Mahatma Gandhi

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Gujaratice મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી, Devanagari मोहनदास करमचंद गांधी), Mahatma ('Magnanimus') et Bapu ('Pater') emeritus appellatus (natus Porbandar in oppido Gujaratensi die 2 Octobris 1869; necatus Dellii Novii die 30 Ianuarii 1948), fuit causarum actor Indicus, diurnarius, asceta, pacifista. Gandhi fuit dux politicus ac spiritalis motus saeculi 20 Indiae libertatem ac maiestatem appetentis, quas anno 1947 Britanniarum Regno sine violentia resistendo, magistratibus non oboediendo et "ieiunio usque ad mortem" ad verum perduxit Britannicamque super Indiam dominationem finivit. Iam antea in Africa Australi contra apartheid et pro Indorum paritate contenderat. Gandhi affectus conscientiamque adversariorum suo habitu satyagrahae (quae est "adhaesio ad veritatem") et ahimsae (quae est "non-violentia" una cum patientia laborum) tangere studuit, quam vi potentiorem duxit. Ita se animos eorum allecturum speravit. Iura humana sic dictorum "Intactilium" (Dalit) et mulierum poposcit, reconciliationem Hinduorum et Musulmanorum temptavit, direptionem colonialisticam respuens ad novum systema oeconomicum annisus est, quae liberum esset et vita rusticorum signatum. Nomina honesta Mahatma Nomen honestum Sanscriticum Mahatma (महात्मा "anima magna") a philosopho Indico et Praemio Nobeliano Litterarum laureato Rabindranath Tagore repetere putatur, qui Gandhi die 9 Ianuarii 1915 ex Africa Australi in Mumbai urbem advenientem ita salutavit. Gandhi hoc cognomen diu moleste ferebat, quod se invito in usum venit, cum omnem sui cultum abnueret. In libro, quem de vita sua scripsit, titulum Mahatma sibi non solum sine honore, sed etiam magno dolori fuisse. Tamen postea nomen, quod hodie originali longe notius est, probavit et, ut ei par fieret, studuit. Bapu Aliud nomen honestum in India usitatum, quod libenter ferebat quoque eum etiam uxor et amici allocuti sunt, fuit Bapu (Gujaratice: બાપુ "pater"). Postea in titulum "pater civitatis" amplificatus est, quod nomen regimen Indicum publice agnovit. Vita Pueritia ac adulescentia Natus est Gandhi die 2 Octobris anno 1869 Porbandar in urbe Gujaratensi in India Britannica, quae tunc pars Imperii Britannici erat. Familia ad tribum pertinebat, quod commercium exercere solebat. Avus paterque eius autem consiliarii sive primi ministri (divan) munere in civitate Porbandar fungebantur, quae specie quidem autonoma, re vera autem Britanniarum Regno subiecta erat. Post scholam elementarem, Gandhi studia superiora in Rajkot frequentavit, quo pater muneris primi ministri causa se contulerat. Anno 1881 duodecim annos natus Gandhi, ut tum mos erat, Kastürbā Gāndhi coaetaneam in matrimonium duxit. Postea pluries "crudelem nuptiarum minorum usum" condemnavit. Maritis quattuor filii erant. Septendecim annos natus, tribus mensibus mortis patris post, Londinii iit, ut ibi in Collegio Universitatis ius disceret. Gens sive genus, cum praecepta Induistica in Anglia observari pro impossibili poneret, se itineri opposuerat, sed frustra, quare Gandhi a generis principe extra genus esse condemnatus est. Londinii se quodam modo moribus Anglicis accomodat, vestibus occidentalibus induitur, more "gentleman" vivere studuit. Duobus diebus post quam examina iurisprudentiae superavit, Angliam die 12 Iunii 1891 reliquit Indiam reversurus. In Mumbai ex navi egrediens de matris morte certior factus est. Fratre adiutore in genus denuo acceptus causidicus laborare coepit. Cum autem imprimis scientias theoricas haberet neque ius Indicum bene novisset, praeterea coram publico loqui veritus sit, post sex menses ob reditus insufficientes coepto abstinuit. Gandhi in Africa Australi (1893-1914) Deinde Gandhi in Rajkot urbem revertit, ut apud fratrem suum, qui etiam fuit causarum actor, laboraret. Duobus annis post societas Indica Dada Abdullah & C., quae mercaturas in Natal fecit, ei ut causam in Africa Australi defenderet negotium dedit. Gandhi illa aetate erat homo dulcis, timidus, nequaquam salutis publicae studiosus, gravis in tribunali. In Africa Australi cum apartheid (segregationem generum), tum despectionem ac miserabiles vitae conditiones Indorum, quorum ibi 150 000 servorum instar vivebant, cognovit. Quo viso animum permutare coepit. Varia dicta memoratu digna hanc mutationem demonstrant: cum quondam in aliquo tribunali Durbanensi magistratus eum capitis tegumen (turbanum) deponere iussisset, Gandhi recusans e tribunali expulsus est. Alio tempore in Pietermaritzburg ex hamaxosticho missus est, quoniam ex vehiculo primae classis in alium tertiae ire iussus abnuit, quod tesseram primae validam haberet. Deinde ubi gestationem raedae facere voluit, praefectus primo, ut in raeda una cum aliis vectoribus Europaeis sederet, vetuit, deinde eum pulsavit, quod in podio stare denegavit. Talibus casibus commotus Gandhi, quae sit sua ipsius in societate positio populique Indici in Britanniarum Regno status, quaerere coepit. Tandem ei persuasum erat sibi contra iniurias ab Indis acceptas pugnandum esse: numerosas litteras querulas publicavit, Praetoriae concilium omnium Indorum convocavit, ubi primam orationem publicam habuit, petitionis verba concepit. Gandhi etiam negotio peracto in Africa Australi permanebat, ut Indos in lege avertenda adiuvaret, qua eorum ius suffragii tolleretur. Gandhi libellum ad Joseph Chamberlin, coloniae Britannicae praefectum, misit rogans, ut legem retraheret. Quamvis non potens legis prohibendae, tamen Indorum querelis audientiam fecit. Natal Indian Congress (conventum Indorum Natalensem) anno 1894 condere adiuvit,, qua organizatione communitas Indica Africae Australis in vim politicam unitam crevit. Mense Ianuario 1897, cum Gandhi in Durban nave exiit, a turba colonorum coloris albi petitus non nisi auxilio uxoris principis vigilum effugit. Tamen omni accusatione destitit, id a principiis suis abhorrere declarans. . Gandhi intentionem in Indos vertit; erga indigenas Africae initio simili benevolentia non erat; saepius iniuriis ab Europaeis acceptis autem omnem segregationis formam repudiavisse videtur. Cum anno 1906 Britannici Zulu regno in Natal sito bellum intulerunt,Gandhi Britannicos ut Indos conscriberent hortatus est, arbitratus id rei Indicae utilitatem allaturum. Re vera viginti Indi Gandhi duce per duos menses vulneratis opem tulerunt. Potentia exercitus Britannici visa Gandhi cognovit Britanniarum Regno se non nisi nonviolentia et puro corde resistere posse. Propugnatio Indiae liberandae (1915-1947) Anno 1915 Gandhi in omnem vitam in Indiam rediit, fama se rem Indicam ratione ac usu maxime adiuvisse notissimus. Conventui Indorum gentilicio (Indian National Congress) adiunctus praecipue a Gopal Krishna Gokhale factionis principe ad res Indiae agendas ac populum Indicum cognoscendum introductus est. Gandhi liberales eius viri sententias, qui temperantia modestiaque intra systema laborandum esse affirmavit, secutus eas in speciem plane Indicam commutavit. Gandhi anno 1920 dux factionis factus plus plusque postulare coepit, donec die 26 Ianuarii 1930 Conventus Indorum gentilicius Indiae libertatem declaravit. Anno 1930 primo et die 4 Ianuarii 1932 iterum propugnator libertatis Indiae a Britannis incarceratus et duos annos sine iudicio retentus est. Cum libertas a Britannis agnita non sit, plures disceptationes secutae sunt, tamen variis in provinciis Conventus administrationi interfuit. Ubi Vicerex anno 1939 nullis consultis Germaniae bellum indixit, Gandhi factioque eius regimini auxilium detraxit. Contentiones crescebant, donec Gandhi anno 1942 libertatem sine mora poposcit; Britanni eum cum multis milibus factionis ducum in carcerem coniecerunt. Contra Liga Musulmanorum cum Britannis cooperata civitatem plene Islamicam, quod Gandhi fortiter impugnavit, appetevit. Mense Augusto anno 1947, cum colonia in libertatem missa est, duae civitates liberae, India et Pakistania, natae sunt, Gandhi invito. Dellii Novi die 30 Ianuarii 1948 Gandhi a quodam Nathuram Godse necatus est. Exemplum pacis et pietatis fuit, qui multis admirationi erat. Notae Fontes Libri Bhana, Surendra; Vahed, Goolam H. (2005). The making of a political reformer: Gandhi in South Africa, 1893–1914. Manohar. ISBN 978-81-7304-612-4 Bondurant, Joan Valérie (1971). Conquest of violence: the Gandhian philosophy of conflict. University of California Press Brown, Judith M. 2004. Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand [Mahatma Gandhi] (1869–1948). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press; editio interretialis, Ianuario 2011, accessum 25 Februarii 2012. Brown, Judith M. (25 Octobris 1974). Gandhi's Rise to Power: Indian Politics 1915-1922. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-09873-1 Brown, Judith Margaret (23 Octobris 1991). Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05125-4 Brown, Judith M.; Parel, Anthony (21 Februarii 2011). The Cambridge Companion to Gandhi. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-13345-6 Chadha, Yogesh (1997). Gandhi: a life (Illustrated, reprint ed.). John Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-24378-6 Harold G. Coward (2003). Indian critiques of Gandhi. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-5910-2 Desai, Mahadev Haribhai (1930). "Preface". Day-to-day with Gandhi: secretary's diary. Hemantkumar Nilkanth (translation). Sarva Seva Sangh Prakashan Easwaran, Eknath (1 Augusti 1997). Gandhi, the man: the story of his transformation. Nilgiri Press. ISBN 978-0-915132-96-6 Fischer, Louis (4 Augusti 1997). The life of Mahatma Gandhi. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-638887-6 Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006). Gandhi: the man, his people, and the empire. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25570-8 Gangrade, K. D. (1 Ianuarii 2004). "Role of Shanti Sainiks in the Global Race for Armaments". Moral Lessons From Gandhi S Autobiography And Other Essays. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 978-81-8069-084-6 Hardiman, David (2003). Gandhi in his time and ours: the global legacy of his ideas. C. Hurst & Co.. ISBN 978-1-85065-711-8 Hatt, Christine (12 Aprilis 2002). Mahatma Gandhi. Evans Brothers. ISBN 978-0-237-52308-4 Herman, Arthur (2008). Gandhi and Churchill: the epic rivalry that destroyed an empire and forged our age. Random House Digital, Inc.. ISBN 978-0-553-80463-8 Jai, Janak Raj (1996). Commissions and Omissions by Indian Prime Ministers: 1947-1980. Regency Publications. ISBN 978-81-86030-23-3 Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (28 Februarii 2007). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase Publishing. pp. 160. ISBN 978-0-8160-5458-9 Kumar, Shanti (2006). Gandhi meets primetime: globalization and nationalism in Indian television. University of Illinois Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-252-07244-4 Lapping, Brian (1 Ianuarii 989). End of empire. Paladin. ISBN 978-0-586-08870-8 Lelyveld, Joseph (29 Martii 2011). Great soul: Mahatma Gandhi and his struggle with India. Random House Digital, Inc.. ISBN 978-0-307-26958-4 Majmudar, Uma (2005). Gandhi's pilgrimage of faith: from darkness to light. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6405-2 Miller, Jake C. (2002). Prophets of a just society. Nova Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59033-068-5 Nayyar, Pyarelal (1956). Mahatma Gandhi—the last phase, Vol 1. Navajivan Publishing House. ISBN 0-85283-112-9 Pa??eya, Visva Mohana (1 Ianuarii 2003). Historiography of India's partition: an analysis of imperialist writings. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN 978-81-269-0314-6 Parekh, Bhikhu C. (2001). Gandhi: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 6–9. ISBN 978-0-19-285457-5 Pilisuk, Marc; Nagler, Michael N. (2011). Peace Movements Worldwide: Players and practices in resistance to war. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-313-36482-2 Rudolph, Susanne Hoeber; Rudolph, Lloyd I. (15 Aprilis 1983). Gandhi, the traditional roots of charisma. University of Chicago Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-226-73136-0 Rühe, Peter (5 Octobris 2004). Gandhi. Phaidon. ISBN 978-0-7148-4459-6 Schouten, Jan Peter (30 Septembris 2008). Jesus as guru: the image of Christ among Hindus and Christians in India. Rodopi. ISBN 978-90-420-2443-4 Sharp, Gene (1979). Gandhi as a political strategist: with essays on ethics and politics. P. Sargent Publishers. ISBN 978-0-87558-090-6 Shashi, S. S. (1996). Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. Anmol Publications. ISBN 978-81-7041-859-7 Sofri, Gianni (1999). Gandhi and India: a century in focus. Windrush Press. ISBN 978-1-900624-12-1 Sorokin, Pitirim Aleksandrovich (Martio 2002). The ways and power of love: types, factors, and techniques of moral transformation. Templeton Foundation Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-890151-86-7 Tendulkar, D. G. (1951). Mahatma; life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Delhi: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India Thacker, Dhirubhai (1 Ianuarii 2006). ""Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand" (entry)". In Amaresh Datta. The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature (Volume Two) (Devraj To Jyoti). Sahitya Akademi. pp. 1345. ISBN 978-81-260-1194-0 Todd, Anne M. (2004). Mohandas Gandhi. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7910-7864-8 Fontes primarii Andrews, C. F. (2008) [1930]. "VII – The Teaching of Ahimsa". Mahatma Gandhi's Ideas Including Selections from His Writings. Pierides Press. ISBN 978-1-4437-3309-0 Dalton, Dennis, ed. (1996). Mahatma Gandhi: selected political writings. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87220-330-3 Duncan, Ronald, ed. (Maio 2011). Selected Writings of Mahatma Gandhi. Literary Licensing, LLC. ISBN 978-1-258-00907-6 Gandhi, M. K.; Fischer, Louis (2002). Louis Fischer. ed. The essential Gandhi: an anthology of his writings on his life, work and ideas. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-1-4000-3050-7 Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1928) (paperback). Satyagraha in South Africa (1 ed.). Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House Free online access at Wikilivres.ca (1/e). Pdfs from Gandhiserve (3/e) & Yann Forget (hosted by Arvind Gupta) (1/e). Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1994). The collected works of Mahatma Gandhi. Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. ISBN 978-81-230-0239-2 (100 vol.). Liber accessum interretiale apudonline access (Gandhiserve). Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1940). An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments With Truth (2 ed.). Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. ISBN 0-8070-5909-9 Also available at Wikisource. Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1928). "Drain Inspector's Report". The United States of India 5 (6,7,8): 3-4 Jack, Homer A., ed. (1994). The Gandhi reader: a source book of his life and writings. Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-3161-4 Johnson, Richard L.; Gandhi, M. K. (2006). Gandhi's experiments with truth: essential writings by and about Mahatma Gandhi. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-1143-7 Parel, Anthony J., ed. (2009). Gandhi: 'Hind Swaraj' and Other Writings Centenary Edition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-14602-9 Commentarii in diariis Cribb, R. B. (Augusto 1985). "The Early Political Philosophy of M. K. Gandhi, 1869-1893". Asian Profile 13 (4): 353–360 Hardiman, David (Aprili 2001). "Champaran and Gandhi: Planters, Peasants and Gandhian Politics by Jacques Pouchepadass (Review)". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 11 (1): 99–101 Khan, Yasmin (Ianuario 2011). "Performing Peace: Gandhi's assassination as a critical moment in the consolidation of the Nehruvian state" (abstract). Modern Asian Studies 45 (1): 57–80 Mohanty, Rekha (2011). "From Satya to Sadbhavna". Orissa Review (January 2011): 45–49 Murali, Atlury (Ianuario 1985). "Non-Cooperation in Andhra in 1920–22: Nationalist Intelligentsia and the Mobilization of Peasantry". Indian Historical Review 12 (1/2): 188–217 Norvell, Lyn (1997). "Gandhi and the Indian Women's Movement". British Library Journal 23 (1): 12–27 Prashad, Ganesh (September 1966). "Whiggism in India". Political Science Quarterly 81 (3): 412–431 Sarkar, Jayabrata (18 Aprilis 2006). "Power, Hegemony and Politics: Leadership Struggle in Congress in the 1930s". Modern Asian Studies 40 (2): 333–370 Sarma, Bina Kumari (Ianuario 1994). "Gandhian Movement and Women's Awakening in Orissa". Indian Historical Review 21 (1/2): 78–79 Spodek, Howard (Februario 1971). "On the Origins of Gandhi's Political Methodology: The Heritage of Kathiawad and Gujarat". The Journal of Asian Studies 30 (2): 361–372 Fontes interretiales Keen, Shirin (Vere, 1998). "The Partition of India". Emory University Sannuti, Arun. April 2010 "Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869–1948) – Vegetarianism: The Road to Satyagraha". International Vegetarian Union (IVU) Smith, Colleen (1 October 2006). "Mbeki: Mahatma Gandhi Satyagraha 100th Anniversary (01/10/2006)". Speeches. http://www.polity.org.za Sughosh, India (2 Octobris 2010). "Bapu: Complete Life of Bapu". Life History. http://www.bapu.sughosh.in Nexus externi Gandhi Smriti, www.gandhismriti.gov.in (Administratio Indiae) Mani Bhavan Gandhi Sangrahalaya Gandhi Museum et Bibliotheca, www.gandhi-manibhavan.org "Mohandas K. Ghadhi materials in the South Asian American Digital Archive," www.saadigitalarchive.org "One-Stop Info in Gandhi," www.gandhifoundaiton,net (Gandhi Research Foundation)