NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
294
BIKANER WOOL AND ITS IMPROVEMENT [ Vol. XXII, Part IV
spite of varied climates, which in many cases are too humid, with high rainfalls,
as compared with its,arid home-region, the breed is reported flourishing in Assam
[15], Orissa [27], and Madras [6]. The breed already yields an enormous influence
in Rajputana, Punjab, and United Provinces, and, with the growing interest to
introduce the breed in southern and central India, Bikaner sheep and wool have
become important in all regions of India. With a view to explore the possibilities
and the potentialities for improvement of this sheep and wool, 8 representative
commercial samples were analyzed in the Wool Department, University of Wyo-
ming, Laramie, Wyoming.
POSITION OF BIKANER WOOL
Bikaner wool is unique for its length, color, quality, and loftiness as a product
best suited for carpets. It always commands the highest prices in the local markets
as compared with other wools, which usually are double in amount by weight [4].
Because of its superior quality, the wool is mixed by the traders with inferior wools
from adjoining areas and exported to foreign countries under the trade name of
Vicanere wool [4]. In recent years, wool from certain localities has been so highly
appreciated for its fineness and quality that certain authorities have been inclined
to believe that the wool is more suitable for clothing purposes than for carpet
manufacture.
A part of the wool produced is utilized by farmers in hand spinning and weav-
ing for making articles of native dress and blankets, while a certain percentage
goes into the manufacture of carpets and rugs. A major portion is exported from
the home-region to markets in other parts of India for use in the mills and for foreign
trade. The 3 types of wool—Magra, Chokla, and Nali—-classified according to the
area of production, fineness, and quality, are all mixed together before export.
The wool that goes to the mills is utilized for making carpets, blankets, and woolen
materials. The lofty character of the wool makes it fairly suitable for the manu-
facture of hosiery and blankets. Better sorts are sometimes used by the mills for
tweeds.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Origin of the Wool Samples
The wool samples analyzed in this study were obtained through the courtesy
of Mr. B. N. Handa, Superintendent, Government Livestock Farm, Hissar, India.
In order that the samples should represent purity of the type, these were originally
obtained from the Bikaner State from a dealer in the Sujanghar area who is well
known for handling good quality of wool. A total of 28 samples were received.
Only 8 samples representing extreme and average types in fineness and other
qualities were picked by visual examination for study.
preparation of Samples
Each sample was divided into 8 approximately equal subsamples. Great
care was taken to prevent breaking of the fibers. By taking small portions from
each subsample, several duplicate composite samples could be used for the study of
different characteristics.
December, 1952] G. S. MAHAL, A. JOHNSTON AND R. H. BURNS
297
variation is from 23.8 per cent to 98.9 per cent in the former case, and from 1.1 per
cent to 76.2 per cent in the latter.
TABLE I
Results of Medullation Test
Sample number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Average
Percentage of liber types
by count
True wool
57.8
39.4
38.9
96.5
16.8
94.6
80.7
44.6
58.6
Heterotype
41.9
49.3
39.9
3.5
49.1
5.4
19.3
30.1
29.8
Hair
—
11.3
21.2
—
33.6
—
—
25.3
11.4
Kemp
0.3
—
—
—
0.5
—
—
—
0.1
Percentage of total libers
by cross—section image
Non¬
medullated
91-4
54.1
51.4
98.9
23.8
98.1
95.8
52.4
70.7
Modullated
8.6
45.9
48.6
11
76.2
1.9
4.2
47.6
29.3
From both of the above tests it is evident that there is a wide range of varia-
tion in the true wool fibers of the samples. In samples Nos. 4 and 6 the true wool
content approaches very near to total freedom from medullation. According to
various workers, such as Bryant [11], Barker [8], Elphick [18], Waters [32], and
Nanda, Singh, and Mogre [26], medullation in wool is probably inherited. The
results thus show high potentialities for total elimination of medullation in the
breed and for the evolution of a true wool type of sheep by selective breeding.
Townend and McMahon [30], by subjecting large quantities of Romney wool to
various stages of manufacture, noticed that hairiness up to the extent of 6 per cent,
as determined by McMahon's Mcdullometer, did not affect the processing properties
of the wool and produced no marked difference in the appearance and handle of
either woven or knitted fabrics. The hairiness could not be detected in dyed cloths.
An extremely low medullation content in samples Nos. 4, 6, and 7 shows that suit-
able sorts can be picked up from the Bikaner wool which are suitable for the manu-
facture of clothing material.
Stretched Fiber Length Measurements
The stretched length measurements of the different fiber types and the per-
centages of variation are shown in Table II.
The range of average length in the true wool fibers is from 6.25 cm. to 14.33 cm.,
with a coefficient of variability range of from 7.8 per cent to 26.2 per cent. The
298 BIKANER WOOL AND ITS IMPROVEMENT [Vol. XXII, Part IV
average length of 800 fibers in all samples was 10.38 cm., with a coefficient of vari-
ability of 31.0 per cent.
TABLE II
Stretched Fiber Length Measurements of Fiber Types
Sample number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
True wool
Mean
(cm.)
10.24
9.07
8.28
14.33
G.25
13.87
10.39
10.57
Coefficient
of
Variability
(%)
12.2
10.7
14.6
18.0
15.4
20.2
1S.3
7.8
Heterotype
Mean
(cm.)
18.17
13.47
14.47
17.58
9.81
17.08
13.60
13.05
Coefficient
of
variability
(%)
14.7
12.6
11.2
17.3
16.1
15.9
12.1
14.3
Hair
Mean
(cm.)
—
1016
—
15.21
13.31
—
—
14.77
Coefficient
of
variability
(%)
—
7.8
—
10.5
12.9
—
—
10.4
The range of average length in the heterotypical fibers is from 9.81 cm. to 18.1
cm., with a coefficient of variability range of from 11.2 per cent to 16.1 per cent.
The average length of 714 fibers in all samples was 14.34 cm., with a coefficient of
variability of 23.1 per cent.
The range of average length in the 4 samples for hair fibers is from 10.16 cm.
to 15.21 cm., with a coefficient of variability range of from 7.8 per cent to 12.9
per cent. The average length of 400 fibers in all samples as a whole was 13.21 cm.,
with a coefficient of variability of 20.7 per cent.
Although there is good uniformity in the fiber types of individual samples, the
variability is larger if the samples are taken as a whole. The highest variability
is noticeable in the true wool fibers, and the lowest in the hair fibers. If the hair
and heterotypical fibers were eliminated through selective breeding, there would
be ample scope to improve the length of the wool.
Fiber Thickness Measurements
The thickness measurements of the entire samples and of the fiber types, with
the variabilities, are given in Table III.
The average range in the thickness measurements of 8 samples is from 26.55µ
to 47.23µ, with a coefficient of variability range of from 32.1 per cent to 59.2 per
cent. The average fiber diameter of 8 samples as a whole is 34.68µ. The minimum
measurement was 12.5µ for a true wool fiber, and the maximum was 117.5µ for a
hair fiber.
December, 1952] G. S. MAHAL, A. JOHNSTON AND R. H. BURNS 299
The range of average thickness for the true wool fibers in the 8 samples is from
16.45µ to 31.00µ, with a coefficient of variability range of from 3.8 per cent to
35.9 per cent. The average thickness of 800 fibers in all samples was 24.16µ with
a coefficient of variability of 29.9 per cent.
TABLE III
Thickness Measurerments of Entire Samples and of the Fiber Types
Sample number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Entire sample
Mean
(µ)
26.77
34.80
34.66
27.56
46.67
26.55
33.18
47.23
Coefficient
of
variability
(%)
49.2
43.3
30.2
32.1
59.2
34.2
32.2
42.8
True wool
Mean
(µ)
16.45
23.83
22.03
25.52
19.85
25.70
28.12
31.00
Coefficient
of
variability
(%)
18.6
16.8
12.9
30.5
3.8
35.9
25.6
17.8
Hetorotype
Mean
(µ)
33.80
32.05
31.00
49.62
30.80
44.80
49.10
40-45
Coefficient
of
variability
(%)
29-9
19.9
20.3
36.8
24.8
18.7
14.3
20.8
Hair
Mean
(µ)
—
55.45
—
45.65
71.62
—
—
17.68
Coefficient
of
variability
(%)
—
29.5
—
15.3
25.5
—
—
25.2
The range of average thickness for heterotypical fibers in all samples is from
30.80µ to 49.62µ, with a coefficient of variability range of from 14.3 per cent to
36.8 per cent. The average thickness of 800 fibers in the 8 samples as a whole was
37.74µ, with a coefficient of variation of 26.8 per cent.
The range of average thickness for hair fibers in the 4 samples is from 45.65µ,
to 71.62µ, with a coefficient of variation range of from 15.3 per cent to 29.5 per cent.
The average thickness of 400 fibers in the 4 samples was 63.56µ, with a coefficient
of variation of 33.4 per cent.
The thickness measurements show a high variation both in the entire samples
measured individually and in the fiber types. The finest samples, with thicknesses
of 26.55µ, and 26.77µ, show variations of 34.2 per cent and 49.2 per cent. The
greatest uniformity is evident in the true wool fibers, whereas the hair fibers are
the most variable. Barker [7], in his report on the Shantung and Woozie sheep of
China, does not favor a variation higher than 25 per cent in wools to be used for
clothing material. In the present study the variation is higher than 25 per cent
both in the entire samples and in the fiber types. For an intended improvement
of wool as a whole, it appears that the greatest emphasis should be on attaining
uniformity of fineness of fibers. The wide range of variation in the true wool of
from 3.8 per cent to 35.9 per cent indicates high potentialities' to achieve this
objective.
300
BIKANER WOOL AND ITS IMPROVEMENT [Vol. XXII, Part IV
The amount of medullation and the thickness measurements of different
samples apparently show a direct relation to one another. The thickness increases
with increase of medullation in the sample. But, even with such increases, hair
fibers with a thickness of 30µ and wool fibers with a thickness of 50µ are also en-
countered, which evidently shows that thickness alone does not control medulla-
tion in wool; some other factor, probably genetic, is partly, if not entirely.
responsible.
Contour-Ratio Measurements
The contour-ratio measurements in the 8 samples are shown in Table IV.
The average contour ratio in the 8 samples is 1.284, with a range of from 1.170
to 1.382. According to trade opinion, the spinning properties of wool can be divid-
ed into 3 groups [31]—i.e., very good spinning, with a contour ratio of below 1.2;
average spinning, with a contour ratio of from 1.2 to 1.22; and fair spinning, with
a contour ratio above 1.22. The results thus show that although considered as
a whole, the wool samples show fair spinning proporty—1 of the samples possesses
very good, 1 medium, and 6 fair spinnability. The potentialities for a very good
spinning property, however, are evident.
The contour ratio seems to be related to the percentage medullation in the
different samples. With increase of medullation there is an increase in contour
ratio and a poorer spinning property. This is further proof to the general assump-
tion that increase in medullation lowers the spinning property of wool.
TABLE IV
Contour-Ratio Measurements in the Different Samples
Sample number
1
2
3
4
5
0
7
8
Average
contour
ratio
1.282
1.300
1.355
1.226
1.373
1.170
1.256
1.382
No. of
fibers
measured
104
101
100
130
100
160
130
180
Surface Scale Structure on Fiber Types
The various characteristics of the scale structure of the fiber types in the
different samples are shown in Table V.
December, 1952] G. S. MAHAL, A. JOHNSTON AND R. H. BURUS 301
The average number of scales on true wool fibers per in. length is 1,900, with a
range of from 1,700 to 2,300; and on heterotypical and hair fibers is 2,788, with a
range of from 1,800 to 3,400. When calculated on the basis of 100µ width and the
same length, the average number is 10,797, with a range of from 9,000 to 13,571,
in the former case; and 5,332, with a range of from 3,214 to 7,750, in the latter.
The average scale height is 16.7µ on the true wool fibers and 26.4µ on heterotypical
and hair fibers.
Although the number of scales per unit length on the heterotypical and hair
fibers seems larger than that on the true wool fibers, it is half as much when com-
pared on the equal basis of the thickness of the fiber.
The number of scales along the margin per 100µ length of fiber was also worked
out in the fiber types. The average for the true wool fibers was 6.4, with a range
of from 5½ to 8; that for the heterotype and hair fibers was 5, with a range of from
4 to 7.
A relationship of scale height to fiber thickness, designated as the "Scale
Index" by Hausman [21], was also calculated for fiber types in individual samples.
TABLE V
Results of the surface scale structure of fiber types
Sample number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Average
No. of scales
per in. length
True
wool
2,300
2,000
1,900
1,800
1,800
1,900
1,800
1,700
1,900
Hair or
heterotype
2,400*
3,400t
2,200†
1,800*
4,200t
2,000*
3,000*
3,200†
2,788
No. of scales per in.
length and 100µ width
True
wool
11,250
12,500
10,611
9,000
10,000
13,571
10,000
9,444
10,797
Hair or
heterotype
6,000*
4,473†
6,111†
3,214*
5,250t
3,000*
7,750*
4,848t
5,332
Average scale
height (µ)
True
wool
17.2
16.8
16.8
16.0
18.0
13.2
18.0
17.6
16.7
Hair or
hetorotype
36.6*
17.0†
36.4†
22.4*
26.8†
24.4*
29.0*
20.0†
26.4
* Heterotypical fibers.
† Hair fibers.
The average figure for the fiber types was 0.972 for wool, 0.687 for hetero
types, and 0.464 for hair fibers. It appears that as the diameter of the fiber increases
there is a decrease in the "Scale Index".
11
TYPES AND DIMENSIONS OF FIBER SCALES FROM THE
WOOL TYPES OF DOMESTIC SHEEP AND WILD LIFE*
By GURBAX SINGH MAHAL, ALEXANDER JOHNSTON, and ROBERT H. BURNS
Wool Department, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming
(Received for publication on 1 February, 1952)
T HE study of the surface structure of wool and hair fibers is an important
aid in the identification of fiber types. Besides affording a knowledge of fiber
types, such a study would help determine the " healthy " state of fibers with respect
to the number of scales per unit length and their shape and dimensions. The
visible scale height seems to be an important characteristic for differentiation
between wool and related hair fibers such as mohair and camel's hair. A special
study of the epidermal structure is sometimes necessary in blends of wool and
related fibers which can only be distinguished by the difference in the scale formation.
Apart from ascertaining the number of scales per unit length of the fiber and
their shape in relation to the felting properties of wool, some workers have tried
to relate these characteristics to the different species or breeds of sheep. A study
of the surface scales—the form and surface dimensions of the scales—was made
on fibers from a number of different wool samples representing different breeds and
countries, including some wild sheep. The study included determinations of the
number of scales per unit length of the fiber, the scale formation or outline, and
the scale height, with some dimensional measurements ; the object was to ascertain
whether these characteristics were : (a) related to different species or breeds of
sheep ; (b) specific for different wool types; (c) specific enough to enable identifica-
tion of fiber types in mixed wools.
All classes of wools, such as fine, medium, long, crossbred, and carpet types
were represented in the study ; in the case of mixed wools, the different types of
fibers, such as true wool, hair, and hemp, were examined separately.
CLASSIFICATION OF SCALE STRUCTURE
Various workers have tried to classify scale structure by a description of their
general outline. Blyth [1] described two types of scale structure on the wool fibers—
the wool type and the reticulate type. The former in its simplest form is of coronal
pattern, each scale encircling the shaft of fiber and resting in the cup formed by the
scale beneath it. In very fine fibers, the ectal edge of the scales is convexly curved,
is faintly and irregularly serrate, and points distally. In thicker fibers, more than
one scale to the circumference can be seen ; these tend to be broad and shallow,
*Reproduced from Textile Research Journal, Vol. XXI, No. 2, February, 1951
Printed in U. S. A.
305
12
December, 1952 ] G.S. MAHAL, A. JOHNSTON AND R. H. BURNS 307
Hausman [6], while classifying the scale forms [8] from his drawings of the
hairs of 166 fur-bearing animals [7], was able to find an interesting and surprising
relationship in the scales of infrahominid mammals—namely, that the size of the
scales (i.e., their anteroposterior width) and their forms varied together in a constant
way. Moreover, the size (and hence also the forms) of the scales bore a relation-
ship not to the species of mammals bearing the hair but to the diameter of the hair
shaft bearing the scales. In the finest and the softest hairs, only the coronal type
of scales is found. In fibers less than 8.50µ in diameter the scales are coronal, while
in fibers coarser than this they are imbricate. Hausman found that there was a
decrease in the "scale index "(scale height/ diameter) in the fibers as the diamet
This indicated that there was a pulling-out of the scales with increase in diameter.
He also found that cuticle scales may vary according to the cross section of the
fiber. In circular and eliptical cross sections, the form is different from that in a
flattened cross section, which is like a duck bill where the tip has a flattened portion
and is different from the middle and base. The differences in form, according to
Hausman, are the results of the differences in the gradual drying-out of the hair
shaft plus the effects of wear on the free ectal edges of the scales, particularly at
the tips of the shaft.
Litterscheid and Abeler [12] modified the method of accentuating the scales
by preliminary treatment of the fibers : by bleaching pigmented hairs, if necessary,
with 10 per cent hydrogen peroxide for from 3 to 7 days ; or by soaking the fibers
in 60 per cent to 63 per cent nitric acid for 6 hrs. and drying. They stained the
fibers with carbol fuchsin so that a deposit of dye was left along the edges of the
scales on drying. From drawings of this material they delineated and described in
detail parts of the hairs of fur-bearing animals.
Butarin [3] made a study of cuticular scales of the fleeces of wild sheep (Argali
Arhar) and local fat-rumped sheep in Russia (Kirghiz sheep), and noticed that the
cuticular scales of kemp fibers are polyhedral, mostly hexagonal, and form a regular
symmetrical pattern. The transitional and downy fibers were found to have
annular scales. He stated further that the scales of wild sheep resemble one another
but differ from those of domestic sheep.
Skinkle [20], from the measurement of visible scale height and the quantity
S 3 /D, where S represents the scale height and D the diameter of the fiber, was able
to differentiate between wool and mohair fibers as follows :
1. The value of S is below 17.0µ in the case of wool fibers.
2. The value of S is above 18.5µ in the mohair fibers.
3. If the value of S is between 17.0µ and 18.0µ, the hair is probably wool.
This could be verified by determining the value of S 3 /D, which is
below 140 for wool fibers.
4. If the value of S is between 18.0µ and 18.5µ, the hair is probably mohair.
This could be verified by calculating the value of S 3 /D, which is above
160 for mohair fibers.
308
TYPES OF DOMESTIC SHEEP AND WILD LIFE [Vol. XXII, Part IV
Skinkle stated further that no cases had arisen in his experience which did
not fall into one of the above classes, but it is possible that some wools may have
values of S slightly above 18µ but values of S 3 /D of 140 or less.
Mirzoeva [17] made microscopic investigations' of the form and development
of the scales of the wool of purebred Merino, Turkmenian fat-rumped, lomud, and
Erek sheep, and concluded that the number of scales for a given length of wool
(256µ) and the form and area (in µ 2 ) are specific to the individual breeds studied
and must be regarded as genetically controlled. He stated further that, contrary
to the findings of D. Udolskii (whose methods were used in his study), no definite
influence of breed on the number of rows of scales on a hair could be ascertained.
Mathews [15] stated that the number of scales necessary to cover the circum-
ference of the fiber varies considerably, depending upon the diameter of the fiber.
The average height of the scales is approximately 28µ and the average width approxi-
mately 36µ. In the finest wools each one of the scales is large enough to encircle
the shaft of the fiber, but with increased fiber diameter the number of scales necessary
to cover the circumference increases proportionately. Mathews further asserted
that the visible scale height in fine wools is from 8µ to 10µ and in coarse wools it
may increase to 18µ. The number of scales along the edge of the fiber per 100µ
length averages 10 or 12, but may range from 6 to 14.
The origin of the samples used in the present study are given in detail in
Appendix Table I and may be summarized as follows :
Fleece type
Wild life
Fine-wool breeds
Medium-wool breeds
Long-wool breeds
Crossbred breeds
Mixed-wool breeds
TOTAL
No. of samples by origin
U. S.
4
2
10
4
3
1
24
England
0
0
2
2
0
4
8
Asia
0
0
0
0
0
28*
28
Australia
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
Total
4
3
12
6
3
33
61
* India —12 samples
China — 9 samples
Turkey— 4 samples
Austria— 1 sample
Russia — 2 samples
Indian J. Vet. Sci., vol. XXII, Part IV]
PLATE XXII
FIG. 1. Common pattern of scales revealed by surface structure of wool fibers.
Coronal, or wool type of scales, and imbricate forms are represented.
FIG. 2. Common pattern of scales revealed by surface structure of hair fibers. Polygonal (penta and
hexagonal) and reticulate (flattened) forms are represented.