NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
62
CLIMATE AND ANIMAL HEALTH
[Vol. XXII, Part I
TABLE I
Observation on pulse rate, respiration rate, body temperature, body weight and haemoglobin of the steers
Months
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
February
March
April
May
Range
Mean
Standard deviation
Air
temperature
°F.
90
99
84
83
84
85
76
68
67
66
75
86
91
66.99
81.1
±10.1
Relative
humidity
per cent
26
23
81
85
82
66
43
53
47
58
47
44
47
23.85
54.0
±19.9
Pulse rate
(2) per
minute
58
59
45
46
50
58
56
53
50
50
47
49
51
45.59
51.6
±4.8
Respiration
(2) rate per
minute
29
35
19
14
20
23
16
12
13
10
13
23
29
10.35
19.7
±7.7
Body (2)
temperature
°F.
101.3
101.3
100.3
101.2
101.2
100.9
101.2
100.8
100.9
100.3
101.0
101.3
101.6
100.3.101.6
101.0
±0.41
Body
weight (2)
pounds
367
365
359
370
380
379
393
397
400
393
387
402
352
352.402
380.0
±17.0
Hæmoglobin
(1) gm./100
ml.
10.4
10.4
91
8.4
8.9
8.5
9.7
11.0
11.6
12.0
10.3
10.3
9.7
8.4.12.0
10.0
±0.62
(1) Hæmoglobin values are averages of 6 animals.
(2) The rest are averages of 3 consecutive days.
TABLE II
Results of analysis of variance for various characters
Sources of
variations
Between months
Between animals.
Interaction months
and animals
Error
Total
Degrees of
freedom
12
5
60
156
233
Characters
Pulse rate
minute
s.s.
4622.7265
2648.3590
2078.1966
1577.3333
10926.6154
m.s.
385.2272**
529.6718**
34.6366**
10.1111
..
Respiration rate
minute
8.3.
14561.6667
1316.0513
1480.9487
691.3333
18050.0000
m.s.
1213.4722**
263.2103
24.6825**
4.4316
..
Body temperature °F
s.s.
3036.8889
987.9487
801.8291
3021.3333
7848.0000
m.s.
253.0741
197.5897**
13.3638
19.3675
..
Body weight
pounds
s.s.
60194.0174
68404.2564
18827.5213
6890.6667
154316.4615
m.s.
5016.1681**
13680.8513**
313.7920**
44.1709
Degrees
of
Freedom
12
5
..
60
77
Hæmoglobin gm.
100 ml. blood
m.s.
91.1780
42.2514
..
40.2030
173.6330
s.s.
7.5981*
8.4502**
..
0.6700
** Highly significant value of F. ratio is obtained.
March, 1952]
D.
N.
MULLICK
AND
N.
D.
KEHAR
63
TABLE III
Partial correlations of different physiological reactions
Variables
AT×P
×R
×BT
×BW
×Hb
RH held constant
0.312
0.934*
0.500*
—0.350*
—0.724*
Variables
RHXP
XR
XBT
XBW
XHb
AT held constant
—0.494*
—0.681*
—0.238
—0.322
—0.268
* Significant at 5 per cent level. AT—air temperature, RH—relative humidity, P—Pulse,
R—respiration, BT—body temperature, BW—body weight, Hb—hæmoglobin
TABLE IV
Multiple regression equations
Estimated values
Pulse rate
Respiration rate
Body temparature ○ F
Body weight lbs.
Hæmoglobin, gm.
Equations
0.321T—0.117H+32.31
0.750T—0.096H—35.57
0.021T—0.005H+99.57
—0.121T—0.226H+402.00
—0.022T—0.009H+12.26
T—air temperature, in F. H—relative humidity in per cent
RESULTS
The results are given in Table I. The statistical analysis, analysis of variance,
partial correlation coefficients and multiple regression equations, [Snedecor, 1946]
are shown in Tables II, III and IV.
Climate. It was observed from Table I that the maximum and minimum
mean temperatures were 99°F. and 66° F. The highest temperature in June was
generally accompanied by the lowest humidity value. At this time 'loo'
(dry hot wind), blows with great velocity and wide variations are observed in
the daily maximum and minimum temperatures (106 and 85). The highest relative
humidity was 85 per cent in August and lowest was 23 per cent in June, with an
average of 54 per cent. There was a sudden increase in the humidity from 23 per
cent in June to 81 per cent in July after the outbreak of monsoon.
64
CLIMATE AND ANIMAL HEALTH
[Vol. XXII, Part I,
Pulse. The same table shows that the maximum and minimum pulse rates
were 59 in June and 45 in July, with an annual average of 52 beats per minute.
"With the onset of the rainy season, the pulse rate declined by 15 and it took some
time for the animals to get used to the change in weather when the pulse rate gradually
returned to normal. The variations in the rate between months and animals were
highly significant according to analysis of variance (Table II). Using partial
correlation coefficient whereby, the effect of one variable could be held constant,
the correlation between air temperature and pulse rate became not significant
whereas when the air temperature was held constant, the relationship between
relative humidity and pulse rate was highly significant with a reverse order
(Table III).
A comparison of the multiple regression co-efficient in the regression equation
for the pulse rate in Table IV, appears to suggest that one degree rise in air tem-
perature is about three times as important as one per cent decrease in relative humi-
dity so far as their influence on pulse rate is concerned.
Respiration
Table I shows that the maximum and minimum respiration rates were 35
in June and 10 in February, with an average of 19.6 per minute. With the onset
of the monsoon there was a decline in rate from 35 to 10 per minute and it remained
practically the same throughout this period. The analysis of variance showed
that the changes due to months and between the animals were highly significant.
The partial correlation coefficient showed that both the values due to air tem-
perature and relative humidity were highly significant and the latter had an opposite
effect on the respiration rate.
An examination of the regression coefficient shows that every degree increase
in air temperature was responsible for 8 times as much increase in the rate of re-
spiration as was caused by one per cent increase in relative humidity.
Body temperature
The maximum and minimum body temperatures were 101.6° F. in May and
100.3° F. in February with an average of 101.0° F.
There was no variation between the months but within the animals the changes
were significant by the above method.
The value between air and body temperature was significant when humidity
was held constant but when air temperature was kept constant it was not significant
though it had an opposite effect (Table II).
Table III shows that each degree rise in air temperature is about four times
as efficient as one per cent decrease in relative humidity in the change in body tem-
perature. Humidity seems to lower the body temperature.
Body weight
The maximum and minimum body weights (Table I) were 402 in April and 359
in July with an average of 380 pounds. There were significant variations both
between the months and the animals.
March, 1952]
D.
N.
MULLICK
AND
N.
D.
KEHAR
65
The correlation coefficients showed that a significant relation exists between
the atmospheric temperature and live weight. The same was true in the multiple
regression equation (Table IV) where humidity was the dominant factor for reducing
the body weight.
Haemoglobin
The maximum and minimum values were 12.0 in February and 8.4 in August
with an average of 10.0 gm. hæmoglobin per 100 ml. of blood (Table I).
The variations due to months and animals were highly significant.
The correlation between air temperature and hæmoglobin was highly significant
and both the temperature and the moisture exercised an influence in lowering the
values. The same was true also in multiple regression equation but the air tem-
perature had more influence than moisture.
DISCUSSION
The above results indicate that air temperature appears to be a major factor
for influencing variations in pulse rate, respiration rate, body temperature, body
weight and hæmoglobin content in animals (Tables III and IV). From Table I,
it appears that relative humidity below 80 per cent plays a minor role in influencing
variations in the physiological reactions. These observations are in agreement
with those of Rhoad [1936], Regan and Gaalaas [1945], Seath and Miller [1946],
Richardson [1938], and Reik and Lee [1948]. An examination of Fig. 1
reveals that changes in the air temperature and relative humidity were
closely related to variations in the constituents recorded. The trends indicate that
a clear correlation exists between air temperature and the physiological reactions.
Pulse rate and body temperature changes show that only a small relationship existed
with air temperature.
It is noted that the most variable physiological reaction with the change in
the air temperature is the respiration rate. In comparatively less sweating animals,
like cattle, one of the physical mechanisms is to compensate for their inability
to sweat by the acceleration of the respiration rate. Thus this rate is first
affected due to the changes in the environmental conditions long before the changes
in other physiological mechanisms occur. The present investigation has shown
that the change in the respiratory rate reflects even the minute changes in the air
temperature. It appears, therefore, that respiration rate is the most sensitive
index of the animal's feeling of discomfort.
In an attempt to express the rather complex physiological value in a single
figure, Rhoad [1944] has devised a formula for calculating heat tolerance in cattle.
This formula better known as 'Iberia formula' has been widely used for assaying
the heat tolerance of animals in other countries. After critical examination, it is
found that there are some limitations in applying it to the animals in the tropics.
The atmospheric temperature in the shed (85-95° F. or higher) may have to be
worked out in the tropics according to the adaptability of the animals under existing
conditions. This can be seen by comparing the results of the studies undertaken
by Seath and Miller [1947] and the present authors, as both have been made under
13
CLIMATE AND ANIMAL HEALTH
[VOL XXII, PART I
FIG. 1. Air temperature, relative humidity, pulse rate, body temperature, body weight, and hæmoglobin for variations
of the animals
68
CLIMATE AND ANIMAL HEALTH]
[VOL. XXII, PART I,
hæmoglobin were recorded with rise in air temperature. Change in the respiration
rate was most conspicuous.
It appeared that a relative humidity above 80 per cent had some influence
in causing the variations of the reactions.
Analysis of variance, partial correlation coefficient and multiple regression
equations were used for statistical analysis of the data.
It appears that the respiration rate is one of the indices for assaying heat toler-
ance of animals.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the suggestions of Mr. A.R. Roy, the Statisti
cian, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi in the statistical analysis.
REFERENCES
Brobeck, J. R. (1948). Food intake as a mechanism of temperature regulation. Yale Jour. Bisl.
Med. 20, 245
Brody, Samuel (1945). Bioenergetics and growth. Reinhold publishing Corp, New York, U.S.A.
——(1948).
Environmental physiology, with special reference to domestic animals.
Univ. Mo., College of Agric., Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. 423
Gaalaas, R. F. (1945). Effect on atmospheric temperature of body temperature and respiration
rate of Jersey cattle. Dairy Sci. 28, 555-563
Kelley, R. B. (1932). Zebu (Brahman) cross cattle and their possibilities in north Australia.
Commonwealth of Australia, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pamphlet
No. 27
Lee, D. H. K. and Phillips, R. W. (1949). Assessment of the adaptability of livestock to climatic
stress. J. Anim. Sci. 7, 391-425
Mullick, D. N. (1950). Climate and Animal Health. Indian Fym. 11, 148-150
Newcomer, H. S. (1922). Determination of Haemoglobin. J. Biol. Chem. 23, 569-574
Phillips, R. W. (1948). FAO Agricultural studies No. 1, Breeding livestock adapted to un-
favourable environment, Food and Agricultural Organization of United Nations, Washing-
ton, D. C.
——(1950).
Improving livestock under tropical and subtropical conditions, FAO Organi-
zation, United Nations, Washington
Ragsdale, A. C., Samuel Brody, Thompson, H. J. and Worstell, W. D. (1948). Environmental
physiology, with special reference to domestic animals. II. Influence of temperature,
50° F. to 105° F. on milk production and feed consumption in dairy cattle. Univ. Mo.,
College of Agric., Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. 425
Regan, W. M. and Richardson, G. H. (1938). Reaction of dairy cow to changes in the environ-
mental temperature. Dairy Sci. 21, 73-79
Reik, R. F. and Lee, D. H. K. (1948). Reactions to hot atmosphere of Jersey cows in milk.
J. Dairy Res. 15, 219-226
Rhoad, A. O. (1944). The Iberia heat tolerance test for cattle. Trop. Agric. 21, 162-164
——(1941).
Climate and livestock production. Ybook Agric. U. S. D. A. 508-516
——(1936).
The influence of environmental temperature on body temperature and
the respiration rate of Jersey cattle. J Dairy Sci. 26 36-44,
Seath, D. M. and Miller, G. D. (1946). The relative importance of high temperature and high
humidity as factors influencing respiration rate, body temperature and pulse rate of dairy
cows. J. Dairy Sci. 20, 465-472
Snedecor, G. W. (1946). Statistical methods, collegiate press, Ames, la: U.S.A.
ABSTRACTS
Immunity in cattle vaccinated with Brucella abortus strain 19 by the
subcutaneous and intracaudal routes during calfhood. BUDDLE, M. B. (1948).
Aust. Vet. J. 24, 262-271
I N this paper a comparison has been made of the immunity of groups of heifers
vaccinated during calfhood with Brucella abortus strain 19 vaccine by subcuta-
neous and intracaudal routes. The two vaccinated groups together with an
untreated control group were exposed to a single ineffective dose of virulent Brucella
abortus organisms through conjunctiva during their first pregnancy.
The intracaudal route had been shown, previously, to be more efficient for
agglutinin production, than either the subcutaneous or intradermal routes, using a
lesser dose. The other advantages claimed are that the inoculation into the tip
of the tail presents little technical difficulties, and there is freedom from severe and
persistent local reactions. Also there is economy in the use of the vaccine.
The present studies in this paper were undertaken—(1) to obtain further evi-
dence on the claim that the intracaudal route is superior to subcutaneous route in
inducing serological responses ; (2) to determine if some correlation could be estab-
lished between serological response after vaccination and immunity to infection and
abortion; and (3) to determine if the intracaudal vaccination of heifer calves, during
calfhood with 1 c.c. of strain 19 vaccine did induce a higher degree of resistance to
infection as compared with the subcutaneous method of vaccination.
A preliminary experiment, in this paper, demonstrates a highly significant
superiority of the intracaudal route over the subcutaneous route, in inducing sero-
logical responses of unmated yearling heifers.
No correlation could be established between the serum agglutinin titres of the
vaccinated animals, two weeks after inoculation, with the length of the gestation
period, thus suggesting that agglutinin response cannot always be accepted as a
measure of immunity.
Also, no significant difference could be demonstrated in the infection or abortion
rates, percentages of live calves or mean lengths of gestation periods. This might
suggest that the intracaudal method of vaccination of heifer calves is as efficient
as subcutaneous method.
The author concludes by saying that under conditions of this experiment—
Intracaudal calfhood vaccination of heifer with cotton strain 19 failed to demons-
trate a higher degree of resistance to infection or abortion than that shown by a
similar group of animals immunized by the subcutaneous method, when exposed to
infection during their first pregnancy. [M. S. J.]
69
15
ORIGINAL ARTICLES
SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN SEMEN QUALITY, AND
HAEMOGLOBIN AND CELL VOLUME CONTENTS OF
THE BLOOD IN BULLS
By D. P. MUKHERJEE and P. BHATTACHARYA, Animal Genetics Section, Indian
Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar
(Received for publication on 10 July 1951)
(With Plates IV—V)
I N farm animals spermatogenetic activity goes on continuously in the male
after the attainment of puberty and they are capable of mating throughout
the year. In recent years, however, many investigators have shown that the
quality and quantity of semen in certain species of farm animals vary during different
seasons of the year. Most of these studies have been carried out in Western
Countries. In India, Shukla and Bhatacharya [1947] have shown seasonal varia-
tions in the semen quality of indigenous sheep and goats.
In bulls Weatherby et al. [1940] found slight monthly variations in volume,
sperm concentration and longevity of spermatozoa in bull semen. Anderson [1941]
reported seasonal variation in volume and motility of spermatozoa only. Erb
el al. [1942] reported highly significant difference between seasons in all the factors
of bull semen studied, except pH. Phillips and his co-workers [1943,a] observed
significant or highly significant variations in all the characteristics of semen except
in volume and motility of spermatozoa. Lasley and Bogart [1943] reported that
beef type bulls produce semen of high quality between May to September. Swan-
son and Herman [1944] found seasonal variation in pH, initial motility, viability
and abnormality of spermatozoa. Salisbury [1944] observed seasonal trend in
motility and sperm concentration. Anderson [1945,b] and Mercier and Salisbury
[1946] carried out systematic studies on the effect of season on semen attributes
Anderson observed highly significant monthly differences in sperm concentration,
motility and pH of semen. The latter authors obtained highly significant month
to month variations in sperm motility, concentration abnormal sperms, methylene
blue reduction time and fertilising capacity of semen and significant variation in
volume but not in total number of spermatoza and motility.
A fact which clearly emerges out of this review is the lack of uniformity in the
results obtained by the various authors. This may be due particularly to the
different climatic conditions under which the experiments were carried out.
Difference in breeds, age, management and nutrition might also be contributory
factors. The quality and quantity of semen are dependent on all the factors enu-
merated above. It is, therefore, important that in a study relating to seasonal
effect on semen, the various factors which may have any influence on the
73
74
SEASONAL VARIATION IN SEMEN QUALITY
[Vol. XXII, Part II,
characteristics of semen should be uniform and controlled. Unless sexually mature
animals of the same age and breed are taken for experimentation and are kept under
uniform managerial and dietary regime during the entire experimental period,
seasonal influence, if any, on the various characteristics of semen may be masked,
minimised or exaggerated.
Indian bulls (Bos indicus) belong entirely to a different species from the experi-
mental animals of the previous workers. - Climatic conditions in this country also
are greatly different from those in places where the experiments were conducted.
For these reasons and in view of the contradictory results obtained by the various
workers it was considered worth while to study the trend of seasonal influence on
semen characteristics of Indian bulls.
Seasonal variations in the composition of blood of Indian dairy cattle have
been observed by Pal et al. [1945]. Attempts have, therefore, been made in this
study to determine the relationship, if any, of the seasonal changes in the blood
with the variations in the semen characteristics.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The experimental animals comprised of six Kumauni hill bulls. All the bulls
were of four years of age excepting one (No. 187) which was seven years old at the
commencement of the experiment. During the entire experimental period the
bulls were kept under uniform managerial and dietary regime. The ration supplied
to each bull consisted of a concentrate mixture containing crushed gram 30 parts,
crushed barley 50 parts, wheat bran 20 parts and common salt 1 oz. Concentrate
mixture was fed according to body-weight. The quantity given per day to the
bulls was as follows:
Bull number
.200
187 and 240
194,195 and 248
Average body weight
500 lb.
450 lb.
400 lb.
Concentrate given
4 1b.
3 lb.
2 1b.
In addition to the above concentrate each animal received 10-lb. of roughage and
was allowed free grazing for six hours a day.
The bulls selected were in good health having good sex desire and sex ability.
During the pre-experimental period they were trained to mount an anoestrous hill
cow confined in a service crate and to ejaculate semen in the artificial vagina.
In order to estimate the monthly variations in semen quality and quantity of
individual bulls, fortnightly collections of two successive ejaculates at an interval
June, 1952] D. P. MUKHERJEE &
P.
BHATTACHARYA
75
of 10 to 15 minutes were made from each bull. Each sample of semen was examined
for the following characteristics:—
(1) Colour and consistency.
(2) Volume.
(3) Initial motility of spermatozoa.
(4) Initial pH of semen.
(5) Sperm concentration per c.c. of semen.
(6) Total number of spermatozoa per ejaculate.
(7) Percentage of abnormal spermatozoa.
Observations of each sample for its colour and consistency, volume, pH and
initial motility were made immediately after collection. Colour and consistency
were determined by the visual appearance of the semen; volume was measured to
the nearest 1/100 of c.c.; the degree of motility was scored in terms of criteria as
recommended by Erb et al. [1948]; pH was determined by means of B. D. H.
capi lator and sperm concentration was dete mined by the usual haemacytometor
method in terms of millions per c.c.
To determine the percentage of abnormal spermatozoa the following method
of fixation and staining was adopted. A thin film of diluted semen in normal saline
was made on a slide. Spermatozoa in the film were then fixed in the vapour of
two per cent. osmic acid solution for about 15 minutes. Care was taken to expose
spermatozoa in the film to osmic vapour within 5 to 10 minutes after collection of
the semen sample. The film was then allowed to dry in the room temperature
and was later stained with 0.2 per cent. aqua solution of methyl violet for 20 to 25
minutes, washed in tap water and dried. One hundred spermatozoa were examined
at random under oil immersion lens and the number of various types of abnormal
spermatozoa were noted.
Besides the above mentioned semen characteristics, the 'reaction-time' of
the animals at the time of collection of semen was also noted. The 'reaction-
time' which expresses the degree of sex vigour was determined by the time interval
between the release of the bull near the cow and the actual moment of ejaculation.
A blood sample was also drawn once every fortnight from the jugular vein of
each bull for determining the haemoglobin and cell volume contents. The sample
of blood was drawn on the day following the collection of semen. Haemoglobin
percentage was determined by New Comer's method [1923] and cell volume by the
method of Napier and Das Gupta [1941].
2
Vol. XXII, Part II,
the entire experimental period
1946-47
A
112.33
M
3.38
2.20
6.20
720.42
1,450.25
5.79
9.34
44.95
86.7
22
0.00
M
36.17
M
3.42
2.00
6.26
665.63
1,272.13
6.33
9.59
45.95
92.7
31
1.01
J
30.0
M
3.13
2.02
6.33
670.83
1,195.84
5.04
8.70
42.67
93.5
50
5.25
J
76.46
M
3.10
2.31
6.37
636.00
1,428.36
3.25
8.25
40.13
85.6
81
16.89
A
103.28
Th. M
3.56
2.82
6.33
569.58
1,834.62
5.63
7.90
38.14
85.9
80
6.11
S
54.67
Th. M
3.29
2.33
6.34
500.42
1,180.97
3.96
7.42
38.99
85.4
65
4.01
O
51.53
Th. M
3.40
2.30
6.34
456.46
1,069.31
5.75
8.18
40.73
79.0
72
5.17
N
78.21
M
3.54
2.49
6.33
711.04
1,721.14
5.75
8.24
41.55
68.9
64
0.04
D
91.88
M
3.27
2.14
6.48
676.42
1,386.99
6.33
8.07
41.03
61.7
62
0.21