Knossos

Knossos (; Ancient Greek: Κνωσσός, romanized: Knōssós; Greek: Κνωσός, romanized: Knōsós; Linear B: 𐀒𐀜𐀰 Ko-no-so) is an archaeological site and ancient urban centre in Crete, Greece. It is located within the southern periphery of Heraklion, about 5 km (3.1 mi) south of the city's historic centre. The site was occupied from the Neolithic period into the first millennium AD and became the largest and best-known centre of the Minoan civilisation. Knossos is often described as the oldest city in Europe. The claim is based on the combination of its early Neolithic foundation, its central role in the Minoan civilisation, widely regarded as the earliest advanced civilisation in Europe, and the long continuity of occupation in the Knossos valley, which is now part of the urban area of Heraklion. It was also one of the earliest known Neolithic settlements on Crete. The site is dominated by the monumental Palace of Minos. Like other Minoan palaces, the complex is generally interpreted as an administrative, economic, religious and ceremonial centre. Its role as a royal residence is debated. The first palace was built around 1900 BC on a hill that had already been occupied for several millennia. It was rebuilt and expanded after a major destruction around 1700 BC, then remained the central monument of Knossos until its final destruction in the Late Bronze Age, usually dated to about 1350 BC. Knossos is closely associated with the Greek myths of Minos, Pasiphaë, Ariadne, Theseus, Daedalus, Icarus and the Minotaur. In later Greek tradition, the complex plan of the palace was remembered as the Labyrinth. In 2025, Knossos was inscribed as part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Minoan Palatial Centres, together with Phaistos, Malia, Zakros, Zominthos and Kydonia. Name The ancient name of the city is attested in Greek as Κνωσσός and in Linear B as 𐀒𐀜𐀰, transliterated as Ko-no-so. The Latinised form Cnossus was also used in antiquity and in older scholarship. The modern Greek form is usually written Κνωσός, although the classical spelling Κνωσσός remains common in archaeological and historical writing. Location and setting Knossos lies on Kephala hill, in the valley of the Kairatos river, within the modern municipality of Heraklion. It is not a separate modern city outside Heraklion, but lies within the southern periphery of the present urban area, about 5 km (3.1 mi) from the historic centre. The location gave the ancient settlement access to the north coast of Crete, the harbour area of ancient Knossos and routes leading into the island's interior. The archaeological landscape extends beyond the palace itself. It includes remains of the surrounding Minoan town, later Greek and Roman occupation, cemeteries, roads, villas, sanctuaries and ritual buildings. The Knossos Urban Landscape Project, a collaboration involving the British School at Athens and the Greek Archaeological Service, surveyed approximately 11 km2 (4.2 sq mi) around Knossos. It documented occupation from about 7000 BC into the modern period and identified an urban centre of about 1.5 km2 (0.58 sq mi) together with surrounding cemeteries and archaeological features. Chronology The chronology of Knossos extends from the Neolithic period to late antiquity. The dates below are approximate and reflect broad archaeological phases rather than fixed historical boundaries. History Neolithic period The earliest known settlement at Knossos dates to about 7000 BC, during the early Neolithic period. This makes Knossos one of the earliest permanent settlements on Crete and one of the earliest long-lived settlements in the Aegean. The first community occupied the summit of Kephala hill, the later site of the palace. Archaeological evidence indicates a small but stable settlement based on farming, animal husbandry and domestic craft production. Over the following millennia, the settlement expanded and accumulated deep archaeological deposits. Pottery, stone tools, figurines and building remains show long continuity through the Early, Middle, Late and Final Neolithic phases. By the end of the Neolithic period, Knossos had become one of the most important settlements in the Aegean. Prepalatial period During the Early Bronze Age, usually dated to about 3000 to 1900 BC, Knossos grew in size and complexity. This period is often called the Prepalatial period because it preceded the construction of the first palace. The settlement developed stronger craft specialisation, wider exchange networks and greater social differentiation. These developments prepared the ground for the emergence of palatial organisation in the early second millennium BC. The end of the Prepalatial period saw major architectural changes on Kephala hill. Earlier structures were levelled or reorganised, creating the platform on which the first palace was built. First Palace period The first palace at Knossos was constructed around 1900 BC. It marked a major shift in the organisation of the settlement and the surrounding region. The palace appears to have functioned as a centre for administration, storage, redistribution, ritual activity and craft production. The use of writing systems, sealings and specialised storage areas points to a complex bureaucracy. The first palace was destroyed around 1700 BC, probably by an earthquake or a series of seismic events. The destruction did not end the importance of Knossos. Instead, the site was rebuilt on a larger and more elaborate scale. Second Palace period The Second Palace period, from about 1700 to 1450 BC, was the height of Minoan Knossos. The palace was reconstructed with its central court, monumental entrances, staircases, magazines, reception rooms, ritual spaces, light wells, drainage systems and richly decorated wall paintings. The surrounding town also expanded, making Knossos the largest known Minoan centre. During this period, Knossos maintained strong links with other parts of Crete and the wider eastern Mediterranean. Evidence from pottery, frescoes, administrative documents and luxury objects suggests extensive economic, artistic and cultural exchange. Knossos is also represented in external evidence from the eastern Mediterranean. Aegean place-name lists from Egypt have been interpreted as including Knossos, indicating the site's wider diplomatic or commercial significance during the Late Bronze Age. The palace was partially destroyed around 1450 BC, during a wider period of disruption affecting many Minoan sites. After this event, Knossos continued to function, but with stronger Mycenaean Greek influence. Mycenaean and Postpalatial period After about 1450 BC, Knossos became an important Mycenaean administrative center. The Linear B tablets discovered at the site record an early form of Greek and provide evidence for administrative control over land, labor, livestock, textiles, offerings and other resources. These tablets are among the most important documents for the study of Late Bronze Age Crete and Mycenaean administration. The palace was finally destroyed by fire around 1350 BC. This destruction ended the palatial phase of Knossos, although occupation of the wider site continued. Postpalatial occupation did not reproduce the scale or administrative structure of the Minoan and Mycenaean palace, but the settlement retained local importance. Early Iron Age Knossos remained occupied after the collapse of the Bronze Age palace system. During the Early Iron Age, it was one of the most significant communities on Crete. Cemeteries such as the North Cemetery, Fortetsa and Teke provide evidence for continued prosperity, social organisation and overseas contacts. Grave goods show connections with other parts of the Aegean and the eastern Mediterranean. Although the palace was no longer functioning, the memory and prestige of Knossos remained important. The settlement continued to develop as a Greek city. Burial evidence from the Early Iron Age is particularly important because it preserves traces of social organisation, external contact and elite display that are less visible in the settlement remains. Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods In the Archaic and Classical periods, Knossos was a major Cretan city-state. It was associated in Greek tradition with King Minos and the laws of Crete. Literary sources and archaeological evidence show that Knossos remained politically important, although its power fluctuated in relation to other Cretan cities, especially Gortyn. Knossos issued coinage and participated in the political and military rivalries of Crete. Its mythological status also gave it cultural significance beyond the island. The Labyrinth motif on Knossian coinage demonstrates the continuing connection between the city and the mythic memory of Minos, Theseus and the Minotaur. During the Hellenistic period, Knossos continued to compete with other Cretan cities. Cretan politics in this period were marked by alliances, rivalries and repeated local conflicts. Knossos remained one of the principal cities of the island, although Gortyn increasingly became the dominant political centre in Roman Crete. Roman and early Byzantine periods In the Roman period, after Crete came under Roman control, Knossos remained inhabited and developed new public and private buildings. The Roman Villa of Dionysos, known for its mosaics, is one of the notable remains from this phase. The city became known as Colonia Iulia Nobilis Cnossus, reflecting its status under Roman rule. Occupation continued into the early Byzantine period, although the site gradually declined in importance as nearby Heraklion became the dominant urban centre of the region. The ancient name survived in later settlement history and in the modern place name. Mythology Knossos was central to several of the best-known myths of ancient Crete. In Greek tradition, it was the seat of King Minos, son of Zeus and Europa. Minos was remembered as a powerful ruler, lawgiver and judge. The most famous myth connected with Knossos is the story of the Labyrinth and the Minotaur. According to the myth, Minos ordered Daedalus to build the Labyrinth to contain the Minotaur, a creature with the body of a man and the head of a bull. Athens was forced to send young men and women as tribute until Theseus, helped by Minos's daughter Ariadne, entered the Labyrinth, killed the Minotaur and escaped by following a thread. Other myths connected with Knossos include the story of Daedalus and Icarus, who escaped from Crete with wings made by Daedalus. These myths became central to later Greek, Roman and European art, literature and political symbolism. The association between Knossos and the Labyrinth has been interpreted in several ways. Some scholars have connected the word "labyrinth" with the labrys, or double axe, although this interpretation remains debated. The palace's complex plan, with its courts, corridors, staircases and multiple levels, probably contributed to the later Greek image of Knossos as the home of the Labyrinth. Archaeology Early investigation The first known modern excavation at Knossos was carried out in 1878 and 1879 for several weeks by Minos Kalokairinos, a Cretan antiquarian and merchant from Heraklion, on land that he owned. Kalokairinos exposed parts of the west wing and identified storage magazines containing large pithoi. His work demonstrated the importance of the site and attracted wider scholarly interest. Political conditions in Ottoman Crete prevented large-scale excavation at that time. After Crete gained autonomy, the site became available for systematic archaeological work. Arthur Evans In 1900, Arthur Evans began large-scale excavations at Knossos on behalf of the British School at Athens. Working with archaeologists and architects including Duncan Mackenzie, David George Hogarth, Theodore Fyfe and Christian Doll, Evans uncovered most of the palace and many parts of the surrounding settlement. Evans also introduced the term "Minoan" for the Bronze Age civilisation of Crete, drawing on the myth of King Minos. His work made Knossos central to the study of Aegean prehistory. Finds from the excavations included fresco fragments, pottery, sealings, figurines, stone vessels, metal objects and thousands of Linear B tablets. Evans undertook extensive reconstructions at the palace using reinforced concrete, colour and architectural interpretation. These works made the site visually accessible to visitors but have also been criticised because they sometimes go beyond what can be securely reconstructed from the archaeological evidence. They are now part of the modern history of Knossos as well as part of the visitor experience. Later research Research at Knossos continued after Evans through excavation, conservation, museum study, survey and reanalysis of earlier material. The British School at Athens, the Greek Archaeological Service and other institutions have worked on the palace, the town, the cemeteries and the wider archaeological landscape. The Knossos Urban Landscape Project expanded the study of the site beyond the palace by surveying the valley and documenting long-term settlement patterns. This work has helped shift interpretation from a palace-centred model to a broader understanding of Knossos as a long-lived urban landscape. Palace complex The Palace of Minos is the dominant archaeological feature at Knossos. It covered approximately 14,000 m2 (150,000 sq ft), although estimates vary depending on how the surrounding structures are counted. The palace was continuously renovated and modified throughout its use. Its visible form largely belongs to the Second Palace period, although earlier and later phases are preserved within and around the complex. It was not an isolated building, but part of a wider urban and ceremonial landscape. Layout Like other Minoan palaces, Knossos was arranged around a large rectangular Central Court. This court was the organising space of the complex and was probably used for ceremonies, gatherings and movement through the palace. The building developed over several levels and included staircases, corridors, light wells, magazines, workshops, shrines and reception rooms. The West Court formed a major approach to the palace and probably had ceremonial functions. The west wing contained important administrative and ritual areas, including magazines, the Throne Room complex, pillar crypts and repositories. The east wing contained elaborate rooms built into the slope of the hill, including the Hall of the Double Axes and the Queen's Hall. The south and north entrances connected the palace to processional routes and the surrounding town. The plan of the palace is complex and irregular. Its corridors, staircases, courts and rooms probably contributed to the later Greek memory of the Labyrinth. Storage and administration The palace contained extensive magazines, especially in the west wing. These long storage rooms held large ceramic jars, or pithoi, used for storing oil, grain, wine and other commodities. Storage, recording and redistribution were central features of palatial administration. Administrative evidence includes sealings and Linear B tablets. These records suggest that the palace controlled or monitored agricultural production, livestock, craft activity and offerings. The use of writing at Knossos is one of the key indicators of its bureaucratic role in the Late Bronze Age. Water, drainage, lighting and ventilation The palace is notable for its architectural and engineering systems. These included drains, water channels, light wells, staircases, timber-reinforced masonry and multi-storey construction. The use of light wells, open courts, porticoes, shafts and pier-and-door partitions allowed internal rooms to receive daylight and air despite the density of the building. The complex included water-management and drainage features that have long attracted attention. Channels, drains and sloped surfaces helped remove rainwater and wastewater from parts of the building. These systems were not modern plumbing in the contemporary sense, but they show advanced practical design for a dense multi-storey complex. Because of its position on Kephala hill, the palace also received summer sea breezes. The architectural use of open shafts and light wells has been interpreted as part of a broader environmental strategy in the New Palace period, helping to bring natural light and airflow into the deeper parts of the complex and contributing to internal comfort in warm conditions. Minoan builders used a variety of materials, including limestone, gypsum, timber, rubble masonry and plaster. Wall paintings, painted plaster, stone revetments and architectural ornament gave parts of the palace a highly decorated appearance. Minoan columns The palace includes examples of the distinctive Minoan column. Unlike later Greek columns, Minoan columns often taper downward. They were usually made from timber, set on stone bases and finished with rounded capitals. Reconstructed examples are now among the most recognisable visual features of Knossos. Frescoes and decoration Knossos is famous for its frescoes, although many survive only as fragments and some published images are reconstructions. Well-known frescoes associated with the site include the Bull-Leaping Fresco, the Procession Fresco, the Cup-Bearer, the Dolphin Fresco, the Sacred Grove fresco and the image often called the Prince of the Lilies. The frescoes show processions, animals, plants, marine life, ritual scenes and human figures. They are among the most recognisable works of Minoan art, but their interpretation is often debated because of the fragmentary condition of the originals and the extent of later reconstruction. Some famous images associated with Knossos are therefore both ancient artefacts and modern reconstructions. Throne Room The Throne Room complex is one of the most visited areas of the palace. It contains a gypsum seat set against the wall, benches, a lustral basin and painted griffins. Evans interpreted the room as the throne room of King Minos. Later scholarship has proposed other interpretations, including ritual or priestly use. The function of the room remains debated. Surrounding buildings Important structures around the palace include the Small Palace, the Royal Villa, the South House, the Caravanserai, the Temple Tomb and the Theatral Area. These buildings show that Bronze Age Knossos was not limited to the palace. It was part of a wider urban and ceremonial landscape. The Royal Road connected the palace area with parts of the surrounding town. In later periods, Greek and Roman buildings occupied parts of the same landscape, including houses, sanctuaries, tombs and the Roman Villa of Dionysos. Writing and administration Knossos is a major site for the study of Aegean writing. Minoan administration used scripts including Cretan hieroglyphs and Linear A, which remains undeciphered. After the Mycenaean takeover, Knossos produced a major archive of Linear B tablets, written in an early form of Greek. The Linear B tablets record administrative matters such as livestock, textiles, landholding, personnel, offerings and commodities. They show that the later palace operated as a bureaucratic centre with organised systems of record-keeping. UNESCO has identified Cretan Hieroglyphic and Linear A as two of the earliest writing systems in Europe, developed in Crete at the beginning of the second millennium BC. Finds Many of the most important finds from Knossos are housed in the Heraklion Archaeological Museum. These include fresco fragments, pottery, stone vessels, seal stones, figurines, bronze objects, jewellery and Linear B tablets. The so-called snake goddess figurines from Knossos are among the most famous objects associated with Minoan religion. Their precise meaning remains debated, but they have become iconic images of Minoan culture. The Linear B tablets from Knossos were central to the decipherment of Linear B by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick. Their decipherment showed that the tablets recorded an early form of Greek, changing the understanding of Late Bronze Age Crete and the Mycenaean world. Conservation and tourism Knossos is one of the most visited archaeological sites in Greece. Its fame rests on the scale of the palace, its mythological associations, its reconstructed architecture and its importance in the study of European prehistory. Conservation at Knossos is complex because of the age of the remains, the high number of visitors and the early twentieth-century reconstructions carried out by Evans. These reconstructions are now part of the history of the site, but they also require continued monitoring and maintenance. The modern visitor experience is shaped by both ancient remains and twentieth-century interpretation. The reconstructed columns, frescoes and architectural elements help communicate the palace visually, but they also require careful explanation because they do not always distinguish clearly between excavated remains and modern reconstruction. UNESCO World Heritage Site In 2025, Knossos was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List as part of the serial property Minoan Palatial Centres. The property includes six Cretan palatial sites: Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, Zakros, Zominthos and Kydonia. UNESCO recognised the sites under criteria ii, iii, iv and vi for their evidence of Minoan civilisation, early urban development, monumental architecture, writing systems, maritime networks and enduring mythological influence. Notable residents Epimenides, semi-legendary Cretan seer and philosopher Aenesidemus, philosopher associated with Pyrrhonist scepticism Chersiphron, architect traditionally associated with the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus See also Minoan civilization Minoan palaces Minoan chronology Linear A Linear B Heraklion Archaeological Museum Phaistos Malia, Crete Zakros Zominthos Kydonia References Further reading Evans, Arthur (1921–1935). The Palace of Minos at Knossos. London: Macmillan. Fitton, J. Lesley (2002). Minoans. London: British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-7141-2140-6. Hood, Sinclair (1978). The Palace of Minos: A Comparative Account of the Successive Stages of the Early Cretan Civilization as Illustrated by the Discoveries at Knossos. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Macdonald, Colin F. (2005). The Palace of Minos at Knossos. British School at Athens. MacGillivray, J. A. (2000). Minotaur: Sir Arthur Evans and the Archaeology of the Minoan Myth. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 978-0-8090-3035-4. McEnroe, John C. (2010). Architecture of Minoan Crete: Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-72193-7. Momigliano, Nicoletta (2007). Knossos Pottery Handbook: Neolithic and Bronze Age, Minoan. British School at Athens. ISBN 978-1-84217-291-9. Whitelaw, Todd (2000). "Beyond the palace: A century of investigation at Europe's oldest city". Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies. 44: 223–226. External links Municipality of Heraklion: Knossos Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Knossos British School at Athens: Knossos Research Centre UNESCO World Heritage Centre: Minoan Palatial Centres Knossos Urban Landscape Project