Navvye/Olympiad-Problems-CSV huggingface dataset:
Problem: Given a nonnegative real number $x$ , let $\langle x\rangle$ denote the fractional part of $x$ ; that is, $\langle x\rangle=x-\lfloor x\rfloor$ , where $\lfloor x\rfloor$ denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to $x$ . Suppose that $a$ is positive, $\langle a^{-1}\rangle=\langle a^2\rangle$ , and $2<a^2<3$ . Find the value of $a^{12}-144a^{-1}$

Solution: Looking at the properties of the number, it is immediately guess-able that $a = \phi = \frac{1+\sqrt{5}}2$ (the golden ratio ) is the answer. The following is the way to derive that:
Since $\sqrt{2} < a < \sqrt{3}$ $0 < \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}} < a^{-1} < \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} < 1$ . Thus $\langle a^2 \rangle = a^{-1}$ , and it follows that $a^2 - 2 = a^{-1} \Longrightarrow a^3 - 2a - 1 = 0$ . Noting that $-1$ is a root, this factors to $(a+1)(a^2 - a - 1) = 0$ , so $a = \frac{1 + \sqrt{5}}{2}$ (we discard the negative root).
Our answer is $(a^2)^{6}-144a^{-1} = \left(\frac{3+\sqrt{5}}2\right)^6 - 144\left(\frac{2}{1 + \sqrt{5}}\right)$ Complex conjugates reduce the second term to $-72(\sqrt{5}-1)$ . The first term we can expand by the binomial theorem to get $\frac 1{2^6}\left(3^6 + 6\cdot 3^5\sqrt{5} + 15\cdot 3^4 \cdot 5 + 20\cdot 3^3 \cdot 5\sqrt{5} + 15 \cdot 3^2 \cdot 25 + 6 \cdot 3 \cdot 25\sqrt{5} + 5^3\right)$ $= \frac{1}{64}\left(10304 + 4608\sqrt{5}\right) = 161 + 72\sqrt{5}$ . The answer is $161 + 72\sqrt{5} - 72\sqrt{5} + 72 = \boxed{233}$

Answer:  233
Problem: Given a nonnegative real number $x$ , let $\langle x\rangle$ denote the fractional part of $x$ ; that is, $\langle x\rangle=x-\lfloor x\rfloor$ , where $\lfloor x\rfloor$ denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to $x$ . Suppose that $a$ is positive, $\langle a^{-1}\rangle=\langle a^2\rangle$ , and $2<a^2<3$ . Find the value of $a^{12}-144a^{-1}$

Solution: Find $a$ as shown above. Note that, since $a$ is a root of the equation $a^3 - 2a - 1 = 0$ $a^3 = 2a + 1$ , and $a^{12} = (2a + 1)^4$ . Also note that, since $a$ is a root of $a^2 - a - 1 = 0$ $\frac{1}{a} = a - 1$ . The expression we wish to calculate then becomes $(2a + 1)^4 - 144(a - 1)$ . Plugging in $a = \frac{1 + \sqrt{5}}{2}$ , we plug in to get an answer of $(161 + 72\sqrt{5}) + 72 - 72\sqrt{5} = 161 + 72 = \boxed{233}$

Answer:  233
Problem: Given a nonnegative real number $x$ , let $\langle x\rangle$ denote the fractional part of $x$ ; that is, $\langle x\rangle=x-\lfloor x\rfloor$ , where $\lfloor x\rfloor$ denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to $x$ . Suppose that $a$ is positive, $\langle a^{-1}\rangle=\langle a^2\rangle$ , and $2<a^2<3$ . Find the value of $a^{12}-144a^{-1}$

Solution: Find $a$ as shown above. Note that $a$ satisfies the equation $a^2 = a+1$ (this is the equation we solved to get it). Then, we can simplify $a^{12}$ as follows using the fibonacci numbers:
$a^{12} = a^{11}+a^{10}= 2a^{10} + a^{9} = 3a^9+ 2a^8 = ... = 144a^1+89a^0 = 144a+89$
So we want $144(a-\frac1a)+89 = 144(1)+89 = \boxed{233}$ since $a-\frac1a = 1$ is equivalent to $a^2 = a+1$

Answer:  233
Problem: Given a nonnegative real number $x$ , let $\langle x\rangle$ denote the fractional part of $x$ ; that is, $\langle x\rangle=x-\lfloor x\rfloor$ , where $\lfloor x\rfloor$ denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to $x$ . Suppose that $a$ is positive, $\langle a^{-1}\rangle=\langle a^2\rangle$ , and $2<a^2<3$ . Find the value of $a^{12}-144a^{-1}$

Solution: As Solution 1 stated, $a^3 - 2a - 1 = 0$ $a^3 - 2a - 1 = a^3 - a^2 -a + a^2 -a -1 = (a+1)(a^2 - a - 1)$ . So, $a^2 - a - 1 = 0$ $1 = a^2 - a$ $\frac1a = a-1$ $a^3 = 2a+1$ $a^2 = a+1$
$a^6 = (a^3)^2 = (2a+1)^2= 4a^2 + 4a +1= 4(a+1) + 4a + 1= 8a+5$
$a^{12} = (a^6)^2 = (8a+5)^2 = 64a^2 + 80a + 25 = 64(a+1) + 80a + 25 = 144a + 89$
Therefore, $a^{12} - 144 a^{-1} = 144a + 89 - 144(a-1) = 89 + 144 = \boxed{233}$

Answer:  233
Problem: Every card in a deck has a picture of one shape - circle, square, or triangle, which is painted in one of the three colors - red, blue, or green. Furthermore, each color is applied in one of three shades - light, medium, or dark. The deck has 27 cards, with every shape-color-shade combination represented. A set of three cards from the deck is called complementary if all of the following statements are true:
i. Either each of the three cards has a different shape or all three of the cards have the same shape.
ii. Either each of the three cards has a different color or all three of the cards have the same color.
iii. Either each of the three cards has a different shade or all three of the cards have the same shade.
How many different complementary three-card sets are there?

Solution: Adding the cases up, we get $27 + 54 + 36 = \boxed{117}$

Answer:  117
Problem: Every card in a deck has a picture of one shape - circle, square, or triangle, which is painted in one of the three colors - red, blue, or green. Furthermore, each color is applied in one of three shades - light, medium, or dark. The deck has 27 cards, with every shape-color-shade combination represented. A set of three cards from the deck is called complementary if all of the following statements are true:
i. Either each of the three cards has a different shape or all three of the cards have the same shape.
ii. Either each of the three cards has a different color or all three of the cards have the same color.
iii. Either each of the three cards has a different shade or all three of the cards have the same shade.
How many different complementary three-card sets are there?

Solution: Let's say we have picked two cards. We now compare their attributes to decide how we can pick the third card to make a complement set. For each of the three attributes, should the two values be the same we have one option - choose a card with the same value for that attribute. Furthermore, should the two be different there is only one option- choose the only value that is remaining. In this way, every two card pick corresponds to exactly one set, for a total of $\binom{27}{2} = 27*13 = 351$ possibilities. Note, however, that each set is generated by ${3\choose 2} = 3$ pairs, so we've overcounted by a multiple of 3 and the answer is $\frac{351}{3} = \boxed{117}$

Answer:  117
Problem: Every card in a deck has a picture of one shape - circle, square, or triangle, which is painted in one of the three colors - red, blue, or green. Furthermore, each color is applied in one of three shades - light, medium, or dark. The deck has 27 cards, with every shape-color-shade combination represented. A set of three cards from the deck is called complementary if all of the following statements are true:
i. Either each of the three cards has a different shape or all three of the cards have the same shape.
ii. Either each of the three cards has a different color or all three of the cards have the same color.
iii. Either each of the three cards has a different shade or all three of the cards have the same shade.
How many different complementary three-card sets are there?

Solution: Treat the sets as ordered. Then for each of the three criterion, there are $3!=6$ choices if the attribute is different and there are $3$ choices is the attribute is the same. Thus all three attributes combine to a total of $(6+3)^3=729$ possibilities. However if all three attributes are the same then the set must be composed of three cards that are the same, which is impossible. This takes out $3^3=27$ possibilities. Notice that we have counted every set $3!=6$ times by treating the set as ordered. The final solution is then $\frac{729-27}{6}=\boxed{117}$

Answer:  117
Problem: Let $x=\frac{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \cos n^\circ}{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^\circ}$ . What is the greatest integer that does not exceed $100x$

Solution: Note that $\frac{\sum_{n=1}^{44} \cos n}{\sum_{n=1}^{44} \sin n} = \frac{\sum_{n=1}^{44} \cos n}{\sum_{n=46}^{89} \cos n} = \frac {\cos 1 + \cos 2 + \dots + \cos 44}{\cos 89 + \cos 88 + \dots + \cos 46}$ by the cofunction identities.(We could have also written it as $\frac{\sum_{n=1}^{44} \cos n}{\sum_{n=1}^{44} \sin n} = \frac{\sum_{n=46}^{89} \sin n}{\sum_{n=1}^{44} \sin n} = \frac {\sin 89 + \sin 88 + \dots + \sin 46}{\sin 1 + \sin 2 + \dots + \sin 44}$ .)
Now use the sum-product formula $\cos x + \cos y = 2\cos\left(\frac{x+y}{2}\right)\cos\left(\frac{x-y}{2}\right)$ We want to pair up $[1, 44]$ $[2, 43]$ $[3, 42]$ , etc. from the numerator and $[46, 89]$ $[47, 88]$ $[48, 87]$ etc. from the denominator. Then we get: \[\frac{\sum_{n=1}^{44} \cos n}{\sum_{n=1}^{44} \sin n} = \frac{\sum_{n=1}^{44} \cos n}{\sum_{n=46}^{89} \cos n} = \frac{2\cos(\frac{45}{2})[\cos(\frac{43}{2})+\cos(\frac{41}{2})+\dots+\cos(\frac{1}{2})]}{2\cos(\frac{135}{2})[\cos(\frac{43}{2})+\cos(\frac{41}{2})+\dots+\cos(\frac{1}{2})]} \Rightarrow \frac{\cos(\frac{45}{2})}{\cos(\frac{135}{2})}\]
To calculate this number, use the half angle formula. Since $\cos\left(\frac{x}{2}\right) = \pm \sqrt{\frac{\cos x + 1}{2}}$ , then our number becomes: \[\frac{\sqrt{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} + 1}{2}}}{\sqrt{\frac{\frac{-\sqrt{2}}{2} + 1}{2}}}\] in which we drop the negative roots (as it is clear cosine of $22.5$ and $67.5$ are positive). We can easily simplify this:
\begin{eqnarray*} \frac{\sqrt{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2} + 1}{2}}}{\sqrt{\frac{\frac{-\sqrt{2}}{2} + 1}{2}}} &=& \sqrt{\frac{\frac{2+\sqrt{2}}{4}}{\frac{2-\sqrt{2}}{4}}} \\ &=& \sqrt{\frac{2+\sqrt{2}}{2-\sqrt{2}}} \cdot \sqrt{\frac{2+\sqrt{2}}{2+\sqrt{2}}} \\ &=& \sqrt{\frac{(2+\sqrt{2})^2}{2}} \\ &=& \frac{2+\sqrt{2}}{\sqrt{2}} \cdot \sqrt{2} \\ &=& \sqrt{2}+1 \end{eqnarray*}
And hence our answer is $\lfloor 100x \rfloor =  \lfloor 100(1 + \sqrt {2}) \rfloor = \boxed{241}$

Answer:  241
Problem: Let $x=\frac{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \cos n^\circ}{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^\circ}$ . What is the greatest integer that does not exceed $100x$

Solution: \begin{eqnarray*} x &=& \frac {\sum_{n = 1}^{44} \cos n^\circ}{\sum_{n = 1}^{44} \sin n^\circ} = \frac {\cos 1 + \cos 2 + \dots + \cos 44}{\sin 1 + \sin 2 + \dots + \sin 44}\\ &=& \frac {\cos (45 - 1) + \cos(45 - 2) + \dots + \cos(45 - 44)}{\sin 1 + \sin 2 + \dots + \sin 44} \end{eqnarray*}
Using the identity $\sin a + \sin b = 2\sin \frac{a+b}2 \cos \frac{a-b}{2}$ $\Longrightarrow \sin x + \cos x$ $= \sin x + \sin (90-x)$ $= 2 \sin 45 \cos (45-x)$ $= \sqrt{2} \cos (45-x)$ , that summation reduces to
\begin{eqnarray*}x &=& \left(\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}\right)\left(\frac {(\cos 1 + \cos2 + \dots + \cos44) + (\sin1 + \sin2 + \dots + \sin44)}{\sin1 + \sin2 + \dots + \sin44}\right)\\ &=& \left(\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}\right)\left(1 + \frac {\cos 1 + \cos 2 + \dots + \cos 44}{\sin 1 + \sin 2 + \dots + \sin 44}\right) \end{eqnarray*}
This fraction is equivalent to $x$ .  Therefore, \begin{eqnarray*} x &=& \left(\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}\right)\left(1 + x\right)\\ \frac {1}{\sqrt {2}} &=& x\left(\frac {\sqrt {2} - 1}{\sqrt {2}}\right)\\ x &=& \frac {1}{\sqrt {2} - 1} = 1 + \sqrt {2}\\ \lfloor 100x \rfloor &=& \lfloor 100(1 + \sqrt {2}) \rfloor = \boxed{241}

Answer:  241
Problem: Let $x=\frac{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \cos n^\circ}{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^\circ}$ . What is the greatest integer that does not exceed $100x$

Solution: A slight variant of the above solution, note that
\begin{eqnarray*} \sum_{n=1}^{44} \cos n + \sum_{n=1}^{44} \sin n &=& \sum_{n=1}^{44} \sin n + \sin(90-n)\\ &=& \sqrt{2}\sum_{n=1}^{44} \cos(45-n) = \sqrt{2}\sum_{n=1}^{44} \cos n\\ \sum_{n=1}^{44} \sin n &=& (\sqrt{2}-1)\sum_{n=1}^{44} \cos n \end{eqnarray*}
This is the ratio we are looking for. $x$ reduces to $\frac{1}{\sqrt{2} - 1} = \sqrt{2} + 1$ , and $\lfloor 100(\sqrt{2} + 1)\rfloor = \boxed{241}$

Answer:  241
Problem: Let $x=\frac{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \cos n^\circ}{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^\circ}$ . What is the greatest integer that does not exceed $100x$

Solution: Consider the sum $\sum_{n = 1}^{44} \text{cis } n^\circ$ . The fraction is given by the real part divided by the imaginary part.
The sum can be written $- 1 + \sum_{n = 0}^{44} \text{cis } n^\circ = - 1 + \frac {\text{cis } 45^\circ - 1}{\text{cis } 1^\circ - 1}$ (by De Moivre's Theorem with geometric series)
$= - 1 + \frac {\frac {\sqrt {2}}{2} - 1 + \frac {i \sqrt {2}}{2}}{\text{cis } 1^\circ - 1} = - 1 + \frac {\left( \frac {\sqrt {2}}{2} - 1 + \frac {i \sqrt {2}}{2} \right) (\text{cis } ( - 1^\circ) - 1)}{(\cos 1^\circ - 1)^2 + \sin^2 1^\circ}$ (after multiplying by complex conjugate
$= - 1 + \frac {\left( \frac {\sqrt {2}}{2} - 1 \right) (\cos 1^\circ - 1) + \frac {\sqrt {2}}{2}\sin 1^\circ + i\left( \left(1 - \frac {\sqrt {2}}{2} \right) \sin 1^\circ + \frac {\sqrt {2}}{2} (\cos 1^\circ - 1)\right)}{2(1 - \cos 1^\circ)}$
$= - \frac {1}{2} - \frac {\sqrt {2}}{4} - \frac {i\sqrt {2}}{4} + \frac {\sin 1^\circ \left( \frac {\sqrt {2}}{2} + i\left( 1 - \frac {\sqrt {2}}{2} \right) \right)}{2(1 - \cos 1^\circ)}$
Using the tangent half-angle formula , this becomes $\left( - \frac {1}{2} + \frac {\sqrt {2}}{4}[\cot (1/2^\circ) - 1] \right) + i\left( \frac {1}{2}\cot (1/2^\circ) - \frac {\sqrt {2}}{4}[\cot (1/2^\circ) + 1] \right)$
Dividing the two parts and multiplying each part by 4, the fraction is $\frac { - 2 + \sqrt {2}[\cot (1/2^\circ) - 1]}{2\cot (1/2^\circ) - \sqrt {2}[\cot (1/2^\circ) + 1]}$
Although an exact value for $\cot (1/2^\circ)$ in terms of radicals will be difficult, this is easily known: it is really large!
So treat it as though it were $\infty$ . The fraction is approximated by $\frac {\sqrt {2}}{2 - \sqrt {2}} = \frac {\sqrt {2}(2 + \sqrt {2})}{2} = 1 + \sqrt {2}\Rightarrow \lfloor 100(1+\sqrt2)\rfloor=\boxed{241}$

Answer:  241
Problem: Let $x=\frac{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \cos n^\circ}{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^\circ}$ . What is the greatest integer that does not exceed $100x$

Solution: Consider the sum $\sum_{n = 1}^{44} \text{cis } n^\circ$ . The fraction is given by the real part divided by the imaginary part.
The sum can be written as $\sum_{n=1}^{22} (\text{cis } n^\circ + \text{cis } 45-n^\circ)$ . 
Consider the rhombus $OABC$ on the complex plane such that $O$ is the origin, $A$ represents $\text{cis } n^\circ$ $B$ represents $\text{cis } n^\circ + \text{cis } 45-n^\circ$ and $C$ represents $\text{cis } n^\circ$ . Simple geometry shows that $\angle BOA = 22.5-k^\circ$ , so the angle that $\text{cis } n^\circ + \text{cis } 45-n^\circ$ makes with the real axis is simply $22.5^\circ$ . So $\sum_{n=1}^{22} (\text{cis } n^\circ + \text{cis } 45-n^\circ)$ is the sum of collinear complex numbers, so the angle the sum makes with the real axis is $22.5^\circ$ . So our answer is $\lfloor 100 \cot(22.5^\circ) \rfloor = \boxed{241}$

Answer:  241
Problem: Let $x=\frac{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \cos n^\circ}{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^\circ}$ . What is the greatest integer that does not exceed $100x$

Solution: We write $x =\frac{\sum_{n=46}^{89} \sin n^{\circ}}{\sum_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^{\circ}}$ since $\cos x = \sin (90^{\circ}-x).$ Now we by the sine angle sum we know that $\sin (x+45^{\circ}) = \sin 45^{\circ}(\sin x + \cos x).$ So the expression simplifies to $\sin 45^{\circ}\left(\frac{\sum_{n=1}^{44} (\sin n^{\circ}+\cos n^{\circ})}{\sum_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^{\circ}}\right) = \sin 45^{\circ}\left(1+\frac{\sum_{n=1}^{44} \cos n^{\circ}}{\sum_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^{\circ}}\right)=\sin 45^{\circ}(1+x).$ Therefore we have the equation $x = \sin 45^{\circ}(1+x) \implies x = \sqrt{2}+1.$ Finishing, we have $\lfloor 100x \rfloor = \boxed{241}.$

Answer:  241
Problem: Let $x=\frac{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \cos n^\circ}{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^\circ}$ . What is the greatest integer that does not exceed $100x$

Solution: We can pair the terms of the summations as below.
\[\dfrac{(\cos{1} + \cos{44}) + (\cos{2} + \cos{43}) + (\cos{3} + \cos{42}) + \cdots + (\cos{22} + \cos{23})}{(\sin{1} + \sin{44}) + (\sin{2} + \sin{43}) + (\sin{3} + \sin{42}) + \cdots + (\sin{22} + \sin{23})}.\]
From here, we use the cosine and sine subtraction formulas as shown.
\begin{align*}
&\dfrac{(\cos(45-44) + \cos(45-1)) + (\cos(45-43) + \cos(45-2))+ \cdots (\cos(45-23) + \cos(45-22))}{(\sin(45-44) + \sin(45-1)) + (\sin(45-43) + \sin(45-2))+ \cdots (\sin(45-23) + \sin(45-22))} \\  
&= \dfrac{(\cos{45}\cos{44} +\sin{45}\sin{44} + \cos{45}\cos{1} + \sin{45}\sin{1})+ \cdots + (\cos{45}\cos{23} + \sin{45}\sin{23} + \cos{45}\cos{22} + \sin{45}\sin{22})}{(\sin{45}\cos{44}-\cos{45}\sin{44} + \sin{45}\cos{1} - \cos{45}\sin{1}) + \cdots + (\sin{45}\cos{23} -\cos{45}\sin{23} + \sin{45}\cos{22} - \cos{45}\sin{22})} \\ 
&= \dfrac{\sqrt{2}/2(\cos{44} + \sin{44} + \cos{1}+\sin{1} +\cos{43} + \sin{43} + \cos{2} + \sin{2} + \cdots + \cos{23} + \sin{23} + \cos{22} + \sin{22})}{\sqrt{2}/2(\cos{44} -\sin{44} +\cos{1} - \sin{1} + \cos{43}-\sin{43} + \cos{2} -\sin{2} +\cdots + \cos{23}-\sin{23} + \cos{22} - \sin{22})} \\ 
&=\dfrac{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \cos n^\circ + \sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^\circ}{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \cos n^\circ - \sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^\circ}. 
\end{align*}
Since all of these operations have been performed to ensure equality, we can set the final line of the above mess equal to our original expression.
\[\dfrac{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \cos n^\circ + \sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^\circ}{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \cos n^\circ - \sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^\circ} = \frac{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \cos n^\circ}{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^\circ}.\]
For the sake of clarity, let $\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \cos n^\circ = C$ and $\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^\circ = S$ . Then, we have
\[\dfrac{C+S}{C-S} = \dfrac{C}{S} \implies CS+S^2 = C^2-CS.\]
Finishing, we have $S^2+2CS=C^2$ . Adding $C^2$ to both sides gives $(C+S)^2 = 2C^2$ , or $C+S = \pm C\sqrt{2}$ . Taking the positive case gives $S= C(\sqrt{2}-1)$ . Finally,
\[x=\frac{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \cos n^\circ}{\sum\limits_{n=1}^{44} \sin n^\circ} = \dfrac{C}{S} = \dfrac{1}{\sqrt{2}-1} = \sqrt{2} +1 \implies \lfloor{100x\rfloor} = \boxed{241}.\]

Answer:  241
Problem: The function $f$ defined by $f(x)= \frac{ax+b}{cx+d}$ , where $a$ $b$ $c$ and $d$ are nonzero real numbers, has the properties $f(19)=19$ $f(97)=97$ and $f(f(x))=x$ for all values except $\frac{-d}{c}$ . Find the unique number that is not in the range of $f$

Solution: From $f(f(x))=x$ , it is obvious that $\frac{-d}{c}$ is the value not in the range. First notice that since $f(0)=\frac{b}{d}$ $f(\frac{b}{d})=0$ which means $a(\frac{b}{d})+b=0$ so $a=-d$ . Using $f(19)=19$ , we have that $b=361c+38d$ ; on $f(97)=97$ we obtain $b=9409c+194d$ . Solving for $d$ in terms of $c$ leads us to $d=-58c$ , so the answer is $\boxed{058}$

Answer:  058
Problem: The function $f$ defined by $f(x)= \frac{ax+b}{cx+d}$ , where $a$ $b$ $c$ and $d$ are nonzero real numbers, has the properties $f(19)=19$ $f(97)=97$ and $f(f(x))=x$ for all values except $\frac{-d}{c}$ . Find the unique number that is not in the range of $f$

Solution: Begin by finding the inverse function of $f(x)$ , which turns out to be $f^{-1}(x)=\frac{19d-b}{a-19c}$ . Since $f(f(x))=x$ $f(x)=f^{-1}(x)$ , so substituting 19 and 97 yields the system, $\begin{array}{lcl} \frac{19a+b}{19c+d} & = & \frac{19d-b}{a-19c} \\ \frac{97a+b}{97c+d} & = & \frac{97d-b}{a-97c} \end{array}$ , and after multiplying each equation out and subtracting equation 1 from 2, and after simplifying, you will get $116c=a-d$ . Coincidentally, then $116c+d=a$ , which is familiar because $f(116)=\frac{116a+b}{116c+d}$ , and since $116c+d=a$ $f(116)=\frac{116a+b}{a}$ . Also, $f(f(116))=\frac{a(\frac{116a+b}{a})+b}{c(\frac{116a+b}{a})+d}=116$ , due to $f(f(x))=x$ . This simplifies to $\frac{116a+2b}{c(\frac{116a+b}{a})+d}=116$ $116a+2b=116(c(\frac{116a+b}{a})+d)$ $116a+2b=116(c(116+\frac{b}{a})+d)$ $116a+2b=116c(116+\frac{b}{a})+116d$ , and substituting $116c+d=a$ and simplifying, you get $2b=116c(\frac{b}{a})$ , then $\frac{a}{c}=58$ . Looking at $116c=a-d$ one more time, we get $116=\frac{a}{c}+\frac{-d}{c}$ , and substituting, we get $\frac{-d}{c}=\boxed{58}$ , and we are done.

Answer:  58
Problem: The function $f$ defined by $f(x)= \frac{ax+b}{cx+d}$ , where $a$ $b$ $c$ and $d$ are nonzero real numbers, has the properties $f(19)=19$ $f(97)=97$ and $f(f(x))=x$ for all values except $\frac{-d}{c}$ . Find the unique number that is not in the range of $f$

Solution: Because there are no other special numbers other than $19$ and $97$ , take the average to get $\boxed{58}$ . (Note I solved this problem the solution one way but noticed this and this probably generalizes to all $f(x)=x, f(y)=y$ questions like these)

Answer:  58
Problem: The function $f$ defined by $f(x)= \frac{ax+b}{cx+d}$ , where $a$ $b$ $c$ and $d$ are nonzero real numbers, has the properties $f(19)=19$ $f(97)=97$ and $f(f(x))=x$ for all values except $\frac{-d}{c}$ . Find the unique number that is not in the range of $f$

Solution: By the function definition, $f(f(x))$ $f$ is its own inverse, so the only value not in the range of $f$ is the value not in the domain of $f$ (which is $-d/c$ ).
Since $f(f(x))$ $f(f(0)=0$ (0 is a convenient value to use). $f(f(0))=f(f(\tfrac{b}{d})=\dfrac{a\cdot\tfrac{b}{d}+b}{c\cdot\tfrac{b}{d}+d}=\dfrac{ab+bd}{bc+d^2}=0 \Rightarrow ab+bd=0$
Then $ab+bd=b(a+d)=0$ and since $b$ is nonzero, $a=-d$
The answer we are searching for, $\dfrac{-d}{c}$ (the only value not in the range of $f$ ), can now be expressed as $\dfrac{a}{c}$
We are given $f(19)=19$ and $f(97)$ , and they satisfy the equation $f(x)=x$ , which simplifies to $\dfrac{ax+b}{cx+d}=x\Rightarrow x(cx+d)=ax+b\Rightarrow cx^2+(d-a)x+b=0$ . We have written this quadratic with roots $19$ and $97$
By Vieta, $\dfrac{-(d-a)}{c}=\dfrac{-(-a-a)}{c}=\dfrac{2a}{c}=19+97$
So our answer is $\dfrac{116}{2}=\boxed{058}$

Answer:  058
Problem: The function $f$ defined by $f(x)= \frac{ax+b}{cx+d}$ , where $a$ $b$ $c$ and $d$ are nonzero real numbers, has the properties $f(19)=19$ $f(97)=97$ and $f(f(x))=x$ for all values except $\frac{-d}{c}$ . Find the unique number that is not in the range of $f$

Solution: Notice that the function is just an involution on the real number line. Since the involution has two fixed points, namely $19$ and $97$ , we know that the involution is an inversion with respect to a circle with a diameter from $19$ to $97$ . The only point that is undefined under an inversion is the center of the circle, which we know is $\frac{19+97}{2}=\boxed{58}$ in both $x$ and $y$ dimensions.

Answer:  58
Problem: Let $S$ be the set of points in the Cartesian plane that satisfy
If a model of $S$ were built from wire of negligible thickness, then the total length of wire required would be $a\sqrt{b}$ , where $a$ and $b$ are positive integers and $b$ is not divisible by the square of any prime number. Find $a+b$

Solution: Let $f(x) = \Big|\big||x|-2\big|-1\Big|$ $f(x) \ge 0$ . Then $f(x) + f(y) = 1 \Longrightarrow f(x), f(y) \le 1 \Longrightarrow x, y \le 4$ . We only have a $4\times 4$ area, so guessing points and graphing won't be too bad of an idea. Since $f(x) = f(-x)$ , there's a symmetry about all four quadrants , so just consider the first quadrant. We now gather some points:
We can now graph the pairs of coordinates which add up to $1$ . Just using the first column of information gives us an interesting lattice pattern:
1997 AIME-13a.png
Plotting the remaining points and connecting lines, the graph looks like:
1997 AIME-13b.png
Calculating the lengths is now easy; each rectangle has sides of $\sqrt{2}, 3\sqrt{2}$ , so the answer is $4(\sqrt{2} + 3\sqrt{2}) = 16\sqrt{2}$ . For all four quadrants, this is $64\sqrt{2}$ , and $a+b=\boxed{066}$

Answer:  066