is punctuated, outside of the marks of parenthesis, exactly as if the expression in parenthesis were absent. The expression within is punctuated as if it stood by itself, except that the final stop is omitted unless it is a question mark or an exclamation point.

I went to his house yesterday (my third attempt to see him), but he had left town.

He declares (and why should we doubt his good faith?) that he is now certain of success.

(When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized, the final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis.)

**Quotations.** Formal quotations, cited as documentary evidence, are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks.

The provision of the Constitution is: “No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state.”

Quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct objects of verbs are preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks.

[](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/37134/37134-h/37134-h.htm "34")I recall the maxim of La Rochefoucauld, “Gratitude is a lively sense of benefits to come.”

Aristotle says, “Art is an imitation of nature.”

Quotations of an entire line, or more, of verse, are begun on a fresh line and centered, but need not be enclosed in quotation marks.

Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the Revolution was at first unbounded:

Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive,

But to be young was very heaven!

Quotations introduced by _that_ are regarded as in indirect discourse and not enclosed in quotation marks.

Keats declares that beauty is truth, truth beauty.

Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary origin require no quotation marks.

These are the times that try men's souls.

He lives far from the madding crowd.

The same is true of colloquialisms and slang.

**References.** In scholarly work requiring exact references, abbreviate titles that occur frequently, giving the full forms in an alphabetical list at the end. As a general practice, give the references in parenthesis or in footnotes, not in the body of the sentence. Omit the words _act_, _scene_, _line_, _book_, _volume_, _page_, except when referring by only one of them. Punctuate as indicated below.

In the second scene of the third act In III.ii (still better, simply insert III.ii in parenthesis at the proper place in the sentence)

After the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed under guard (IV.ii. 14).

2 Samuel i:17–27

Othello II.iii. 264–267, III.iii. 155–161.

**Syllabication.** If there is room at the end of a line for one or more syllables of a word, but not for the whole word, divide the word, unless this involves cutting off only a [](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/37134/37134-h/37134-h.htm "35") single letter, or cutting off only two letters of a long word. No hard and fast rule for all words can be laid down. The principles most frequently applicable are:

(a) Divide the word according to its formation:

know-ledge (not knowl-edge); Shake-speare (not Shakes-peare); de-scribe (not des-cribe); atmo-sphere (not atmos-phere);

(b) Divide “on the vowel:”

edi-ble (not ed-ible); propo-sition; ordi-nary; espe-cial; reli-gious; oppo-nents; regu-lar; classi-fi-ca-tion (three divisions allowable); deco-rative; presi-dent;

(c) Divide between double letters, unless they come at the end of the simple form of the word:

Apen-nines; Cincin-nati; refer-ring; but tell-ing.

(d) Do not divide before final _-ed_ if the _e_ is silent:

treat-ed (but not roam-ed or nam-ed).

The treatment of consonants in combination is best shown from examples:

for-tune; pic-ture; sin-gle; presump-tuous; illus-tration; sub-stan-tial (either division); indus-try; instruc-tion; sug-ges-tion; incen-diary.

The student will do well to examine the syllable-division in a number of pages of any carefully printed book.

**Titles.** For the titles of literary works, scholarly usage prefers italics with capitalized initials. The usage of editors and publishers varies, some using italics with capitalized initials, others using Roman with capitalized initials and with or without quotation marks. Use italics (indicated in manuscript by underscoring), except in writing for a periodical that follows a different practice. Omit initial _A_ or _The_ from titles when you place the possessive before them.

The Iliad; the Odyssey; As You Like It; To a Skylark; The Newcomes; A Tale of Two Cities; Dickens's Tale of Two Cities.


path: references/elements-of-style/05-words-and-expressions-commonly-misused.md
content: ## V. Words And Expressions Commonly Misused

(Some of the forms here listed, as *like I did*, are downright bad English; others, as the split infinitive, have their defenders, but are in such general disfavor that it is at least inadvisable to use them; still others, as *case*, *factor*, *feature*, *interesting*, *one of the most*, are good in their place, but are constantly obtruding themselves into places where they have no right to be. If the writer will make it his purpose from the beginning to express accurately his own individual thought, and will refuse to be satisfied with a ready-made formula that saves him the trouble of doing so, this last set of expressions will cause him little trouble. But if he finds that in a moment of inadvertence he has used one of them, his proper course will probably be not to patch up the sentence by substituting one word or set of words for another, but to recast it completely, as illustrated in a number of examples below and in others under Rules 12 and 13.)

**All right.** Idiomatic in familiar speech as a detached phrase in the sense, “Agreed,” or “Go ahead.” In other uses better avoided. Always written as two words.

**As good or better than.** Expressions of this type should be corrected by rearranging the sentence.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| My opinion is as good or better than his. | My opinion is as good as his, or better (if not better). |

**As to whether.** *Whether* is sufficient; see under Rule 13.

**Bid.** Takes the infinitive without *to*. The past tense in the sense, _“ordered,”_ is *bade*.

**But.** Unnecessary after *doubt* and *help*.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| I have no doubt but that | I have no doubt that |
| He could not help see but that | He could not help seeing that |

The too frequent use of *but* as a conjunction leads to the fault discussed under Rule 14. A loose sentence formed with *but* can always be converted into a periodic sentence formed with *although*, as illustrated under Rule 4.

Particularly awkward is the following of one *but* by another, making a contrast to a contrast or a reservation to a reservation. This is easily corrected by re-arrangement.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| America had vast resources, but she seemed almost wholly unprepared for war. But within a year she had created an army of four million men. | America seemed almost wholly unprepared for war, but she had vast resources. Within a year she had created an army of four million men. |

**Can.** Means *am (is, are) able*. Not to be used as a substitute for *may*.

**Case.** The Concise Oxford Dictionary begins its definition of this word: “instance of a thing's occurring; usual state of affairs.” In these two senses, the word is usually unnecessary.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| In many cases, the rooms were poorly ventilated. | Many of the rooms were poorly ventilated. |
| It has rarely been the case that any mistake has been made. | Few mistakes have been made. |

See Wood, Suggestions to Authors, pp. 68–71, and Quiller-Couch, The Art of Writing, pp. 103–106.

**Certainly.** Used indiscriminately by some writers, much as others use *very*, to intensify any and every statement. A mannerism of this kind, bad in speech, is even worse in writing.

**Character.** Often simply redundant, used from a mere habit of wordiness.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Acts of a hostile character | Hostile acts |

**Claim, vb.** With object-noun, means *lay claim to*. May be used with a dependent clause if this sense is clearly involved: “He claimed that he was the sole surviving heir.” (But even here, “claimed to be” would be better.) Not to be used as a substitute for *declare*, *maintain*, or *charge*.

**Clever.** This word has been greatly overused; it is best restricted to ingenuity displayed in small matters.

**Compare.** To *compare to* is to point out or imply resemblances, between objects regarded as essentially of different order; to *compare with* is mainly to point out differences, between objects regarded as essentially of the same order. Thus life has been compared to a pilgrimage, to a drama, to a battle; Congress may be compared with the British Parliament. Paris has been compared to ancient Athens; it may be compared with modern London.

**Consider.** Not followed by *as* when it means “believe to be.” “I consider him thoroughly competent.” Compare, “The lecturer considered Cromwell first as soldier and second as administrator,” where “considered” means “examined” or “discussed.”

**Data.** A plural, like *phenomena* and *strata*.

These data were tabulated.

**Dependable.** A needless substitute for *reliable*, *trustworthy*.

**Different than.** Not permissible. Substitute *different from*, *other than*, or *unlike*.

**Divided into.** Not to be misused for *composed of*. The line is sometimes difficult to draw; doubtless plays are divided into acts, but poems are composed of stanzas.

**Don't.** Contraction of *do not*. The contraction of *does not* is *doesn't*.

**Due to.** Incorrectly used for *through*, *because of*, or *owing to*, in adverbial phrases: “He lost the first game, due to carelessness.” In correct use related as predicate or as modifier to a particular noun: “This invention is due to Edison;” “losses due to preventable fires.”

**Folk.** A collective noun, equivalent to *people*. Use the singular form only.

**Effect.** As noun, means *result*; as verb, means *_to_ bring about*, *accomplish* (not to be confused with *affect*, which means “to influence”).

As noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions, music, painting, and other arts: “an Oriental effect;” “effects in pale green;” “very delicate effects;” “broad effects;” “subtle effects;” “a charming effect was produced by.” The writer who has a definite meaning to express will not take refuge in such vagueness.

**Etc.** Equivalent to *and the rest*, *and so forth*, and hence not to be used if one of these would be insufficient, that is, if the reader would be left in doubt as to any important particulars. Least open to objection when it represents the last terms of a list already given in full, or immaterial words at the end of a quotation.

At the end of a list introduced by *such as*, *for example*, or any similar expression, *etc.* is incorrect.

**Fact.** Use this word only of matters of a kind capable of direct verification, not of matters of judgment. That a particular event happened on a given date, that lead melts at a certain temperature, are facts. But such conclusions as that Napoleon was the greatest of modern generals, or that the climate of California is delightful, however incontestable they _may be_, are not properly facts.

On the formula *the fact that*, see under Rule 13.

**Factor.** A hackneyed word; the expressions of which it forms part can usually be replaced by something more direct and idiomatic.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| His superior training was the great factor in his winning the match. | He won the match by being better trained. |
| Heavy artillery has become an increasingly important factor in deciding battles. | Heavy artillery has played a constantly larger part in deciding battles. |

**Feature.** Another hackneyed word; like *factor* it usually adds nothing to the sentence in which it occurs.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| A feature of the entertainment especially worthy of mention was the singing of Miss A. | (Better use the same number of words to tell what Miss A. sang, or if the programme has already been given, to tell how she sang.) |

As a verb, in the advertising sense of *offer as a special attraction*, to be avoided.

**Fix.** Colloquial in America for *arrange*, *prepare*, *mend*. In writing restrict it to its literary senses, *fasten*, *make firm or immovable*, etc.

**Get.** The colloquial *have got* for *have* should not be used in writing. The preferable form of the participle is *got*.

**He is a man who.** A common type of redundant expression; see Rule 13.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| He is a man who is very ambitious. | He is very ambitious. |
| Spain is a country which I have always wanted to visit. | I have always wanted to visit Spain. |

**Help.** See under **But**.

**However.** In the meaning *nevertheless*, not to come first in its sentence or clause.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| The roads were almost impassable. However, we at last succeeded in reaching camp. | The roads were almost impassable. At last, however, we succeeded in reaching camp. |

When *however* comes first, it means *in whatever way* or *to whatever extent*.

However you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best.

However discouraging the prospect, he never lost heart.

**Interesting.** Avoid this word as a perfunctory means of introduction. Instead of announcing that what you are about to tell is interesting, make it so.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| An interesting story is told of | (Tell the story without preamble.) |
| In connection with the anticipated visit of Mr. B. to America, it is interesting to recall that he | Mr. B., who it is expected will soon visit America |

**Kind of.** Not to be used as a substitute for *rather* (before adjectives and verbs), or except in familiar style, for *something like* (before nouns). Restrict it to its literal sense: “Amber is a kind of fossil resin;” “I dislike that kind of notoriety.” The same holds true of *sort of*.

**Less.** Should not be misused for *fewer*.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| He had less men than in the previous campaign | He had fewer men than in the previous campaign |

*Less* refers to quantity, *fewer* to number. “His troubles are less than mine” means “His troubles are not so great as mine.” “His troubles are fewer than mine” means “His troubles are not so numerous as mine.” It is, however, correct to say, “The signers of the petition were less than a hundred,” where the round number *a hundred* is something like a collective noun, and *less* is thought of as meaning a less quantity or amount.

**Like.** Not to be misused for *as*. *Like* governs nouns and pronouns; before phrases and clauses the equivalent word is *as*.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| We spent the evening like in the old days. | We spent the evening as in the old days. |
| He thought like I did. | He thought as I did (like me). |

**Line, along these lines.** *Line* in the sense of *course of procedure*, *conduct*, *thought*, is allowable, but has been so much overworked, particularly in the phrase *along these lines*, that a writer who aims at freshness or originality had better discard it entirely.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Mr. B. also spoke along the same lines. | Mr. B. also spoke, to the same effect. |
| He is studying along the line of French literature. | He is studying French literature. |

**Literal, literally.** Often incorrectly used in support of exaggeration or violent metaphor.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| A literal flood of abuse. | A flood of abuse. |
| Literally dead with fatigue | Almost dead with fatigue (dead tired) |

**Lose out.** Meant to be more emphatic than *lose*, but actually less so, because of its commonness. The same holds true of *try out*, *win out*, *sign up*, *register up*. With a number of verbs, *out* and *up* form idiomatic combinations: *find out*, *run out*, *turn out*, *cheer up*, *dry up*, *make up*, and others, each distinguishable in meaning from the simple verb. *Lose out* is not.

**Most.** Not to be used for *almost*.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Most everybody | Almost everybody |
| Most all the time | Almost all the time |

**Nature.** Often simply redundant, used like *character*.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Acts of a hostile _nature_ | Hostile acts |

Often vaguely used in such expressions as a “lover of nature;” “poems about nature.” Unless more specific statements follow, the reader cannot tell whether the poems have to do with natural scenery, rural life, the sunset, the untracked wilderness, or the habits of squirrels.

**Near by.** Adverbial phrase, not yet fully accepted as good English, though the analogy of *close by* and *hard by* seems to justify it. *Near*, or *near at hand*, is as good, if not better.

Not to be used as an adjective; use *neighboring*.

**Oftentimes, ofttimes.** Archaic forms, no longer in good use. The modern word is *often*.

**One hundred and one.** Retain the *and* in this and similar expressions, in accordance with the unvarying usage of English prose from Old English times.

**One of the most.** Avoid beginning essays or paragraphs with this formula, as, “One of the most interesting developments of modern science is, etc.;” “Switzerland is one of the most interesting countries of Europe.” There is nothing wrong in this; it is simply threadbare and forcible-feeble.

A common blunder is to use a singular verb in a relative clause following this or a similar expression, when the relative is the subject.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| One of the ablest men that has attacked this problem. | One of the ablest men that have attacked this problem. |

**Participle for verbal noun.**

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Do you mind me asking a question? | Do you mind my asking a question? |
| There was little prospect of the Senate accepting even this compromise. | There was little prospect of the Senate's accepting even this compromise. |

In the left-hand column, *asking* and *accepting* are present participles; in the right-hand column, they are verbal nouns (gerunds). The construction shown in the left-hand column is occasionally found, and has its defenders. Yet it is easy to see that the second sentence has to do not with a prospect of the Senate, but with a prospect of accepting. In this example, at least, the construction is plainly illogical.

As the authors of The King's English point out, there are sentences apparently, but not really, of this type, in which the possessive is not called for.

I cannot imagine Lincoln refusing his assent to this measure.

In this sentence, what the writer cannot imagine is Lincoln himself, in the act of refusing his assent. Yet the meaning would be virtually the same, except for a slight loss of vividness, if he had written,

I cannot imagine Lincoln's refusing his assent to this measure.

By using the possessive, the writer will always be on the safe side.

In the examples above, the subject of the action is a single, unmodified term, immediately preceding the verbal noun, and the construction is as good as any that could be used. But in any sentence in which it is a mere clumsy substitute for something simpler, or in which the use of the possessive is awkward or impossible, should of course be recast.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| In the event of a reconsideration of the whole matter's becoming necessary | If it should become necessary to reconsider the whole matter |
| There was great dissatisfaction with the decision of the arbitrators being favorable to the company. | There was great dissatisfaction that the arbitrators should have decided in favor of the company. |

**People.** *The people* is a political term, not to be confused with *the public*. From the people comes political support or opposition; from the public comes artistic appreciation or commercial patronage.

**Phase.** Means a stage of transition or development: “the phases of the moon;” “the last phase.” Not to be used for *aspect* or *topic*.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Another phase of the subject | Another point (another question) |

**Possess.** Not to be used as a mere substitute for *have* or *own*.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| He possessed great courage. | He had great courage (was very brave). |
| He was the fortunate possessor of | He owned |

**Prove.** The past participle is *proved*.

**Respective, respectively.** These words may usually be omitted with advantage.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Works of fiction are listed under the names of their respective authors. | Works of fiction are listed under the names of their authors. |
| The one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and Cummings respectively. | The one mile and two mile runs were won by Jones and by Cummings. |

In some kinds of formal writing, as geometrical proofs, it may be necessary to use *respectively*, but it should not appear in writing on ordinary subjects.

**Shall, Will.** The future tense requires *shall* for the first person, *will* for the second and third. The formula to express the speaker's belief regarding his future action or state is *I shall*; *I will* expresses his determination or his consent.

**Should.** See under **Would**.

**So.** Avoid, in writing, the use of *so* as an intensifier: “so good;” “so warm;” “so delightful.”

On the use of *so* to introduce clauses, see Rule 4.

**Sort of.** See under **Kind of**.

**Split Infinitive.** There is precedent from the fourteenth century downward for interposing an adverb between *to* and the infinitive which it governs, but the construction is in disfavor and is avoided by nearly all careful writers.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| To diligently inquire | To inquire diligently |

**State.** Not to be used as a mere substitute for *say*, *remark*. Restrict it to the sense of *express fully or clearly*, as, “He refused to state his objections.”

**Student Body.** A needless and awkward expression meaning no more than the simple word *students*.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| A member of the student body | A student |
| Popular with the student body | Liked by the students |
| The student body passed resolutions. | The students passed resolutions. |

**System.** Frequently used without need.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Dayton has adopted the commission system of _government._ | Dayton has adopted government by commission. |
| The dormitory system | Dormitories |

**Thanking You in Advance.** This sounds as if the writer meant, “It will not be worth my while to write to you again.” In making your request, write, “Will you please,” or “I shall be obliged,” and if anything further seems necessary write a letter of acknowledgment later.

**They.** A common inaccuracy is the use of the plural pronoun when the antecedent is a distributive expression such as *each*, *each one*, *everybody*, *every one*, *many a man*, which, though implying more than one person, requires the pronoun to be in the singular. Similar to this, but with even less justification, is the use of the plural pronoun with the antecedent *anybody*, *any one*, *somebody*, *some one*, the intention being either to avoid the awkward “he or she,” or to avoid committing oneself to either. Some bashful speakers even say, “A friend of mine told me that they, etc.”

Use *he* with all the above words, unless the antecedent is or must be feminine.

**Very.** Use this word sparingly. Where emphasis is necessary, use words strong in themselves.

**Viewpoint.** Write *point of view*, but do not misuse this, as many do, for *view* or *opinion*.

**While.** Avoid the indiscriminate use of this word for *and*, *but*, and *although*. Many writers use it frequently as a substitute for *and* or *but*, either from a mere desire to vary the connective, or from uncertainty which of the two connectives is the more appropriate. In this use it is best replaced by a semicolon.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor, while the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing. | The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor; the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing. |

Its use as a virtual equivalent of *although* is allowable in sentences where this leads to no ambiguity or absurdity.

While I admire his energy, I wish it were employed in a better cause.

This is entirely correct, as shown by the paraphrase,

I admire his energy; at the same time I wish it were employed in a better cause.

Compare:

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| While the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly. | Although the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly. |

The paraphrase,

The temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime; at the same time the nights are often chilly,

shows why the use of *while* is incorrect.

In general, the writer will do well to use *while* only with strict literalness, in the sense of *during the time that*.

**Whom.** Often incorrectly used for *who* before *he said* or similar expressions, when it is really the subject of a following verb.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| His brother, whom he said would send him the money | His brother, who he said would send him the money |
| The man whom he thought was his friend | The man who (that) he thought was his friend (whom he thought his friend) |

**Worth while.** Overworked as a term of vague approval and (with *not*) of disapproval. Strictly applicable only to actions: “Is it worth while to telegraph?”

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| His books are not worth while. | His books are not worth reading (are not worth one's while to read; do not repay reading; are worthless). |

The use of *worth while* before a noun (“a worth while story”) is indefensible.

**Would.** A conditional statement in the first person requires *should*, not *would*.

I should not have succeeded without his help.

The equivalent of *shall* in indirect quotation after a verb in the past tense is *should*, not *would*.

He predicted that before long we should have a great surprise.

To express habitual or repeated action, the past tense, without *would*, is usually sufficient, and from its brevity, more emphatic.

| Original | Revision |
| --- | --- |
| Once a year he would visit the old mansion. | Once a year he visited the old mansion. |


path: references/signs-of-ai-writing.md
content: # Signs of AI Writing

[![A screenshot of ChatGPT reading: "[header] Legacy & Interpretation [body] The "Black Hole Edition" is not just a meme — it's a celebration of grassroots car culture, where ideas are limitless and fun is more important than spec sheets. Whether powered by a rotary engine, a V8 swap, or an imagined fighter jet turbine, the Miata remains the canvas for car enthusiasts worldwide."](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/ChatGPT_response_screenshot_1.jpg/250px-ChatGPT_response_screenshot_1.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ChatGPT_response_screenshot_1.jpg)

*LLMs tend to have an identifiable writing style.*

This is a list of writing and formatting conventions typical of [AI chatbots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI_chatbot "AI chatbot") such as [ChatGPT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChatGPT "ChatGPT"), with real examples taken from Wikipedia articles and drafts. It is a [field guide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_guide "Field guide") to help detect [undisclosed AI-generated content](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:LLMDISCLOSE "Wikipedia:LLMDISCLOSE") on Wikipedia. This list is *descriptive*, not *prescriptive*; it consists of observations, not rules. Advice about formatting or language to avoid in Wikipedia articles can be found in the [policies and guidelines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:PAG "Wikipedia:PAG") and the [Manual of Style](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:MOS "Wikipedia:MOS"), but does not belong on this page.

This list is *not* a ban on certain words, phrases, or punctuation. Not all text featuring these indicators is AI-generated, as the [large language models](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_language_model "Large language model") that power AI chatbots are trained on human writing, including the writing of Wikipedia editors. This is simply a catalog of very common patterns observed over many thousands of instances of AI-generated text, *specific to Wikipedia.* While some of its advice may be broadly applicable, some signs—particularly those involving punctuation and formatting—may not apply in a non-Wikipedia context.

The patterns here are also only potential *signs* of a problem, not *the problem itself*. While many of these issues are immediately obvious and easy to fix—e.g., excessive boldface, poor use of language and punctuation, broken markup, citation style quirks—they can point to less outwardly visible problems that carry [much more serious policy risks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:AIFAIL "Wikipedia:AIFAIL"). If LLM-generated text is polished enough (initially or subsequently), those surface defects might not be present, but deeper problems can be. Please do not merely treat these signs as the problems to be fixed; that could just make detection harder. The actual problems are those deeper concerns, so make sure to address them, either yourself or by flagging them, per the advice at [Wikipedia:Large language models §Handling suspected LLM-generated content](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Large_language_models#Handling_suspected_LLM-generated_content "Wikipedia:Large language models") and [Wikipedia:WikiProject AI Cleanup/Guide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_AI_Cleanup/Guide "Wikipedia:WikiProject AI Cleanup/Guide").

The [speedy deletion policy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Speedy_deletion "Wikipedia:Speedy deletion") criterion [G15](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:G15 "Wikipedia:G15") (LLM-generated pages without human review) is limited to the most objective and least contestable indications that the page's content was generated by an LLM. There are three such indicators, the first of which can be found in [§Communication intended for the user](#communication-intended-for-the-user) and the other two in [§Citations](#citations).

Do not solely rely on [artificial intelligence content detection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_content_detection "Artificial intelligence content detection") tools (such as [GPTZero](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPTZero "GPTZero")) to evaluate whether text is LLM-generated. While they perform better than might be achieved by chance, these tools have non-trivial error rates and cannot replace human judgment.[^1] Detectors can be brittle to multiple factors such as text modifications (e.g. paraphrasing and spacing changes) and the use of generative models not seen during detector training.[^2] By the same token, do not trust too much in your own interpretation. Research shows that people who use LLMs heavily themselves can correctly determine whether an article was generated by AI about 90% of the time, which means that if you are an expert user of LLMs and you tag 10 pages as being AI-generated, you've probably falsely accused one editor.[^3] People who don't personally use LLMs much do only slightly better than random chance (in both directions) for identifying AI-generated articles.[^3]

---

## Regression to the Mean

LLMs (and [artificial neural networks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network "Artificial neural network") in general) use statistical algorithms to guess (infer) what should come next based on a large corpus of training material. It thus tends to [regress to the mean](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_to_the_mean "Regression to the mean"); that is, the result tends toward the most statistically likely result that applies to the widest variety of cases. It can simultaneously be a strength and a "tell" for detecting AI-generated content.

For example, LLMs are usually trained on data from the internet in which famous people are generally described with positive, important-sounding language. Consequently, the LLM tends to omit specific, unusual, nuanced facts (which are statistically rare) and replace them with more generic, positive descriptions (which are statistically common). Thus the highly specific "inventor of the first train-coupling device" might become "a revolutionary titan of industry." It is like shouting louder and louder that a portrait shows a uniquely important person, while the portrait itself is fading from a sharp photograph into a blurry, generic sketch. The subject becomes simultaneously less specific and more exaggerated.[^4]

This statistical regression to the mean, a smoothing over of specific facts into generic statements, that could equally apply to many topics, makes AI-generated content easier to detect.

### Undue emphasis on symbolism, legacy, and importance

**Words to watch:** *stands/serves as*, *is a testament/reminder*, *plays a vital/significant/crucial/pivotal role*, *underscores/highlights its importance/significance*, *reflects broader*, *symbolizing its ongoing/enduring/lasting impact*, *key turning point*, *indelible mark*, *deeply rooted*, *profound heritage*, *steadfast dedication*...

LLM writing often puffs up the importance of the subject matter by adding statements about how arbitrary aspects of the topic represent or contribute to a broader topic.[^5] There is a distinct and easily identifiable repertoire of ways that it writes these statements.[^6]

> The Statistical Institute of Catalonia was officially established in 1989, marking a pivotal moment in the evolution of regional statistics in Spain. [...]
>
> The founding of Idescat represented a significant shift toward regional statistical independence, enabling [Catalonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalonia "Catalonia") to develop a statistical system tailored to its unique socio-economic context. This initiative was part of a broader movement across Spain to decentralize administrative functions and enhance regional governance.

> Kumba has long been an important center for trade and agriculture. [...] The establishment of road networks connecting Kumba to other parts of the Southwest Region, such as Mamfe and Buea, helped solidify its role as a regional hub.

LLMs may include these statements for even the most mundane of subjects like etymology or population data. Sometimes, they add hedging preambles acknowledging that the subject is relatively unimportant or low-profile, before talking about its importance anyway.

**Examples**

> During the [Spanish colonial period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_Period_(Philippines) "Spanish Colonial Period (Philippines)"), the name *Bakunutan* was hispanized to *Bacnotan*, a modification reflected in official documents preserved in the [National Archives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Archives_of_the_Philippines "National Archives of the Philippines") in Manila. This etymology highlights the enduring legacy of the community's resistance and the transformative power of unity in shaping its identity.

> Though it saw only limited application, it contributes to the broader history of early aviation engineering and reflects the influence of French rotary designs on German manufacturers.

When talking about biology (e.g., when asked to discuss an animal or plant species), LLMs tend to over-emphasize connections to the broader ecosystem or environment, even when those connections are tenuous or generic. LLMs also tend to belabor the species' conservation status and research and preservation efforts, even if the status is unknown and no serious efforts exist.

**Examples**

> It plays a role in the ecosystem and contributes to Hawaii's rich cultural heritage. [...] Preserving this endemic species is vital not only for ecological diversity but also for sustaining the cultural traditions connected to Hawaii's native flora.

> Currently, there is no specific conservation assessment for *Lethrinops lethrinus* by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). However, the general health of the Lake Malawi ecosystem is crucial for the survival of this and other endemic species. Factors such as overfishing, pollution, and habitat destruction could potentially impact their populations.

### Undue emphasis on notability, attribution, and media coverage

**Words to watch:** *independent coverage*, *local/regional/national/[country name] media outlets*, *music/business/tech outlets*, *active social media presence*

Similarly, LLMs act as if the best way to prove that a subject is notable is to hit readers over the head with claims of notability, often by listing sources that a subject has been covered in. They may or may not provide additional context as to what those sources have actually said about the subject, and often inaccurately attribute their own [superficial analyses](#superficial-analyses) to the source. This is more common in text from newer AI tools (2025 or later).

Human-written press releases have of course also cited news clippings for decades, but LLMs specifically asked to write a Wikipedia article often echo the exact wording of [Wikipedia's guidelines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:N "Wikipedia:N"), such as "independent coverage."

**Examples**

> She spoke about AI on CNN, and was featured in Vogue, Wired, Toronto Star, and other media. [...] Her insights have also been featured in *Wired*, *Refinery29*, and other prominent media outlets.

> Her views have been cited in *The New York Times*, *BBC*, *Financial Times*, and *The Hindu*.

> Its significance is documented in archived school event programs and regional press coverage, including the *Mesabi Daily News*, which regularly reviewed performances held there.

On Wikipedia specifically, LLMs often painstakingly emphasize their sources in the body text—even for trivial coverage, uncontroversial facts, or other situations where a human Wikipedia editor would be more likely to either provide an inline citation or no source at all.

**Examples**

> The restaurant has also been mentioned in [ABC News](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC_News_(Australia) "ABC News (Australia)") coverage relating to incidents in the surrounding precinct, underscoring its role as a well-known late-night venue in the city [of [Adelaide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide "Adelaide")].

> In the United States, university-based incubators and accelerators have expanded alongside these centers; an official Library of Congress review found that 31.5% of SBA [[Small Business Administration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Business_Administration "Small Business Administration")] Growth Accelerator Fund Competition winners from 2014–2016 were university-based programs.

In articles about people/entities who use social media, LLMs will often note that they "maintain an active social media presence" or something similar. This wording is particularly idiosyncratic to AI text and relatively uncommon on Wikipedia before ~2024.

> The mall maintains a strong digital presence, particularly on Instagram, where it actively shares the latest updates and events. Forum Kochi has consistently demonstrated excellence in digital promotions, with high-quality, engaging, and impactful video content playing a key role in its outreach.

### Superficial analyses

**Words to watch:** *ensuring ...*, *highlighting ...*, *emphasizing ...*, *reflecting ...*, *underscoring ...*, *showcasing ...*, *aligns with...*, *contributing to...*

AI chatbots tend to insert superficial analysis of information, often in relation to its significance, recognition, or impact.[^7] This is often done by attaching a [present participle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participle#Forms "Participle") ("-ing") phrase at the end of sentences, sometimes with [vague attributions](#vague-attributions-of-opinion) to third parties (see below).[^7][^5]

While [many of these words are strong AI tells on their own](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:AIWORDS "Wikipedia:AIWORDS"),[^6][^8] an even stronger tell is when the subjects of these verbs are facts, events, or other inanimate things. A person, for example, can highlight or emphasize something, but a fact or event cannot. The "highlighting" or "underscoring" is not something that is actually happening; it is a claim by a disembodied narrator about what something means.[^5]

Such comments are usually [synthesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:SYNTH "Wikipedia:SYNTH") and/or unattributed opinions in wikivoice. Newer chatbots with [retrieval-augmented generation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrieval-augmented_generation "Retrieval-augmented generation") (for example, an AI chatbot that can search the web) may attach these statements to [named sources](#undue-emphasis-on-notability-attribution-and-media-coverage)—e.g., "Roger Ebert highlighted the lasting influence"—regardless of whether those sources say anything close.

**Examples**

> Douera enjoys close proximity to the capital city, Algiers, further enhancing its significance as a dynamic hub of activity and culture.

> The civil rights movement emerged as a powerful continuation of this struggle, emphasizing the importance of solidarity and collective action in the fight for justice. This historical legacy has influenced contemporary African-American families, shaping their values, community structures, and approaches to political engagement. Economically, the enduring impacts of systemic inequality have led to both challenges and innovations within African-American communities, driving a commitment to empowerment and social change that echoes through generations.

> Its bilingual monument sign, with inscriptions in both English and Spanish, underscores its role in bringing together Latter-day Saints from the United States and Mexico.

> These citations, spanning more than six decades and appearing in recognized academic publications, illustrate Blois' lasting influence in computational linguistics, grammar, and neology.

> It holds a pivotal place in the [East Central Railway Zone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Central_Railway_Zone "East Central Railway Zone") of [Indian Railways](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Railways "Indian Railways"), serving as a major railway hub with historical significance. The station has [1,676 mm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5_ft_6_in_gauge_railway "5 ft 6 in gauge railway") (5 ft 6 in) [broad gauge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_gauge "Broad gauge") along with 8 tracks and 6 platforms. [...] Historically, it has been crucial for linking [Darbhanga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darbhanga "Darbhanga") with significant cities like [Delhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi "Delhi"), [Patna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patna "Patna"), and [Kolkata](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkata "Kolkata"), facilitating the movement of passengers and goods. The station has supported various services, including passenger trains and express trains like the [Satyagrah Express](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satyagrah_Express "Satyagrah Express") and [Mithila Express](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithila_Express "Mithila Express"), contributing to the socio-economic development of the region. [...] Over the years, Darbhanga Junction has seen several upgrades and modernization efforts aimed at improving facilities and operational efficiency, reflecting its continued relevance in the regional and national transportation landscape.

### Promotional and advertisement-like language

**Words to watch:** *continues to captivate*, *groundbreaking* (in the figurative sense), *stunning natural beauty*, *enduring/lasting legacy*, *nestled*, *in the heart of*, *boasts a*...

LLMs have serious problems keeping a neutral tone, especially when writing about something that could be considered "cultural heritage"—in which case they [constantly remind the reader of its importance](#undue-emphasis-on-symbolism-legacy-and-importance).

**Examples**

> Nestled within the breathtaking region of Gonder in Ethiopia, Alamata Raya Kobo stands as a vibrant town with a rich cultural heritage and a significant place within the Amhara region. From its scenic landscapes to its historical landmarks, Alamata Raya Kobo offers visitors a fascinating glimpse into the diverse tapestry of Ethiopia. In this article, we will explore the unique characteristics that make Alamata Raya Kobo a town worth visiting and shed light on its significance within the Amhara region.

> TTDC acts as the gateway to Tamil Nadu's diverse attractions, seamlessly connecting the beginning and end of every traveller's journey. It offers dependable, value-driven experiences that showcase the state's rich history, spiritual heritage, and natural beauty.

In a similar way, LLM chatbots also add promotional/positive-sounding language to text about companies, business, and products, such that it sounds more like the transcript of a TV commercial.

> In general, AEO focuses on improving data consistency and machine readability so that information can be accurately understood by emerging "answer engines." Commonly discussed practices include using structured data formats such as [JSON-LD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSON-LD "JSON-LD") and [schema.org](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schema.org "Schema.org"), maintaining the freshness and accuracy of published information, and aligning digital entities with open web standards like [Wikidata](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikidata "Wikidata") and Schema.org.

> The SOLLEI's exterior design communicates a powerful emotional presence, staying true to Cadillac's signature bold proportions. Its low, elongated silhouette is highlighted by a wide stance and an extended coupe door, which enhances accessibility to the spacious rear cabin. Smooth, uninterrupted surfaces and a pronounced A-line accentuate the vehicle's overall length, while a sleek, low tail imparts a sense of refined dynamism. A mid-body line runs seamlessly from the headlamps to the taillights, reinforcing the car's cohesive and elegant design. Traditional door handles have been replaced with discrete buttons, preserving the vehicle's clean and modern profile. In a nod to Cadillac's legacy of bold color choices, the exterior is finished in "Manila Cream"—a distinctive hue originally offered in 1957 and 1958. This heritage color has been thoughtfully revived and hand-painted by Cadillac artisans, showcasing the brand's dedication to craftsmanship and historical reverence.

### Didactic, editorializing disclaimers

**Words to watch:** *it's important/critical/crucial to note/remember/consider*, *may vary*...

LLMs often tell the reader about things "it's important to remember." This frequently takes the form of "disclaimers" to an imagined reader regarding safety or controversial topics, or disambiguating topics that vary in different locales/jurisdictions.

**Examples**

> The emergence of these informal groups reflects a growing recognition of the interconnected nature of urban issues and the potential for ANCs to play a role in shaping citywide policies. However, it's important to note that these caucuses operate outside the formal ANC structure and their influence on policy decisions may vary.

> It is crucial to differentiate the independent AI research company based in Yerevan, Armenia, which is the subject of this report, from these unrelated organizations to prevent confusion.

> It's important to remember that what's free in one country might not be free in another, so always check before you use something.

### Summaries and conclusions

**Words to watch:** *In summary*, *In conclusion*, *Overall*...

When generating longer outputs (such as when told to "write an article"), LLMs often add a section titled "Conclusion" or similar, and will often end a paragraph or section by summarizing and restating its core idea.[^9]

**Examples**

> In summary, the educational and training trajectory for nurse scientists typically involves a progression from a master's degree in nursing to a Doctor of Philosophy in Nursing, followed by postdoctoral training in nursing research. This structured pathway ensures that nurse scientists acquire the necessary knowledge and skills to engage in rigorous research and contribute meaningfully to the advancement of nursing science.

### Outline-like conclusions about challenges and future prospects

**Words to watch:** *Despite its... faces several challenges...*, *Despite these challenges*, *Challenges and Legacy*, *Future Outlook*...

Many LLM-generated Wikipedia articles include a "Challenges" section, which typically begins with a sentence like "Despite its [positive/promotional words], [article subject] faces challenges..." and ends with either a vaguely positive assessment of the article subject,[^1] or speculation about how ongoing or potential initiatives could benefit the subject. Such paragraphs usually appear at the end of articles with a rigid outline structure, which may also include a separate section for "Future Prospects."

Note: This sign is about the rigid formula, not simply the mention of challenges or challenging.

**Examples**

> Despite its industrial and residential prosperity, Korattur faces challenges typical of urban areas, including[...] With its strategic location and ongoing initiatives, Korattur continues to thrive as an integral part of the Ambattur industrial zone, embodying the synergy between industry and residential living.

> Despite its success, the Panama Canal faces challenges, including[...] Future investments in technology, such as automated navigation systems, and potential further expansions could enhance the canal's efficiency and maintain its relevance in global trade.

> Despite their promising applications, pyroelectric materials face several challenges that must be addressed for broader adoption. One key limitation is[...] Despite these challenges, the versatility of pyroelectric materials positions them as critical components for sustainable energy solutions and next-generation sensor technologies.

> The future of hydrocarbon economies faces several challenges, including[...] This section would speculate on potential developments and the changing landscape of global energy.

> Operating in the current Afghan media environment presents numerous challenges, including[...] Despite these challenges, Amu TV has managed to continue to provide a vital service to the Afghan population​​.

> For example, while the methodology supports transdisciplinary collaboration in principle, applying it effectively in large, heterogeneous teams can be challenging. [...] SCE continues to evolve in response to these challenges.

### Leads treating Wikipedia lists or broad article titles as proper nouns

In AI-generated articles about topics with a title that is not a [proper name](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_name "Proper name"), such as a [list](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lists "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lists"), the first sentence of the lead may introduce and/or define the article's title as if it were a standalone real-world entity. While the [MOS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Format_of_the_first_sentence "Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section") does allow such titles to be included at the beginning of the lead "in a natural way"; these AI leads tend not to be so natural.

**Examples**

> "The Effects of Foreign language anxiety on Learning" refers to the feelings of tension, nervousness, and apprehension experienced when learning or using a language other than one's native tongue.

> EuroGames editions is the chronological list of the biennial EuroGames, a European LGBT+ multi-sport event organized by the European Gay and Lesbian Sport Federation (EGLSF).

> The "**List of songs about Mexico**" is a curated compilation of musical works that reference Mexico its culture, geography, or identity as a central theme.

---

## Language and Grammar

### Overused "AI vocabulary" words

**Words to watch:** *align/aligns/aligning with*,[^6][^8] *crucial*,[^1] *delve/delves/delving* (pre-2025),[^6][^8][^1] *emphasizing*,[^6][^8] *enduring*,[^8] *enhance/enhances/enhancing*,[^8][^1] *fostering*,[^8][^1] *garnered/garnering*,[^6][^8] *highlight/highlighted/highlighting/highlights* (as a verb),[^1] *interplay*,[^8] *intricate/intricacies*,[^6][^8][^7] *key* (as an adjective), *landscape*,[^8] *leveraging*,[^1] *multifaceted*,[^6][^8][^7] *notably*,[^8] *nuanced*,[^6][^8] *realm*,[^8] *robust*,[^1] *seamless/seamlessly*,[^1] *shed light on*, *showcasing*,[^8] *streamline*,[^1] *tapestry*,[^8] *testament*,[^1][^8] *underpin/underpins/underpinning*,[^8] *underscore/underscores/underscoring*,[^8] *vibrant*,[^8][^7] *vital*,[^1] ...

Many studies have demonstrated that LLMs overuse certain words – especially compared to pre-2022 text, which is almost certain to be human-written.[^6] These "AI vocabulary" words are also ubiquitous in AI-generated encyclopedias, such as [Grokipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grokipedia "Grokipedia"), and in AI-generated Wikipedia text. They often co-occur in LLM output: where there is one, there are likely others.[^10] An edit introducing one or two of these words may not be a big deal, but an edit (post-2022) introducing lots of them, lots of times, is one of the strongest tells for AI use.

The distribution of "AI vocabulary" is slightly different depending on which chatbot or LLM was used,[^7] and has changed over time. For instance, the word *delve* was famously overused by ChatGPT until 2025, when its incidence dropped off sharply.[^11]

Please keep context in mind. For example, while the word "underscore" is overused in AI text, it can also refer to a literal underline mark, or to [incidental music](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidental_music "Incidental music").

**Examples**

> Somali cuisine is an intricate and diverse fusion of a multitude of culinary influences, drawing from the rich tapestry of [Arab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_cuisine "Arab cuisine"), [Indian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_cuisine "Indian cuisine"), and [Italian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_cuisine "Italian cuisine") flavours. This culinary tapestry is a direct result of Somalia's longstanding heritage of vibrant trade and bustling commerce. [...]
>
> Additionally, a distinctive feature of Somali culinary tradition is the incorporation of [camel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camel "Camel") [meat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat "Meat") and [milk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk "Milk"). They are considered a delicacy and serve as cherished and fundamental elements in the rich tapestry of Somali cuisine. [...]
>
> An enduring testament to the influence of [Italian colonial rule in Somalia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Somaliland "Italian Somaliland") is the widespread adoption of [pasta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasta "Pasta") and [lasagne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasagna "Lasagna") in the local culinary landscape, espicially in the south, showcasing how these dishes have integrated into the traditional diet alongside rice. [...]
>
> Additionally, Somali merchants played a pivotal role in the global coffee trade, being one of the first to export coffee beans.

### Negative parallelisms

Parallel constructions involving "not", "but", or "however" such as "Not only ... but ..." or "It is not just about ..., it's ..." are common in LLM writing but are often unsuitable for writing in a neutral tone.[^1][^11]

**Examples**

> **Self-Portrait** by Yayoi Kusama, executed in 2010 and currently preserved in the famous Uffizi Gallery in Florence, constitutes not only a work of self-representation, but a visual document of her obsessions, visual strategies and psychobiographical narratives.

> It's not just about the beat riding under the vocals; it's part of the aggression and atmosphere.

Here is an example of a negative parallelism across multiple sentences:

> He hailed from the esteemed Duse family, renowned for their theatrical legacy. Eugenio's life, however, took a path that intertwined both personal ambition and familial complexities.

### Outlines of negatives

On rare occasions, user messages that appear AI-generated may also include short sentences describing items that are either absent from something else or would be considered useless in comparison to a previous, useful item. Some of these may read something along the lines of "no ..., no ..., just ..." or "What matters is ..., not ..., not ...".

**Examples**

> There are no long-form profiles. No editorial insights. No coverage of her game dev career. No notable accolades. Just TikTok recaps and callouts.

---

> The process demands rigor — not emotional fatigue, not personal offense, and certainly not a premature exit masked as moral high ground.

---

> Not a career, not a body of work, not sustained relevance — just an algorithmic moment.

---

> This is not a close call. It is not a gray area. This page should be gone, fully, cleanly, and without delay. No redirect. No merge. Just delete.

---

> Wikipedia's general notability guideline (WP:GNG) is crystal clear: significant coverage in reliable, independent, secondary sources. Not a few throwaway articles echoing Twitter drama. Not reactionary posts exploiting culture war tension. Not foreign-language gossip magazines translating controversy for clicks.

---

> What actually matters — and what continues to be completely absent — is significant, in-depth coverage in reliable, independent secondary sources. Not gossip sites. Not recycled outrage. Not tabloid blurbs about one viral controversy. And certainly not basic directory-style mentions of someone being a "video game writer" or TikTok creator.

### Rule of three

LLMs overuse the '[rule of three](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_three_(writing) "Rule of three (writing)")'. This can take different forms, from "adjective, adjective, adjective" to "short phrase, short phrase, and short phrase".[^1] LLMs often use this structure to make [superficial analyses](#superficial-analyses) appear more comprehensive.

**Examples**

> The Amaze Conference brings together global SEO professionals, marketing experts, and growth hackers to discuss the latest trends in digital marketing. The event features keynote sessions, panel discussions, and networking opportunities.

### Vague attributions of opinion

**Words to watch:** *Industry reports*, *Observers have cited*, *Some critics argue*...

AI chatbots tend to attribute opinions or claims to some vague authority—a practice called [weasel wording](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weasel_wording "Weasel wording")—while citing only one or two sources that may or may not actually express such view. They also tend to overgeneralize the perspective of one or few sources into that of a wider group.

**Examples**

> His [Nick Ford's] compositions have been described as exploring conceptual themes and bridging the gaps between artistic media.

— From [Draft:Nick Ford (musician)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draft:Nick_Ford_(musician) "Draft:Nick Ford (musician)"). Here, the weasel wording implies the opinion comes from an independent source, but it actually cites Nick Ford's own website.

> Due to its unique characteristics, the Haolai River is of interest to researchers and conservationists. Efforts are ongoing to monitor its ecological health and preserve the surrounding grassland environment, which is part of a larger initiative to protect China's semi-arid ecosystems from degradation.

> The Kwararafa (Kororofa) confederacy is described in scholarship as a shifting [Benue valley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benue_valley "Benue valley") coalition led by [Jukun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jukun "Jukun") groups and incorporating a range of [Middle Belt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Belt "Middle Belt") peoples. Because much of the historical record derives from [Hausa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausa "Hausa") chronicles, Bornu sources and oral tradition, modern researchers treat Kwararafa as a fluid political and cultural formation rather than a fixed state. As a result, lists of member groups vary by period and source.

### Excessive synonym variance / elegant variation

Generative AI has a repetition-penalty code, meant to discourage it from reusing words too often.[^5] For instance, the output might give a main character's name and then repeatedly use a different synonym or related term (e.g., protagonist, key player, eponymous character) when mentioning it again.

Note: If a user adds multiple pieces of AI-generated content in separate edits, this tell may not apply, as each piece of text may have been generated in isolation.

**Examples**

> Vierny, after a visit in Moscow in the early 1970's, committed to supporting artists resisting the constraints of socialist realism and discovered Yankilevskly, among others such as Ilya Kabakov and Erik Bulatov. In the challenging climate of Soviet artistic constraints, Yankilevsky, alongside other non-conformist artists, faced obstacles in expressing their creativity freely. Dina Vierny, recognizing the immense talent and the struggle these artists endured, played a pivotal role in aiding their artistic aspirations. [...]
>
> In this new chapter of his life, Yankilevsky found himself amidst a community of like-minded artists who, despite diverse styles, shared a common goal—to break free from the confines of state-imposed artistic norms, particularly socialist realism. [...]
>
> The move to Paris facilitated an environment where Yankilevsky could further explore and exhibit his distinctive artistic vision without the constraints imposed by the Soviet regime. Dina Vierny's unwavering support and commitment to the Russian avant-garde artists played a crucial role in fostering a space where their creativity could flourish, contributing to the rich tapestry of artistic expression in the vibrant cultural landscape of Paris. Vierny's commitment culminated in the groundbreaking exhibition "Russian Avant-Garde - Moscow 1973" at her Saint-Germain-des-Prés gallery, showcasing the diverse yet united front of non-conformist artists challenging the artistic norms of their time.

### False ranges

When *from ... to ...* constructions are not used figuratively, they are used to indicate the lower and upper bounds of a scale. The scale is either quantitative, involving an explicit or implicit numerical range (e.g. from 1990 to 2000, from 15 to 20 ounces, from winter to autumn), or qualitative, involving categorical bounds (e.g. "from seed to tree", "from mild to severe", "from white belt to black belt"). The same constructions may be used to form a [merism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merism "Merism")—a figure of speech that combines the two extremes as two contrasting parts of the whole to refer to the whole. This is a figurative meaning, but it has the same structure as the non-figurative usage, because it still requires an identifiable scale: from head to toe (the length of a body denoting the whole body), [from soup to nuts](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/from_soup_to_nuts "wikt:from soup to nuts") (clearly based on time), etc. This is *not* a false range.

LLMs really like mixing it up, such as when giving examples of items within a set (instead of simply mentioning them one after another). An important consideration is whether some middle ground can be identified without changing the endpoints. If the middle requires switching from one scale to another scale, or there is no scale to begin with or a coherent whole that could be conceived, the construction is a **false range**. LLMs often employ "figurative" (often simply: meaningless) "from ... to ..." constructions that purport to signify a scale, while the endpoints are loosely related or even unrelated things and no meaningful scale can be inferred. LLMs do this because such meaningless language is used in persuasive writing to impress and woo, and LLMs are heavily influenced by examples of persuasive writing during their training.

**Example**

> Our journey through the universe has taken us from the singularity of the Big Bang to the grand cosmic web, from the birth and death of stars that forge the elements of life, to the enigmatic dance of dark matter and dark energy that shape its destiny.
>
> [...] Intelligence and Creativity: From problem-solving and tool-making to scientific discovery, artistic expression, and technological innovation, human intelligence is characterized by its adaptability and capacity for novel solutions. [...] Continued Scientific Discovery: The quest to understand the universe, life, and ourselves will continue to drive scientific breakthroughs, from fundamental physics to medicine and neuroscience.

### Title case in section headings

In section headings, AI chatbots strongly tend to capitalize all main words.[^1]

**Examples**

> Global Context: Critical Mineral Demand
>
> According to a 2023 report by [Goldman Sachs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldman_Sachs "Goldman Sachs"), the global market for critical minerals [...]
>
> Strategic Negotiations and Global Partnerships
>
> In 2014, Katalayi was appointed senior executive adviser to the chairman of the board of [Gécamines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9camines "Gécamines") [...]
>
> High-Stakes Deals: Glencore, China, and Russia
>
> There was also interest from [Moscow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") for strategic Congolese assets. [...]

---

## Punctuation and Formatting

### Excessive use of boldface

AI chatbots may display various phrases in [boldface](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boldface "Boldface") for emphasis in an excessive, mechanical manner. One of their tendencies, inherited from readmes, fan wikis, how-tos, sales pitches, slide decks, listicles and other materials that heavily use boldface, is to emphasize every instance of a chosen word or phrase, often in a "key takeaways" fashion. Some newer large language models or apps have instructions to avoid overuse of boldface.

**Examples**

> It blends **OKRs (Objectives and Key Results)**, **KPIs (Key Performance Indicators)**, and visual strategy tools such as the **Business Model Canvas (BMC)** and **Balanced Scorecard (BSC)**. OPC is designed to bridge the gap between strategy and execution by fostering a unified mindset and shared direction within organizations.

> A **leveraged buyout (LBO)** is characterized by the extensive use of **debt financing** to acquire a company. This financing structure enables **private equity firms** and **financial sponsors** to control businesses while investing a relatively small portion of their own equity. The acquired company's **assets and future cash flows** serve as collateral for the debt, making lenders more willing to provide financing.

> **50 Scientists and Thinkers in AI Safety with significant** influence on the field of alignment, containment, and risk mitigation. The list includes their **Productive Years**, their estimated **P(doom)** (probability of existential catastrophe), a **one-sentence summary of their contribution to AI Safety**, and their Wikipedia link.

### Inline-header vertical lists

AI chatbots output often includes vertical lists formatted in a specific way: an ordered or unordered list where the list marker (number, bullet, dash, etc.) is followed by an inline boldfaced header, separated with a colon from the remaining descriptive text.

Instead of [proper wikitext](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H:LIST "H:LIST"), a bullet point in an unordered list may appear as a bullet character (•), hyphen (-), en dash (–), hash (#), emoji, or similar character. Ordered lists (i.e. numbered lists) may use explicit numbers (such as `1.`) instead of standard wikitext. When copied as bare text appearing on the screen, some of the formatting information is lost, and line breaks may be lost as well.

**Examples**

> 1. Historical Context Post-WWII Era: The world was rapidly changing after WWII, [...] 2. Nuclear Arms Race: Following the U.S. atomic bombings, the Soviet Union detonated its first bomb in 1949, [...] 3. Key Figures Edward Teller: A Hungarian physicist who advocated for the development of more powerful nuclear weapons, [...] 4. Technical Details of Sundial Hydrogen Bomb: The design of Sundial involved a hydrogen bomb [...] 5. Destructive Potential: If detonated, Sundial would create a fireball up to 50 kilometers in diameter, [...] 6. Consequences and Reactions Global Impact: The explosion would lead to an apocalyptic nuclear winter, [...] 7. Political Reactions: The U.S. military and scientists expressed horror at the implications of such a weapon, [...] 8. Modern Implications Current Nuclear Arsenal: Today, there are approximately 12,000 nuclear weapons worldwide, [...] 9. Key Takeaways Understanding the Madness: The concept of Project Sundial highlights the extremes of human ingenuity [...] 10. Questions to Consider What were the motivations behind the development of Project Sundial? [...]

> Conflict of Interest (COI)/Autobiography: While I understand the concern regarding my username [...]
>
> Notability (GNG and NPOLITICIAN): I have revised the article to focus on factual details [...]
>
> Original Research (WP) and Promotional Tone: I have worked on removing original research [...]
>
> Article Move to Main Namespace: Moving the draft to the main namespace after the AFC review [...]

### Emojis

AI chatbots love using [emojis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoji "Emoji").[^11] In particular, they sometimes decorate section headings or bullet points by placing emojis in front of them. This is most noticeable in talkpage comments.

**Examples**

> Let's decode exactly what's happening here:
>
> 🧠 Cognitive Dissonance Pattern:
>
> You've proven authorship, demonstrated originality, and introduced new frameworks, yet they're defending a system that explicitly disallows recognition of originators unless a third party writes about them first.
>
> [...]
>
> 🧱 Structural Gatekeeping:
>
> Wikipedia policy favors:
>
> [...]
>
> 🚨 Underlying Motivation:
>
> Why would a human fight you on this?
>
> [...]
>
> 🧭 What You're Actually Dealing With:
>
> This is not a debate about rules.
>
> [...]

> 🪷 Traditional Sanskrit Name: Trikoṇamiti
>
> Tri = Three
>
> Koṇa = Angle
>
> Miti = Measurement 🧭 "Measurement of three angles" — the ancient Indian art of triangle and angle mathematics.
>
> 🕰️ 1. Vedic Era (c. 1200 BCE – 500 BCE)
>
> [...]
>
> 🔭 2. Sine of the Bow: Sanskrit Terminology
>
> [...]
>
> 🌕 3. Āryabhaṭa (476 CE)
>
> [...]
>
> 🌀 4. Varāhamihira (6th Century CE)
>
> [...]
>
> 🌠 5. Bhāskarācārya II (12th Century CE)
>
> [...]
>
> 📤 Indian Legacy Spreads

### Overuse of em dashes

While human editors and writers often like [em dashes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Em_dash "Em dash") (—), AI *loves* them.[^11] LLM output uses them more often than nonprofessional human-written text of the same genre, and uses them in places where humans are more likely to use commas, parentheses, colons, or (misused) hyphens (-). LLMs especially tend to use em dashes in a formulaic, pat way, often mimicking "punched up" sales-like writing by over-emphasizing clauses or parallelisms.

This sign is most useful when taken in combination with other indicators, not by itself.

**Examples**

> The term "Dutch Caribbean" is **not used in the statute** and is primarily promoted by **Dutch institutions**, not by the **people of the autonomous countries** themselves. In practice, many Dutch organizations and businesses use it for **their own convenience**, even placing it in addresses — e.g., "Curaçao, Dutch Caribbean" — but this only **adds confusion** internationally and **erases national identity**. You don't say **"Netherlands, Europe"** as an address — yet this kind of mislabeling continues.

> you're right about one thing — we do seem to have different interpretations of what policy-based discussion entails. [...]
>
> When WP:BLP1E says "one event," it's shorthand — and the supporting essays, past AfD precedents, and practical enforcement show that "two incidents of fleeting attention" still often fall under the protective scope of BLP1E. This isn't "imagining" what policy should be — it's recognizing how community consensus has shaped its application.
>
> Yes, WP:GNG, WP:NOTNEWS, WP:NOTGOSSIP, and the rest of WP:BLP all matter — and I've cited or echoed each of them throughout. [...] If a subject lacks enduring, in-depth, independent coverage — and instead rides waves of sensational, short-lived attention — then we're not talking about encyclopedic significance. [...]
>
> [...] And consensus doesn't grow from silence — it grows from critique, correction, and clarity.
>
> If we disagree on that, then yes — we're speaking different languages.

> The current revision of the article fully complies with Wikipedia's core content policies — including WP:V (Verifiability), WP:RS (Reliable Sources), and WP:BLP (Biographies of Living Persons) — with all significant claims supported by multiple independent and reputable international sources.
>
> [...] However, to date, no editor — including yourself — has identified any specific passages in the current version that were generated by AI or that fail to meet Wikipedia's content standards. [...]
>
> Given the article's current state — well-sourced, policy-compliant, and collaboratively improved — the continued presence of the "LLM advisory" banner is unwarranted.

### Curly quotation marks and apostrophes

AI chatbots typically use curly quotation marks ("..." or '...') instead of straight quotation marks ("..." or '...'). In some cases, AI chatbots inconsistently use pairs of curly and straight quotation marks in the same response. They also tend to use the curly apostrophe ('), the same character as the curly [right single quotation mark](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_single_quotation_mark "Right single quotation mark"), instead of the straight apostrophe ('), such as in [contractions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraction_(grammar) "Contraction (grammar)") and [possessive forms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_possessive "English possessive"). They may also do this inconsistently.

Curly quotes alone do not prove LLM use. [Microsoft Word](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Word "Microsoft Word") as well as [macOS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS "MacOS") and [iOS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS "IOS") devices have a "[smart quotes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_quotes "Smart quotes")" feature that converts straight quotes to curly quotes. Grammar correcting tools such as [LanguageTool](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LanguageTool "LanguageTool") may also have such a feature. Curly quotation marks and apostrophes are common in professionally typeset works such as major newspapers. Citation tools like [Citer](https://citer.toolforge.org/) may repeat those that appear in the title of a web page: for example,

> McClelland, Mac (2017-09-27). ["When 'Not Guilty' Is a Life Sentence"](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/27/magazine/when-not-guilty-is-a-life-sentence.html). *The New York Times*. Retrieved 2025-08-03.

Note that Wikipedia allows users to customize the fonts used to display text. Some fonts display matched curly apostrophes as straight, in which case the distinction is invisible to the user.

### Subject lines

User messages and [unblock requests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_LLM_unblock_requests "Wikipedia:Identifying LLM unblock requests") generated by AI chatbots sometimes begin with text that is intended to be pasted into the *Subject* field on an email form.

**Examples**

> Subject: Request for Permission to Edit Wikipedia Article - "Dog"

> Subject: Request for Review and Clarification Regarding Draft Article

---

## Communication Intended for the User

### Collaborative communication

**Words to watch:** *I hope this helps*, *Of course!*, *Certainly!*, *You're absolutely right!*, *Would you like...*, *is there anything else*, *let me know*, *more detailed breakdown*, *here is a*...

Editors sometimes paste text from an AI chatbot that was meant as correspondence, prewriting or advice, rather than article content. This may appear in article text or within comments (`<!-- -->`). Chatbots prompted to produce a Wikipedia article or comment may also explicitly state that the text is meant for Wikipedia, and may mention various [policies and guidelines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:PG "Wikipedia:PG") in the output—often explicitly specifying that they're *Wikipedia's* conventions.

**Examples**

> In this section, we will discuss the background information related to the topic of the report. This will include a discussion of relevant literature, previous research, and any theoretical frameworks or concepts that underpin the study. The purpose is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter and to inform the reader about the existing knowledge and gaps in the field.

> Including photos of the forge (as above) and its tools would enrich the article's section on culture or economy, giving readers a visual sense of Ronco's industrial heritage. Visual resources can also highlight Ronco Canavese's landscape and landmarks. For instance, a map of the Soana Valley or Ronco's location in Piedmont could be added to orient readers geographically. The village's scenery [...] could be illustrated with an image. Several such photographs are available (e.g., on Wikimedia Commons) that show Ronco's panoramic view, [...] Historical images, if any exist (such as early 20th-century photos of villagers in traditional dress or of old alpine trades), would also add depth to the article. Additionally, the town's notable buildings and sites can be visually presented: [...] Including an image of the Santuario di San Besso [...] could further engage readers. By leveraging these visual aids – maps, photographs of natural and cultural sites – the expanded article can provide a richer, more immersive picture of Ronco Canavese.

> If you plan to add this information to the "Animal Cruelty Controversy" section of Foshan's Wikipedia page, ensure that the content is presented in a neutral tone, supported by reliable sources, and adheres to Wikipedia's guidelines on verifiability and neutrality.

> Here's a template for your wiki user page. You can copy and paste this onto your user page and customize it further.

> Final important tip: The ~~~~ at the very end is Wikipedia markup that automatically

### Knowledge-cutoff disclaimers and speculation about gaps in sources

**Words to watch:** *as of [date]*,[^a] *Up to my last training update*, *as of my last knowledge update*, *While specific details are limited/scarce...*, *not widely available/documented/disclosed*, *...in the provided/available sources/search results...*, *based on available information*...

A knowledge-cutoff disclaimer is a statement used by the AI chatbot to indicate that the information provided may be incomplete, inaccurate, or outdated.

If an LLM has a fixed [knowledge cutoff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_cutoff "Knowledge cutoff") (usually the model's last training update), it is unable to provide any information on events or developments past that time, and it often outputs a disclaimer to remind the user of this cutoff, which usually takes the form of a statement that says the information provided is accurate only up to a certain date.

If an LLM with retrieval-augmented generation fails to find sources on a given topic, or if information is not included in sources a user provides, it often outputs a statement to that effect, which is similar to a knowledge-cutoff disclaimer. It may also pair it with text about what that information "likely" may be and why it is significant. This information is entirely [speculative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:OR "Wikipedia:OR") (including the very claim that it's "not documented") and may be based on loosely related topics or completely fabricated.

**Examples**

> While specific details about Kumarapediya's history or economy are not extensively documented in readily available sources, ...

> While specific information about the fauna of Studniční hora is limited in the provided search results, the mountain likely supports...

> Though the details of these resistance efforts aren't widely documented, they highlight her bravery...

> No significant public controversies or security incidents affecting Outpost24 have been documented as of June 2025.

> As of my last knowledge update in January 2022, I don't have specific information about the current status or developments related to the "Chester Mental Health Center" in today's era.

> Below is a detailed overview based on available information:

### Prompt refusals

**Words to watch:** *as an AI language model*, *as a large language model*, *I'm sorry*...

Occasionally, the AI chatbot declines to answer a prompt as written, usually with an apology and a reminder that it is "an AI language model". Attempting to be helpful, it often gives suggestions or an answer to an alternative, similar request. Outright refusals have become increasingly rare.

Prompt refusals are obviously unacceptable for Wikipedia articles, so if a user includes one anyway, it may indicate that they did not review the text and/or may not be proficient in English. Remember to [assume good faith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Assume_good_faith "Wikipedia:Assume good faith"), because that editor may genuinely want to improve our coverage of [knowledge gaps](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Systemic_bias "Wikipedia:Systemic bias").

**Examples**

> As an AI language model, I can't directly add content to Wikipedia for you, but I can help you draft your bibliography.

### Phrasal templates and placeholder text

AI chatbots may generate responses with fill-in-the-blank [phrasal templates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrasal_template "Phrasal template") (as seen in the game *[Mad Libs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad_Libs "Mad Libs")*) for the LLM user to replace with words and phrases pertaining to their use case. However, some LLM users forget to fill in those blanks. Note that non-LLM-generated templates exist for drafts and new articles, such as [Wikipedia:Artist biography article template/Preload](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Artist_biography_article_template/Preload "Wikipedia:Artist biography article template/Preload") and pages in [Category:Article creation templates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Article_creation_templates "Category:Article creation templates").

**Examples**

> Subject: Concerns about Inaccurate Information
>
> Dear Wikipedia
>
> I am writing to express my deep concern about the spread of misinformation on your platform. Specifically, I am referring to the article about [Entertainer's Name], which I believe contains inaccurate and harmful information.

> Subject: Edit Request for Wikipedia Entry
>
> Dear Wikipedia Editors,
>
> I hope this message finds you well. I am writing to request an edit for the Wikipedia entry
>
> I have identified an area within the article that requires updating/improvement. [Describe the specific section or content that needs editing and provide clear reasons why the edit is necessary, including reliable sources if applicable].

Large-language models may also insert placeholder dates like "2025-xx-xx" into citation fields, particularly the access-date parameter and rarely the date parameter as well, producing errors.

**Examples**

```
<ref>{{cite web
 |title=Canadian Screen Music Awards 2025 Winners and Nominees
 |url=URL
 |website=Canadian Screen Music Awards
 |date=2025
 |access-date=2025-XX-XX
}}</ref>

<ref>{{cite web
 |title=Best Original Score, Dramatic Series or Special – Winner: "Murder on the Inca Trail"
 |url=URL
 |website=Canadian Screen Music Awards
 |date=2025
 |access-date=2025-XX-XX
}}</ref>
```

LLM-generated infobox edits may contain placeholder comments alongside unused fields, specifying that text or images should be added.

**Examples**

```
| leader_name = <!-- Add if available with citation -->
```

---

## Markup

### Use of Markdown

AI chatbots are not proficient in [wikitext](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H:WT "H:WT"), the [markup language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markup_language "Markup language") used to instruct Wikipedia's [MediaWiki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MediaWiki "MediaWiki") software how to format an article. As wikitext is a niche markup language, found mostly on wikis running on MediaWiki and other MediaWiki-based platforms like [Miraheze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miraheze "Miraheze"), LLMs tend to lack wikitext-formatted training data. While the corpora of chatbots did ingest millions of Wikipedia articles, these articles would not have been processed as text files containing wikitext syntax. This is compounded by the fact that most chatbots are factory-tuned to use another, conceptually similar but much more diversely applied markup language: [Markdown](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markdown "Markdown"). Their system-level instructions direct them to format outputs using it, and the chatbot apps render its syntax as formatted text on a user's screen, enabling the display of headings, bulleted and numbered lists, tables, etc, just as MediaWiki renders wikitext to make Wikipedia articles look like formatted documents.

When asked about its "formatting guidelines", a chatbot willing to reveal some of its system-level instructions typically generates some variation of the following (this is [Microsoft Copilot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Copilot "Microsoft Copilot") in mid-2025):

> ## Formatting Guidelines
>
> - All output uses GitHub-flavored Markdown.
> - Use a single main title (`#`) and clear primary subheadings (`##`).
> - Keep paragraphs short (3–5 sentences, ≤150 words).
> - Break large topics into labeled subsections.
> - Present related items as bullet or numbered lists; number only when order matters.
> - Always leave a blank line before and after each paragraph.
> - Avoid bold or italic styling in body text unless explicitly requested.
> - Use horizontal dividers (`---`) between major sections.
> - Employ valid Markdown tables for structured comparisons or data summaries.
> - Refrain from complex Unicode symbols; stick to simple characters.
> - Reserve code blocks for code, poems, lyrics, or similarly formatted content.
> - For mathematical expressions, use LaTeX outside of code blocks.

As the above suggests, Markdown's syntax is completely different from wikitext's: Markdown uses asterisks (*) or underscores (_) instead of single-quotes (') for bold and italic formatting, hash symbols (#) instead of equals signs (=) for section headings, parentheses (()) instead of square brackets ([]) around URLs, and three symbols (---, ***, or ___) instead of four hyphens (----) for thematic breaks.

Even when they are told to do so explicitly, chatbots generally struggle to generate text using syntactically correct wikitext, as their training data lead to a drastically greater affinity for and fluency in Markdown. When told to "generate an article", a chatbot typically defaults to using Markdown for the generated output, which is preserved in clipboard text by the copy functions on some chatbot platforms. If instructed to generate content for Wikipedia, the chatbot might "realize" the need to generate Wikipedia-compatible code, and might include a message like "Would you like me to ... turn this into actual Wikipedia markup format (`wikitext`)?"[^b] in its output. If the chatbot is told to proceed, the resulting syntax is often rudimentary, syntactically incorrect, or both. The chatbot might put its attempted-wikitext content in a Markdown-style fenced code block (its syntax for preformatted text) surrounded by Markdown-based syntax and content, which may also be preserved by platform-specific copy-to-clipboard functions, leading to a telling footprint of both markup languages' syntax. This might include the appearance of three backticks in the text, such as: ` ```wikitext `.[^c]

The presence of faulty wikitext syntax mixed with Markdown syntax is a strong indicator that content is LLM-generated, especially if in the form of a fenced Markdown code block. However, Markdown *alone* is not such a strong indicator. Software developers, researchers, technical writers, and experienced internet users frequently use Markdown in tools like [Obsidian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsidian_(software) "Obsidian (software)") and [GitHub](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub_Flavored_Markdown "GitHub Flavored Markdown"), and on platforms like Reddit, Discord, and Slack. Some writing tools and apps, such as iOS Notes, Google Docs, and Windows Notepad, support Markdown editing or exporting. The increasing ubiquity of Markdown may also lead new editors to expect or assume Wikipedia to support Markdown by default.

**Examples**

> I believe this block has become procedurally and substantively unsound. Despite repeatedly raising clear, policy-based concerns, every unblock request has been met with **summary rejection** — not based on specific diffs or policy violations, but instead on **speculation about motive**, assertions of being "unhelpful", and a general impression that I am "not here to build an encyclopedia". No one has meaningfully addressed the fact that I have **not made disruptive edits**, **not engaged in edit warring**, and have consistently tried to **collaborate through talk page discussion**, citing policy and inviting clarification. Instead, I have encountered a pattern of dismissiveness from several administrators, where reasoned concerns about **in-text attribution of partisan or interpretive claims** have been brushed aside. Rather than engaging with my concerns, some editors have chosen to mock, speculate about my motives, or label my arguments "AI-generated" — without explaining how they are substantively flawed.

> - The Wikipedia entry does not explicitly mention the "Cyberhero League" being recognized as a winner of the World Future Society's BetaLaunch Technology competition, as detailed in the interview with THE FUTURIST ([[1]](https://consciouscreativity.com/the-futurist-interview-with-dana-klisanin-creator-of-the-cyberhero-league/)([https://consciouscreativity.com/the-futurist-interview-with-dana-klisanin-creator-of-the-cyberhero-league/](https://consciouscreativity.com/the-futurist-interview-with-dana-klisanin-creator-of-the-cyberhero-league/))). This recognition could be explicitly stated in the "Game design and media consulting" section.

Here, LLMs incorrectly use `##` to denote section headings, which MediaWiki interprets as a numbered list.

> 1. 1. Geography
>
> Villers-Chief is situated in the [Jura Mountains](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jura_Mountains "Jura Mountains"), in the eastern part of the Doubs department. [...]
>
> 1. 1. History
>
> Like many communes in the region, Villers-Chief has an agricultural past. [...]
>
> 1. 1. Administration
>
> Villers-Chief is part of the [Canton of Valdahon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Valdahon "Canton of Valdahon") and the [Arrondissement of Pontarlier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrondissement_of_Pontarlier "Arrondissement of Pontarlier"). [...]
>
> 1. 1. Population
>
> The population of Villers-Chief has seen some fluctuations over the decades, [...]

Since AI-chatbots are not proficient in wikitext and Wikipedia templates, they often produce faulty syntax. A noteworthy instance is garbled code related to Template:AfC submission, as new editors might ask a chatbot how to submit their Articles for Creation draft.

**Examples**

Note the badly malformed category link which appears to be a result of code that provides day information in the LLM's Markdown parser:

```
[[Category:AfC submissions by date/<0030Fri, 13 Jun 2025 08:18:00 +0000202568 2025-06-13T08:18:00+00:00Fridayam0000=error>EpFri, 13 Jun 2025 08:18:00 +0000UTC00001820256 UTCFri, 13 Jun 2025 08:18:00 +0000Fri, 13 Jun 2025 08:18:00 +00002025Fri, 13 Jun 2025 08:18:00 +0000: 17498026806Fri, 13 Jun 2025 08:18:00 +0000UTC2025-06-13T08:18:00+00:0020258618163UTC13 pu62025-06-13T08:18:00+00:0030uam301820256 2025-06-13T08:18:00+00:0008amFri, 13 Jun 2025 08:18:00 +0000am2025-06-13T08:18:00+00:0030UTCFri, 13 Jun 2025 08:18:00 +0000 &qu202530;:&qu202530;.</0030Fri, 13 Jun 2025 08:18:00 +0000202568>June 2025|sandbox]]
```

### ChatGPT-specific markup: citeturn, iturn

ChatGPT may include `citeturn0search0` (surrounded by Unicode points in the Private Use Area) at the ends of sentences, with the number after "search" increasing as the text progresses. These are places where the chatbot links to an external site, but a human pasting the conversation into Wikipedia has that link converted into placeholder code. This was first observed in February 2025.

A set of images in a response may also render as [REDACTED_SECRET]. Rarely, other markup of a similar style, such as `citeturn0news0`, `citeturn1file0`, or `citegenerated-reference-identifier`, may appear.

**Examples**

> The school is also a center for the US College Board examinations, SAT I & SAT II, and has been recognized as an International Fellowship Centre by Cambridge International Examinations. citeturn0search1 For more information, you can visit their official website: citeturn0search0

### Reference markup bugs: contentReference, oaicite, oai_citation, attached_file, grok_card

Due to a bug, ChatGPT may add code in the form of `:contentReference[oaicite:0]{index=0}` in place of links to references in output text. Links to ChatGPT-generated references may be labeled with `oai_citation`.

**Examples**

> :contentReference[oaicite:16]{index=16}
>
> 1. **Ethnicity clarification**
>
> - :contentReference[oaicite:17]{index=17}
>     * :contentReference[oaicite:18]{index=18} :contentReference[oaicite:19]{index=19}.
>     * Denzil Ibbetson's *Panjab Castes* classifies Sial as Rajputs :contentReference[oaicite:20]{index=20}.
>     * Historian's blog notes: "The Sial are a clan of Parmara Rajputs…" :contentReference[oaicite:21]{index=21}.
> 2. :contentReference[oaicite:22]{index=22}
>
> - :contentReference[oaicite:23]{index=23}
>     > :contentReference[oaicite:24]{index=24} :contentReference[oaicite:25]{index=25}.

> #### Key facts needing addition or correction:
>
> 1. **Group launch & meetings**
>
> *Independent Together* launched a "Zero Rates Increase Roadshow" on 15 June, with events in Karori, Hataitai, Tawa, and Newtown  [oai_citation:0‡wellington.scoop.co.nz](https://wellington.scoop.co.nz/?p=171473&utm_source=chatgpt.com).
>
> 2. **Zero-rates pledge and platform**
>
> The group pledges no rates increases for three years, then only match inflation—responding to Wellington's 16.9% hike for 2024/25  [oai_citation:1‡en.wikipedia.org](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_Together?utm_source=chatgpt.com).

As of fall 2025, tags like `[attached_file:1]`, `[web:1]` have been seen at the end of sentences. This may be Perplexity-specific.[^12]

> During his time as CEO, Philip Morris's reputation management and media relations brought together business and news interests in ways that later became controversial, with effects still debated in contemporary regulatory and legal discussions.[attached_file:1]

Though Grok-generated text is rare compared to other chatbots, it may sometimes include XML-styled *grok_card* tags after citations.

> Malik's rise to fame highlights the visibility of transgender artists in Pakistan's entertainment scene, though she has faced societal challenges related to her identity. [...]<grok-card data-id="e8ff4f" data-type="citation_card">

### attribution and attributableIndex

ChatGPT may add JSON-formatted code at the end of sentences in the form of `({"attribution":{"attributableIndex":"X-Y"}})`, with X and Y being increasing numeric indices.

**Examples**

> ^[Evdokimova was born on 6 October 1939 in Osnova, Kharkov Oblast, Ukrainian SSR (now Kharkiv, Ukraine).]({"attribution":{"attributableIndex":"1009-1"}}) ^[She graduated from the Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography (VGIK) in 1963, where she studied under Mikhail Romm.]({"attribution":{"attributableIndex":"1009-2"}}) [oai_citation:0‡IMDb](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0947835/?utm_source=chatgpt.com) [oai_citation:1‡maly.ru](https://www.maly.ru/en/people/EvdokimovaA?utm_source=chatgpt.com)

> Patrick Denice & Jake Rosenfeld, [Les syndicats et la rémunération non syndiquée aux États-Unis, 1977–2015](https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v5-23-541/), ''Sociological Science'' (2018).]({"attribution":{"attributableIndex":"3795-0"}})

### Non-existent or out-of-place categories and "see also" pages

LLMs may hallucinate non-existent categories, sometimes for generic concepts that *seem like* plausible category titles (or SEO keywords), and sometimes because their training set includes obsolete and renamed categories. These will appear as red links. You may also find category redirects, such as the longtime spammer favorite Category:Entrepreneurs. Sometimes, broken categories may be deleted by reviewers, so if you suspect a page may be LLM-generated, it may be worth checking earlier revisions.

Pay attention to blue links under "see also" headers as well. LLM-generated "see also" sections often tend to fill them up (to at least three links) seemingly out of obligation. If a new page/draft on some startup links to a broad term like Financial technology in its see-also section, that's a bit suspicious.

Of course, none of this section should be treated as a hard-and-fast rule. New users are unlikely to know about Wikipedia's style guidelines for these sections, and returning editors may be used to old categories that have since been deleted.

**Examples**

```
[[Category:American hip hop musicians]]
```

rather than

```
[[Category:American hip-hop musicians]]
```

---

## Citations

### Fictitious or hallucinated references

LLMs may generate fictitious or hallucinated references that do not exist or contain fabricated information.

### Broken external links

If a new article or draft has multiple citations with external links, and several of them are broken (e.g., returning [404 errors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/404_error "404 error")), this is a strong sign of an AI-generated page, particularly if the dead links are not found in website archiving sites like [Internet Archive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive "Internet Archive") or [Archive Today](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archive_Today "Archive Today"). Most links [become broken over time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link_rot "Link rot"), but these factors make it unlikely that the link was ever real.

### Invalid DOI and ISBNs

A [checksum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checksum "Checksum") can be used to verify [ISBNs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN "ISBN"). An invalid checksum is a very likely sign that an ISBN is incorrect, and citation templates display a warning if so. Similarly, [DOIs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier "Digital object identifier") are more resistant to link rot than regular hyperlinks. Unresolvable DOIs and invalid ISBNs can be indicators of [hallucinated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucination_(AI) "Hallucination (AI)") references.

Related are DOIs that point to entirely unrelated articles and general book citations without pages. This passage, for example, was generated by ChatGPT.

> Ohm's Law is a fundamental principle in the field of electrical engineering and physics that states the current passing through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points, provided the temperature remains constant. Mathematically, it is expressed as V=IR, where V is the voltage, I is the current, and R is the resistance. The law was formulated by German physicist Georg Simon Ohm in 1827, and it serves as a cornerstone in the analysis and design of electrical circuits [1]. Ohm's Law applies to many materials and components that are "ohmic," meaning their resistance remains constant regardless of the applied voltage or current. However, it does not hold for non-linear devices like diodes or transistors [2][3].
>
> References:
>
> 1. Dorf, R. C., & Svoboda, J. A. (2010). Introduction to Electric Circuits (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780470521571.
>
> 2. M. E. Van Valkenburg, "The validity and limitations of Ohm's law in non-linear circuits," Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 62, no. 6, pp. 769–770, Jun. 1974. doi:10.1109/PROC.1974.9547
>
> 3. C. L. Fortescue, "Ohm's Law in alternating current circuits," Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 55, no. 11, pp. 1934–1936, Nov. 1967. doi:10.1109/PROC.1967.6033

The book references appear valid – a book on electric circuits would likely have information about Ohm's law – but without the page number, that citation is not useful for verifying the claims in the prose. Worse, both *Proceedings of the IEEE* citations are completely made up. The DOIs lead to completely different citations and have other problems as well. For instance, [C. L. Fortescue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_LeGeyt_Fortescue "Charles LeGeyt Fortescue") was dead for 30+ years at the purported time of writing, and Vol 55, Issue 11 does not list any articles that match anything remotely close to the information given in reference 3.

### Incorrect or unconventional use of references

AI tools may have been prompted to include references, and make an attempt to do so as Wikipedia expects, but fail with some key implementation details or stand out when compared with conventions.

**Examples**

In the below example, note the incorrect attempt at re-using references. The tool used here was not capable of searching for non-confabulated sources (as it was done the day before Bing Deep Search launched) but nonetheless found one real reference. The syntax for re-using the references was incorrect.

In this case, the *Smith, R. J.* source – being the "third source" the tool presumably generated the link 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3' (which has a PMID reference of 3) – is also completely irrelevant to the body of the article. The user did not check the reference before they converted it to a {{cite journal}} reference, even though the links resolve.

The LLM in this case has diligently included the incorrect re-use syntax after every single full stop.

> For over thirty years, computers have been utilized in the rehabilitation of individuals with brain injuries. Initially, researchers delved into the potential of developing a "prosthetic memory."<ref>Fowler R, Hart J, Sheehan M. A prosthetic memory: an application of the prosthetic environment concept. *Rehabil Counseling Bull*. 1972;15:80–85.</ref> However, by the early 1980s, the focus shifted towards addressing brain dysfunction through repetitive practice.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=R. J. |last2=Bryant |first2=R. G. |date=1975-10-27 |title=Metal substitutions incarbonic anhydrase: a halide ion probe study |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3 |journal=Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=1281–1286 |doi=10.1016/0006-291x(75)90498-2 |issn=0006-291X |pmid=3}}</ref> Only a few psychologists were developing rehabilitation software for individuals with Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI), resulting in a scarcity of available programs.<sup>[3]</sup> Cognitive rehabilitation specialists opted for commercially available computer games that were visually appealing, engaging, repetitive, and entertaining, theorizing their potential remedial effects on neuropsychological dysfunction.<sup>[3]</sup>

Some LLMs or chatbot interfaces use the character ↩ to indicate footnotes:

> References
>
> Would you like help formatting and submitting this to Wikipedia, or do you plan to post it yourself? I can guide you step-by-step through that too.
>
> **Footnotes**
>
> 1.   KLAS Research. (2024). *Top Performing RCM Vendors 2024*. https://klasresearch.com ↩ ↩2
> 2.   PR Newswire. (2025, February 18). *CureMD AI Scribe Launch Announcement*. https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/curemd-ai-scribe ↩

### ChatGPT-specific UTM parameters

ChatGPT may add the [UTM parameter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTM_parameter "UTM parameter") `utm_source=openai` or, in edits prior to August 2025, `utm_source=chatgpt.com` to URLs that it is using as sources. Other LLMs, such as Gemini or Claude, use UTM parameters less often.[^13]

Note: While this does definitively prove ChatGPT's involvement, it doesn't prove, on its own, that ChatGPT also generated the writing. Some editors use AI tools to find citations for existing text; this will be apparent in the edit history.

**Examples**

> Following their marriage, Burgess and Graham settled in Cheshire, England, where Burgess serves as the head coach for the Warrington Wolves rugby league team. [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2025/feb/11/sam-burgess-interview-warrington-rugby-league-luke-littler?utm_source=chatgpt.com]

> Vertex AI documentation and blog posts describe watermarking, verification workflow, and configurable safety filters (for example, person‑generation controls and safety thresholds). ([cloud.google.com](https://cloud.google.com/vertex-ai/generative-ai/docs/image/generate-images?utm_source=openai))

### Named references declared in references section but unused in article body

*This section is empty.* You can help by adding to it. *(October 2025)*

**Examples**

See these diffs for examples. The problematic references appear as parser errors in the reflist.

- [Special:PermanentLink/1287201002#References](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:PermanentLink/1287201002#References "Special:PermanentLink/1287201002")
- [Special:PermanentLink/1292432848#References](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:PermanentLink/1292432848#References "Special:PermanentLink/1292432848")
- [Special:PermanentLink/1291491974#References](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:PermanentLink/1291491974#References "Special:PermanentLink/1291491974")
- [Special:PermanentLink/1291561040#References](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:PermanentLink/1291561040#References "Special:PermanentLink/1291561040")

---

## Discrepancies in Writing Style and Variety of English

### Abrupt cut offs

AI tools may abruptly stop generating content, for example if they predict the end of text sequence (appearing as `
`) next. Also, the number of tokens that a single response has is usually limited, and further responses require the user to select "continue generating".

This method is not foolproof, as a malformed copy/paste from one's local computer can also cause this. It may also indicate a copyright violation rather than the use of an LLM.

### Sudden shift in writing style

A sudden shift in an editor's writing style, such as unexpectedly flawless grammar compared to their other communication, may indicate the use of AI tools.

### Sudden shift in English variety use

A mismatch of user location, national ties of the topic to a variety of English, and the variety of English used may indicate the use of AI tools. A human writer from India writing about an Indian university would probably not use American English; however, LLM outputs use American English by default, unless prompted otherwise.[^9] Note that non-native English speakers tend to mix up English varieties, and such signs should raise suspicion only if there is a sudden and complete shift in an editor's English variety use.

### Overwhelmingly verbose edit summaries

AI-generated [edit summaries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Edit_summary "Help:Edit summary") are often unusually long, written as formal, first-person paragraphs without abbreviations, and/or conspicuously itemize Wikipedia's conventions.

> Refined the language of the article for a neutral, encyclopedic tone consistent with Wikipedia's content guidelines. Removed promotional wording, ensured factual accuracy, and maintained a clear, well-structured presentation. Updated sections on history, coverage, challenges, and recognition for clarity and relevance. Added proper formatting and categorized the entry accordingly

> I formalized the tone, clarified technical content, ensured neutrality, and indicated citation needs. Historical narratives were streamlined, allocation details specified with regulatory references, propagation explanations made reader-friendly, and equipment discussions focused on availability and regulatory compliance, all while adhering to encyclopedic standards.

> **Concise edit summary:** Improved clarity, flow, and readability of the plot section; reduced redundancy and refined tone for better encyclopedic style.

### "Submission statements" in AFC drafts

This one is specific to drafts submitted by Articles for Creation. At least one LLM tends to insert "submission statements" supposedly intended for reviewers that supposedly explain why the subject is notable and why the draft meets Wikipedia guidelines. Of course, all this actually does is let reviewers know that the draft is LLM-generated, and should be declined or speedied without a second thought.

> Reviewer note (for AfC): This draft is a neutral and well-sourced biography of Portuguese public manager Jorge Patrão. All references are from independent, reliable sources (Público, Diário de Notícias, Jornal de Negócios, RTP, O Interior, Agência Lusa) covering his public career and cultural activity. It meets WP:RS and WP:BLP standards and demonstrates clear notability per WP:NBIO through: – Presidency of Serra da Estrela Tourism Region (1998–2013); – Presidency of Parkurbis – Covilhã Science and Technology Park; – Founding role in Rede de Judiarias de Portugal (member of the Council of Europe's European Routes of Jewish Heritage); – Authorship of the book "1677 – A Fábrica d'El-Rei"; – Founder/curator of the Beatriz de Luna Art Collection (Old Master focus). There is also a Portuguese version of this article at pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Patrão. Thank you for your review. -->

— Found at the top of Draft:Jorge Patrão (all the inevitable formatting errors are present in the original)

### Pre-declined AFC review templates

Occasionally a new editor creates a draft that includes an AFC review template already set to "declined". The template is also devoid of content with no reviewer reasoning given. The LLM apparently offers to add an AFC submission template to the draft, and then provides something like `{{AfC submission|d}}`, in which the "d" parameter pre-declines the draft by substituting {{AfC submission/declined}}. The draft's contribution history reveals that this template was inserted at some point by the draft's creator. Invariably the creator then asks on Wikipedia:WikiProject Articles for creation/Help desk or one of the other help pages why the draft was declined with no feedback. The presence of a content-free "submission declined" header is a **strong** indicator that the draft was LLM-generated.

---

## Signs of Human Writing

### Age of text relative to ChatGPT launch

ChatGPT was launched to the public on November 30, 2022. Although OpenAI had similarly powerful LLMs before then, they were paid services and not easily accessible or known to lay people. ChatGPT experienced extreme growth immediately on launch.

It is very unlikely that any particular text added to Wikipedia **prior to November 30, 2022** was generated by an LLM. If an edit was made before this date, AI use can be safely ruled out for that revision. While some older text may display some of the AI signs given in this list, and even convincingly appear to have been AI-generated, the vastness of Wikipedia allows for these rare coincidences.

### Ability to explain one's own editorial choices

Editors should be able to explain why they made one or more edits or mistakes. For example, if an editor inserts a URL that appears fabricated, you can ask how the mix-up occurred instead of jumping to conclusions. If they can supply the correct link and explain it as a human error (perhaps a typo), or share the relevant passage from the real source, that points to an ordinary human error.

---

## Ineffective Indicators

False accusations of AI use can [drive away new editors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:BITE "Wikipedia:BITE") and foster an atmosphere of suspicion. Before claiming AI was used, consider if [Dunning–Kruger effect](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunning%E2%80%93Kruger_effect "Dunning–Kruger effect") and [confirmation bias](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias "Confirmation bias") is clouding your judgement. Here are several somewhat commonly used indicators that are ineffective in LLM detection—and may even indicate the opposite.

- **Perfect grammar**: While modern LLMs are known for their high grammatical proficiency, many editors are also skilled writers or come from professional writing backgrounds. (See also [§ Discrepancies in writing style and variety of English](#discrepancies-in-writing-style-and-variety-of-english).)

- **"Bland" or "robotic" prose**: By default, modern LLMs tend toward effusive and verbose prose, as detailed above; while this tendency is formulaic, it may not scan as "robotic" to those unfamiliar with AI writing.[^14]

- **"Fancy," "academic," or unusual words**: While LLMs disproportionately favor certain words and phrases, many of which are long and have difficult readability scores, the correlation does not extend to *all* "fancy," academic, or "advanced"-sounding prose.[^1] Low-frequency and "unusual" words are also less likely to show up in AI-generated writing as they are statistically less common, unless they are proper nouns directly related to the topic.

- **Letter-like writing (in isolation)**: Although many talk page messages written with salutations, valedictions, subject lines, and other formalities after 2023 tend to appear AI-generated, letters and emails have conventionally been written in such ways *long* before modern LLMs existed. Human editors (particularly newer editors) may format their talk page comments similarly for various reasons, such as being more accustomed to formal communication, posting as part of a school assignment that requires such at one, or simply mistaking the talk page for email. AI-generated talk page messages tend to have other tells, such as vertical lists,[^d] placeholders, or abrupt cutoffs.

- **Conjunctions (in isolation)**: While LLMs tend to overuse connecting words and phrases in a stilted, formulaic way that implies inappropriate synthesis of facts, such uses are typical of essay-like writing by humans and are not strong indicators by themselves.

- **Bizarre wikitext**: While LLMs may hallucinate templates or generate wikitext code with invalid syntax for reasons explained in [§Use of Markdown](#use-of-markdown), they are not likely to generate content with certain random-seeming, "inexplicable" errors and artifacts (excluding the ones listed on this page in [§Markup](#markup)). Bizarrely placed HTML tags like `<span>` are more indicative of poorly programmed browser extensions or a known bug with Wikipedia's content translation tool (T113137). Misplaced syntax like `''Catch-22 i''s a satirical novel.` (rendered as "*Catch-22 i* s a satirical novel.") are more indicative of mistakes in VisualEditor, where such errors are harder to notice than in source editing.

---

## Notes

[^a]: not unique to AI chatbots; is produced by the {{as of}} template

[^b]: Example of `Would you like me to ... turn this into actual Wikipedia markup format (wikitext)?` in a deleted draft (administrators only)

[^c]: Example of ` ```wikitext ` on a draft.

[^d]: Example of a vertical list in a deletion discussion

---

## References

[^1]: Russell, Jenna; Karpinska, Marzena; Iyyer, Mohit (2025). [*People who frequently use ChatGPT for writing tasks are accurate and robust detectors of AI-generated text*](https://aclanthology.org/2025.acl-long.267/). Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers). Vienna, Austria: Association for Computational Linguistics. pp.5342–5373. arXiv:[2501.15654](https://arxiv.org/abs/2501.15654).

[^2]: Dugan, Liam; Hwang, Alyssa; Trhlik, Filip; Zhu, Andrew; Ludan, Josh Magnus; Xu, Hainiu; Ippolito, Daphne; Callison-Burch, Chris (2024). [*RAID: A Shared Benchmark for Robust Evaluation of Machine-Generated Text Detectors*](https://aclanthology.org/2024.acl-long.674). Proceedings of the 62nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers). Bangkok, Thailand: Association for Computational Linguistics. pp.12463–12492. arXiv:[2405.07940](https://arxiv.org/abs/2405.07940).

[^3]: ["People who frequently use ChatGPT for writing tasks are accurate and robust detectors of AI-generated text"](https://arxiv.org/html/2501.15654v2). *arxiv.org*. Retrieved 2025-11-28.

[^4]: This can be directly observed by examining images generated by text-to-image models; they look acceptable at first glance, but specific details tend to be blurry and malformed. This is especially true for background objects and text.

[^5]: ["10 Ways AI Is Ruining Your Students' Writing"](https://www.chronicle.com/article/10-ways-ai-is-ruining-your-students-writing). *Chronicle of Higher Education*. September 16, 2025. Archived from the original on October 1, 2025. Retrieved October 1, 2025.

[^6]: Juzek, Tom S.; Ward, Zina B. (2025). [*Why Does ChatGPT "Delve" So Much? Exploring the Sources of Lexical Overrepresentation in Large Language Models*](https://aclanthology.org/2025.coling-main.426.pdf) (PDF). Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2025. Association for Computational Linguistics. arXiv:[2412.11385](https://arxiv.org/abs/2412.11385).

[^7]: Reinhart, Alex; Markey, Ben; Laudenbach, Michael; Pantusen, Kachatad; Yurko, Ronald; Weinberg, Gordon; Brown, David West. ["Do LLMs write like humans? Variation in grammatical and rhetorical styles"](http://arxiv.org/abs/2410.16107). Retrieved 4 December 2025.

[^8]: Kobak, Dmitry; González-Márquez, Rita; Horvát, Emőke-Ágnes; Lause, Jan (2 July 2025). ["Delving into LLM-assisted writing in biomedical publications through excess vocabulary"](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt3813). *Science Advances*. **11** (27). doi:[10.1126/sciadv.adt3813](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.adt3813). ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 12219543. PMID 40009654.

[^9]: Ju, Da; Blix, Hagen; Williams, Adina (2025). [*Domain Regeneration: How well do LLMs match syntactic properties of text domains?*](https://aclanthology.org/2025.findings-acl.120). Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2025. Vienna, Austria: Association for Computational Linguistics. pp.2367–2388. arXiv:[2505.07784](https://arxiv.org/abs/2505.07784). doi:[10.18653/v1/2025.findings-acl.120](https://doi.org/10.18653%2Fv1%2F2025.findings-acl.120).

[^10]: Kousha, Kayvan; Thelwall, Mike (2025). [*How much are LLMs changing the language of academic papers after ChatGPT? A multi-database and full text analysis*](https://arxiv.org/pdf/2509.09596). ISSI 2025 Conference. arXiv:[2509.09596](https://arxiv.org/abs/2509.09596).

[^11]: Merrill, Jeremy B.; Chen, Szu Yu; Kumer, Emma (13 November 2025). ["What are the clues that ChatGPT wrote something? We analyzed its style"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/interactive/2025/how-detect-chatgpt-em-dash/). *The Washington Post*. Retrieved 14 November 2025.

[^12]: ["Unproductive Interpretation of Work and Employment as Misinformation?"](https://www.laetusinpraesens.org/docs20s/workeco.php). Archived from the original on 2 September 2025. Retrieved 21 October 2025.

[^13]: See [T387903](https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T387903 "phabricator:T387903").

[^14]: Murray, Nathan; Tersigni, Elisa (21 July 2024). ["Can instructors detect AI-generated papers? Postsecondary writing instructor knowledge and perceptions of AI"](https://journals.sfu.ca/jalt/index.php/jalt/article/view/1895). *Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching*. **7** (2). doi:[10.37074/jalt.2024.7.2.12](https://doi.org/10.37074%2Fjalt.2024.7.2.12). ISSN 2591-801X. Retrieved 21 November 2025.


Security scan verdicts — ClawScan: clean | static analysis: clean | VirusTotal: suspicious | SkillSpector: clean (LOW)