no statistical method was used to predetermine sample size, but our sample sizes are similar to those reported in previous publications. no data were excluded from analyses. the investigators were not blinded to allocation during experiments and outcome assessment. data collection and analysis were not performed blind to the conditions of the experiments. data distributions of transcriptomics datasets were tested to ensure they met the assumptions of statistical tests. for other datasets, data distribution was assumed to be normal, but this was not formally tested. all statistical analyses and graphs, except transcriptional data, were performed using prism software v9 and v10 ( graphpad ). specific statistical tests are described in relevant figure legends. all data are presented as the mean ± s. e. m. flow cytometry data were analyzed using flowjo v9. 9. 5 and v10. 6. 1. raw sequencing read data were subjected to quality control and aligned to the human reference hg38 genome using star aligner. the deseq2 r package was used for downstream differential expression analysis. bulk tcr repertoire analysis was performed using the irepertoire analysis pipeline. raw read data were processed with either the cell ranger pipeline or the bd genomics pipeline. downstream analyses were carried out in r using the seurat pipeline. raw read data were processed using the space ranger pipeline. downstream analyses were carried out in r using the seurat pipeline. raw sequencing read data were processed with the cell ranger vdj pipeline. downstream analyses were carried out in r. source paper: pmc12133578 additional details for computational data analysis are provided in supplementary methods. further information on research design is available in the nature portfol io reporting summary linked to this article. any methods, additional references, nature portfol io reporting summaries, source data, extended data, supplementary information, acknowledgements, peer review information; details of author contributions and competing interests; and statements of data and code availability are available at 10. 1038 / s41590 - 025 - 02146 - 2. mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase - contrast tomography source paper: pmc12408821 the architecture of kidney vasculature is essential the organ ' s specialised functions, yet is challenging to structurally map in an intact human organ. here, we combined hierarchical phase - contrast tomography ( hip - ct ) with topology network analysis to enable quantitative assessment of the intact human kidney vasculature, from the renal artery to interlobular arteries. comparison with kidney vascular maps described for rodents revealed similar topologies to human, but human kidney vasculature possessed a significantly sharper decrease in radius from hilum to cortex, deviating from theoretically optimal flow resistance for smaller vessels. structural differences in kidney hilar, medullary and cortical vasculature reflected unique functional adaptations of each zone. this work represents the first time the arterial vasculature of an intact human kidney has been mapped beyond segmental arteries, potentiating novel computational models of kidney vascular flow in humans. our analyses have implications for understanding how blood vessel structure collectively scales to facilitate specialised functions in human organs. the vasculature of the kidney is highly specialised and serves multiple functions, including the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the organ ’ s parenchyma, whilst also facilitating plasma ultrafiltration and solute reabsorption. despite only comprising approximately 1 % of body weight, the kidney receives up to 20 % of cardiac output. blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches from the abdominal aorta and enters the kidney hilum. once within the kidney, the renal artery divides hierarchically, first into segmental or renal feeding arteries which pass through the kidney pelvis, then branching into interlobar arteries which pass through columns between the pyramids of the kidney medulla. at the distal end of the kidney columns, interlobar arteries branch into arcuate arteries that arch around the outer surface of the kidney pyramids. from these, the interlobular vessels branch and penetrate the surrounding kidney cortex, before finally terminating at afferent arterioles. this complex network perfuses specialised capillary networks, including glomerular capillaries across which plasma ultrafiltration occurs, efferent arterioles and peritubular capillaries or vasa recta, which facilitate dynamic solute exchange in the cortex and medulla, respectively. thereafter, venous return follows the arterial supply out of the organ. structural and molecular changes to the kidney vasculature are a common feature of kidney pathologies, including multiple aetiologies of chronic kidney disease ( ckd ) and transplant rejection in both animal models and patients. therefore, studying kidney vascular patterning has implications for understanding the basis of kidney function in health and disease, and aids surgical planning for tumour resection, nephrectomy and transplantation. vascular geometries also have a central role to play in computational models that underpin the creation of digital twins, such as through the generation of synthetic data, and blood flow modelling, which are playing an increasing role in biomedical research. vascular imaging of the kidney has advanced following technological innovations in micro - computed tomography ( μct ), magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) and μmri, ultrasound, lightsheet microscopy and photoacoustic imaging. these techniques have been used to generate quantitative analyses of vascular network geometry in intact kidneys of model organisms, particularly rodents, in which kidney diameter reaches up to 12 mm. comparatively human kidneys, with a diameter of approximately 5 cm are far more challenging to image at high resolution whilst still intact. corrosion casting of human kidneys has highlighted vascular heterogeneity and generated intricate 3d casts ( down to 100 µm ) but provides limited quantitative or accessible digitised geometries of the vascular network. optical clearing and lightsheet microscopy have been used to quantify portions of the human kidney vascular network. however, as far as the authors are aware, there is no published dataset capturing the intact vascular network of the human kidney beyond approximately six vessel divisions without physical sectioning or subsampling of the tissue. mri has been used to quantify larger vessels both in vivo and post mortem, but for large volumes of interest ( voi ), lacks the resolution capable of imaging small vessels and arterioles. µmri can be used to image down to ~ 50 µm / voxel, but is limited to smaller biological samples such as rodent kidneys. ct and µct have been used extensively to image and analyse rodent renal vasculature, and have also been applied to study the vasculature of ex vivo human lung and fetal kidney. however, no detailed segmentation and quantitative analysis of vascular networks in the human kidney have been performed down to the level of arterioles, because of a lack of available imaging data. due to this limitation, analysis of human kidney vascular networks is often focused on the first three, large branches of the arterial tree, or limited to subregions within the network. where multiscale modelling has been performed, parameters from rodent kidneys are assumed to be representative of human kidney vascular networks. however, semi - quantitative studies of human kidney vascular casts have shown large anatomical variation in segmental artery patterning, whilst smaller vessels such as the arcuate arteries, interlobular arteries and afferent or efferent arterioles have not been assessed quantitatively at the organ scale.