NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
September, 1952] D. P. MUKHERJEE AND P. BHATTACHARYA 195
two blood constituents, critical difference (C. D.) at five per cent level between
seasons was worked out and the results are presented in Table IV.
TABLE IV.
Critical difference at five per cent level of haemoglobin and cell volume contents of blood
in rams and goats in different seasons
Percentage of Hb. in blood of
rams
Percentage of Hb. in blood of
goats
Percentage of C. V. in blood
of rams
Percentage of C. V. in blood
of goats
Value of
C.D.
0.24
0.28
1.22
0.92
Average of seasons arranged in
ascending order
Autumn
(6.92)
Autumn
(6.25)
Autumn
(32.96)
Autumn
(27-87)
Winter
(7.71)
Winter
(6.60)
Summer
(33.96)
Summer
(29.78)
Summer
(7.72)
Summer
(6.69)
Spring
(34.21)
Winter
(30.58)
Spring
(7.74)
Spring
(6.92)
Winter
(35.07)
Spring
(31.23)
In the table, seasons under the same bar did not vary significantly. It is seen
from the table that the blood samples were poorest with regard to the two charac-
teristics in autumn. In spring, the two blood constituents of goats and haemoglobin
contents in rams were highest. Although, the percentage of cell volume in the
blood of rams was highest in winter it did not differ significantly from that in
spring.
Table V shows variation in average air temperature, humidity in different
seasons.
TABLE V
Variation in average air temperature, humidity and rainfall in different seasons during
the year 1946-47
Average air temperature (°F.)
Average humidity (in per cent)
Average rainfall (in inches)
Autumn
88.43
69.00
5.09
Winter
63.03
65.66
0.52
Spring
75.40
45.33
0.57
Summer
90.60
54.00
7.38
196
SEASONAL VARIATION IN RAMS AND GOATS
[Vol. XXII, Part III,
Spring was characterised by a moderate air temperature and lowest humidity
and rainfall, whereas, autumn had a very high air temperature with highest humidity
and high rainfall (Table V).
Data regarding sperm concentration per c.c. of semen and total number of
spermatozoa per ejaculate in different seasons, as obtained by Shukla and Bhatta-
charya [1948] are given in Table VI. It is evident from the table that like the
blood constituents, the sperm concentration and total number of spermatozoa were
also lowest in autumn and highest in spring in both the species.
TABLE VI
*Seasonal variation in sperm concentration and total number of spermatozoa in rams,
goats during the year 1946-47
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Rams
Sperm
Concentration
per c.c. of
semen
(in millions)
1919
2752
2814
2362
Total number of
spermatozoa
(in millions)
1221
1696
1850
1627
Goats
Sperm con-
centration
per c.c. of semen
1950
2968
3525
2615
Total
number of
spermatozoa
1456
1713
2234
1878
*Data obtained through the courtesy of Mr. D. D. Shukla and Dr. P. Bhattacharya
The results presented above show that the trend of variation in the two blood
constituents and semen characteristics during different seasons in rams and goats
were parallel. Furthermore, the trend of seasonal variation in the two blood
constituents were the same as that reported in bulls by Mukherjee and Bhattacharya
[1947]. Thus, it appears that the effect of season upon the blood and semen quality
was similar in bulls, rams, and goats. In these species of farm animals, high air
temperature associated with high humidity and rainfall as found in autumn brought
about a deterioration in the semen and blood characteristics studied. In spring,
when the atmospheric temperature was moderate with low humidity and scanty
rainfall, the semen qualities improved and the blood also became richer in haemoglobin
and cell volume. It seems, therefore, that the mechanisms by which air tempera-
ture, humidity, and rainfall affect reproductive function and blood constituents in
bulls, also come into play in rams and goats.
September, 1952] D. P. MUKHERJEE AND P. BHATTACHARYA 197
SUMMARY
Seasonal variation in haemoglobin and cell volume contents of blood from
9 rams and 8 male goats were studied for one year.
Haemoglobin and cell volume contents of blood were highly variable among
animals and among seasons.
In both rams and goats haemoglobin content was found to be highly variable
between months within seasons.
Cell volume of blood in goats was found to vary significantly between months
within season but it was not so in case of rams.
It was found that in these animals, the seasonal trends in semen attributes and
blood constituents were similar. The quality of semen and blood was found to be
superior in spring, i.e., from February to April and inferior in Autumn, i.e., from
August to October.
REFERENCES
Napier, L. E. and Das Gupta, C. R. (1941). Haemotological Technique. Thacker, Spink & Co.,
Calcutta
New Comer, H. S. (1923). J. Biol. Chem. 56, 569
Shukla, D. D. and Bhattacharya, P. (1947). (Abst. Proc. Ind. Sci. Cong. Part 3, 215-216.)
In press
Shukla, D. D. and Bhattacharya, P. (1948). (Abst. Proc. Ind. Sci. Cong. Part 3, 24 & 25.)
In press
AVIAN
SALMONELLOSIS
STUDIES ON SALMONELLA
GALLINARUM
By S. B. V. RAO, S. NARAYAN, D. R. RAMNANI and J. DAS, Poultry Research
Section, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh
(Received for publication on 14 September 1951)
(With Plates XI to XVI)
T HE first outbreak of Salmonellosis due to a motile organism in a commercial
flock of fowls in India was recorded in 1949 by Iyer et al. [1950]. Prior to this
only once S.gallinarum was recovered from a single hen [Cooper and Naik, 1931].
However, duck Salmonellosis was reported in the Army Development Farms by
Rao [1946]. Hitherto India had been free from S. pullorum/gallinarum infection
in chickens though the disease is prevalent all over the world. An extensive survey
initiated by this Section in 1945 revealed little evidence of its presence in most part
of India. In the year 1950, three outbreaks of Salmonellosis occurred in widely
separated areas in India. Two of these were due to paratyphoid organisms, while
the third one was caused by S. gallinarum, the fowl typhoid organism.
Fowl typhoid is a disease of young adults rather than of old birds and much
less of baby chicks. Brookes and Rhodes [1923] found that certain strains of
S. gallinarum produced in young chicks lesions indistinguishable from those of S.
pullorum infection. In North-Central U. S. A. the disease mainly affects young
adults and rarely chicks [Bushnell, 1948]. In England it is most common in adults
but has also been recorded in baby chicks [Menzies, 1947]. In South Africa the
disease is erratic, attacking exclusively one breed on a farm or only chicks, and in
others adults [Coles, 1948]. In Hawaii, sporadic outbreaks of acute form in chicks
and chronic form in adults are reported [Fitzgerald, 1947]. In Australia adult
mortality due to S. gallinarum is unknown [Leynen, 1939].
Beudette [1925], and Komarov [1932] isolated S. gallinarum from the yolks
of chicks and ovaries of the adult hens. This made them believe that contact
infection might result between mature birds and carriers, and that the infection
might be passed through the eggs. Beach and Davis [1927] concluded that trans-
mission through the egg was possible in the light of their studies on S. gallinarum
in baby chicks and the ovarian lesions in adults, the latter being indistinguishable
from those caused by S. pullorum. Egg transmission studies were made by Simms
[1945], the organism being isolated from yolks of fertile eggs, dead embryos, ailing
baby chicks and from the ovaries of reactor hens.
S. gallinarum closely resembles S. pullorum and it is difficult to differentiate
them. Van Heelsbergen [1929], Manninger [1930], Miessner [1930], Haupt [1930],
Wagner [1934] and other European workers have considered the two organisms
identical. Smith [1915] and Smith and Ten Brock [1915] worked exhaustively on
199
7
Indian J. vet. Sci. VOL. XXII, Part III ]
PLATE XI
FIG. 1. A peracute case of Fowl typhoid.
PLATE XII
[Indian J. vet. Sci. VOL. XXII, Part III
FIG. 2. Liver, gizzard, proventricular and heart lesions in adult fowl.
FIG. 3. Lung and heart lesions in baby chicks.
Indian J. vet. Sci. VOL. XXII, Part III ]
PLATE XIII
FIG. 4. Rabbit septicaemic lesions on heart, stomach and intestines.
PLATE XIV
[Indian J. vet. Sci, VOL. XXII, Part III
FIG. 5. Necrotic lesions of intestines, liancer haemorrhage in proventriculus, enlarged spleen, and
follicular enteritis in the adult fowl.
September, 1952]. S. B. V. RAO, S. NARAYANAN, D. R. RAMANI AND J. DAS 201
ulcers were observed in the affected portions particularly near the terminal part of
the intestines. The gall bladder was usually distended with very dark green bile
and the same was noticed in the fluid evacuations. About the third week, involve-
ment of the ovaries were noticed in a few cases. Most of the ova were healthy
but one or two bluish or greenish angular ova could be noticed on minute examina-
tion. (Plate XII, fig. 2 and Plate XIV, fig. 5.)
After the cessation of mortality, cases of ruptured liver and yolk peritonitis
were often seen in the post-mortems for over six months as a sequel to the disease,
Such livers presented a mass of cicatrices of healed lesions with chalky deposits.
After a removal of the reactors, from survivors of the flock, cases of yolk peritonitis
decreased, but those of ruptured livers persisted. The liver cultures were however
negative for Salmonella.
Histopathology. The average blood picture of adults in peracute cases showed
the following counts,
Erythrocytes
Leucocytes
2,300,000 per c.mm.
138,000 „
„
The Leucocytes showed a heavy increase. In one rare instance the blood
smear showed organisms.
Neutrophiles
Eosinophiles
Basophiles
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Average differential count
66.7 per cent
1.9 per cent
0 per cent
24 per cent
7.4 per cent
The above figures, which are an average of several series of observations, show
decrease of lymphocytes and increase of neutrophiles.
In subacute cases the anaemic changes were so profund that blood appeared
watery. The heart tissue on examination showed disintegration of the muscle
fibres and infiltration with mono-nuclear plasma and inflammatory cells. The
liver showed disintegration of hepatic vessel walls, and infiltration of tissue with
inflammatory cells in acute and peracute cases, whereas in chronic cases fibreoblastic
changes coupled with necrosed areas were evident.
In acute cases the lesions were not characteristic enough for a diagnosis inde-
pendent of laboratory tests but later, enlargement of the spleen, lesions of the heart
coupled with the absence of the organism in the blood suggested fowl typhoid.
Symptoms and lesions in baby chicks. A natural outbreak of the disease in baby
chicks in the brooder house caused 21 to 63 per cent mortality in different pens,
starting from the sixth day with a peak about the ninth day, and then decreased
by the third week.
The mortality in the natural outbreak in adult birds ranged from 13 per cent
in White Leghorn to 21 per cent in Rhode Island Red birds. The male birds suffered
much less than the female of the same breed. In peracute and acute cases there
7A
202
STUDIES ON SALMONELLA
GALLINARUM
[Vol. XXII, Part III,
were no characteristic symptoms or lesions, though the organism could be regularly
recovered from the liver and heart blood.
When the course was prolonged, the chicks were found to huddle around the
hover, while a few isolated themselves showing marked dyspnoea and droopiness.
Diarrhoea was not always present in chicks less than a week old, but older ones had
greyish fluid evacuations and pasting of the vent.
In acute cases no lesions were seen, but in more protracted ones the liver showed
multiple pin-point haemorrhages, green and yellow stripes of discolouration, or
miliary necrotic foci in varying degree. Unabsorbed yolk with a greenish sheen,
lesions of greyish white necrotic nodules on heart wall and distortion of its shape
were also observed. In some, stripes of petichiae in the proventriculus at the
gizzard-end, lung lesions ranging from a slight congestion to pneumonia and rare
lesions of irregular necrosis, or scattered white nodules were found. Experimental
infection assumed a peracute form and hence lesions were not observed.
(Plate XII, fig. 3.)
Experiments with chronic carriers of Salmonella gallinarum
Twenty eight reactors were reared in isolation for four months for experimental
observation. When autopsied there were four 'no lesion' cases, which were negative
for cultural tests as well. Among the rest there were six (one cock and five hens)
whose end titres ranged from 1 to 20 to 1 to 80. The remaining birds were all showing
high titres up to 5,180 and were culturally positive. The cock bird showed healed
heart and liver lesions, but was culturally negative.
Severe chronic ovarian lesions (Plates XV and XVI, figs. 6 and 7) were found in
the last group, while the low reacting hens showed but one or two aberrated ova
with abnormal yolk contents. Organism were however regularly recovered from
them.
Summary of lesions in chronic carriers. The lesions which [were sequel to
ovarian dysfunction were typical of Salpingitis, as described by Bunyea [1926]
caused by S. pullorum, and were seen in fowl typhoid as well.
Egg production of Reactors. The average egg production of the farm flock was
over 60 per cent during February, March, April and May, but for the same period the
reactors averaged 19.5 per cent during the first month but later the production
dwindled down to zero in the course of a further three months, when they were des-
troyed for examination.
Incidence of the disease in hatches from carrier eggs. A pen of 24 reactor hens
were mated to a reactor cock and 48 eggs from this pen were collected. The shells
were disinfected in 5 per cent warm solution of dettol and dried, and placed in a
small incubator and the resulting hatch was brooded in isolation.
The results of the incubation were as follows:—
Infertiles
Dead germs
Dead embryos
Number hatched out
14 or 71 per cent fertility
9
19
6 or 17.6 per cent Hatchability
Indian J. vet. Sci. VOL. XXII, Part III ]
PLATE XV
FIG. 6. Mis-shapen ova cystic ovary.
PLATE XVI
[Indian J. vet. Sci. VOL. XXII, Part III
FIG. 7. Chronic yolk peritonitis and cystic ovary.
206
STUDIES ON SALMONELLA GALLINARUM [Vol. XXII, Part III,
Both strains differ from the intermediate type 'B' of pullorum by the fermen-
tation of xylose and dextrin and from intermediate type 'A' by the non-production
of gas as well as fermentation of xylose and dextrin. Therefore the chick and
adult strains are identical and belong to the same species S. gallinarum. (Table I.)
TABLE I
Carbohydrate fermentation reactions
Sugars
Lactose
Sucrose
Glucose
Mannite
Maltose
Salicin
Dulcite
Mannose
Sorbitol
Laevulose
Dextrin
Raffinose
Rhamnose
Galactose
Xylose
Arabinose
Adonitol
Inositol
Standard
pullorum
organism
(S.p. 17A)
—
—
+
+
—
—
—
+
—
+
—
—
+
+
+ (late)
+
—
—
No. 586
Chick
organisms
—
—
+
+
+
—
+
+
—
+
+
+
+
+
+(late)
+
—
—
No. 399
Adult
organism
—
—
+
+
+
—
+
+
—
+
+
+
+
+
+(late)
+
—
—
The disease was however completely eradicated by five repeated monthly tests
with an improved rapid whole blood antigen [Rao 1950].
SUMMARY
The occurrence of an explosive outbreak of fowl typhoid, which took a heavy
toll of the breeding stock on a large poultry farm, for the first time in India is des-
cribed.
September, 1952] S. B. V. RAO, S. NARAYANAN, D. R. RAMANI AND J. DAS
207
A virulent strain of the organism was isolated from eggs, baby-chicks and tissues
of the adult fowl, and classified as S. gallinarnm. The outbreak was controlled
and the disease was eradicated by blood testing of the stock.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We gratefully acknowledge the helpful guidence of Mr. S. G. Iyer, Officer-in-
Charge, Poultry Research Section at every stage of the work.
REFERENCES
Literature
Beach, J. R. and Davis, D. E. (1927). Quoted by Barger, and Card, L. E. Disease of poultry
(1947) 125. Bailliere, Tindell & Cox., London
Beudette, F. R. (1925). J. A. V. M. A., 67, 741, Sixth Edition. Billiere, Tindell & Cox, London
Bunyea, H. (1926). J. A. V. M. A., 70, 645
Bushnell, L. D. (
). Diseases of poultry by Biester, H. E. and Schwarte, L. H. Second
edition (1948) IOWA State College Press, Ames, IOWA. 279-287
Coles, J. D. W. (
). Quoted by Blount, W. P. Diseases of poultry (1947), p. 481, Bailliere
Tindell & Cox, London
Cooper, H. and Naik, R. N. (1931). Indian J. vet. Sci. I, 99
Fitzerald, J. C. (
). Quoted by Blount, W. P. Diseases of poultry (1947) p. 512, Baillier
Tindell & Cox, London
Hadley et al. (1917).
Haupt, H. (1930).
Quoted by Bushnell, L. D.
Hendrickson, J. M. (1927)
Hinshaw, W. R. (1941)
Quoted by Bushnell, L. D., J. A. V. M. A., 70, 629
Hinshaw, W.R. and Taylor, T. J. (1933) J. A. V. M. A., 82, 645
Iyer, S. G., Rao, S. B. V. and Narayanan, S. (1950). Indian Poult. Gaz., 34, 12
Klein, E. (1889). Quoted by Bushnell, L. D.
Komarov, A. (1927). Vet. Rec., 12, 1455
Leynen (1939). International Review of Poult. Sci. XI
Lucet, A. (1891).
Manninger, R. (1929)
Quoted by Bushnell, L. D.Ibid
Menzies, D. W. Quoted by Blount, W. P. Diseases of poultry (1947). p. 415, Bailliero, Tindell
& Cox, London
Miessner, H. (1930).
Moore, B. A. (1895)
Quoted by Busnnell, L. D.
Mulsow, A. W. (1919). Jour. Inf. Dis., 25, 135
Pfeiler, W. (1920).
Pfeiler, W. & Roepke, W. (1917).
Quoted by Bushnell, L. D.
Roberts, E., Severens. J. M. and Card, L. E. (1939, a). Proc. of the VII World Poultry Congress,
Cleveland, 431
8
208
STUDIES ON SALMONELLA QALLINARUM [Vol. XXII, Part III
Rao, S. B. V. (1946). Indian vet. J., 22, 279
Rao, S. B. V. (1950). Under publication
Severens, J. M., Roberts, B. and Card, L. E. (1942). Poult. Sci., 21, 478
Simms, B. T. (1946, a). Quoted by Bushnell, L. D.
Smith, Th. (1915). J. med. Res. ; 31, 547
Smith, Th. and Ten Broek, C. (1915). J. med. Res., 51, 503
Stafseth, H. J. and Corbutt, A. C. (1940). Amr, J. vet. Res., 1, 76
Van Heels Bergen (1929).
Van Roekel, H. (1937).
Van Straaten and Te Hennepee
Quoted by Bushnell, L. D.
(1918).
Younie (1941). Canada J. Comp. Med., 5, 164
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND YEARLY AND
SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF MAIN CONTAGIOUS DIS-
EASES IN THE MADHYA PRADESH
By N. C. KAUSHASH, M.R.C.V.S., Deputy Director of Veterinary Services (Diseases),
Madhya Pradesh
(Received for Publication on 21 December 1951)
(With four text-figures)
A LL the available records relating to the main contagious diseases in Madhya
Pradesh, with the exception of merged states for which no records could be had
prior to 1950, were collected for the fifteen, year period from 1936 to 1950 and ana-
lysed, and the yearly, seasonal, divisional and regional incidences as per rainfall and
agricultural tracts respectively have been worked out.
YEARLY INCIDENCE
The total number of outbreaks in the different districts of the state were added
up annually for the period mentioned above and are presented in tabular and graph
forms below:—
TABLE I
Yearly incidence of the main contagious diseases.
Rinderpest
Haemorrhagic Septicaemia
Blackquarter
Anthrax
Foot and Mouth
1936
1774
1218
106
481
4109
1937
1793
1382
1084
77
3449
1938
1214
1560
517
135
4783
1939
1995
803
190
119
0394
1940
1778
820
122
178
5037
1941
010
734
893
111
0202
1942
728
954
403
203
5208
1943
059
801
078
107
3505
1944
1015
788
200
38
3198
1945
1697
340
127
22
1413
1940
1791
310
75
49
3083
1947
409
518
349
33
1792
1948
210
597
567
65
2725
1949
1489
593
366
30
3057
1950
943
037
231
40
1523
______
= 18141
= 12055
= 5558
= 1088
=56138
Table No. I and graph indicate a decline in the annual number of outbreaks of
rinderpest, haemorrhagic septicaemia, anthrax and foot and mouth disease while
there has been no significant change in the case of blackquarter. The marked re-
duction in the number of outbreaks of anthrax in 1937 as compared to the prece-
ding year is attributable to more selective recording by the field staff of outbreaks
under the head following special instructions to this effect.
209
9
210
MAIN
CONTAGIOUS
DISEASES
[Vol. XXII, Part III,
FIG. l a. Yearly incidence.
FIG. 1b. Yearly incidence.
September, 1952]
N.
C. KAUSHASH 211
SEASONAL INCIDENCE
The outbreaks of all the diseases were compounded monthwise to determine
the seasonal incidence :—
TABLE II
Outbreaks of diseases compounded monthwise
Rinderpest
Haemorrhage Sep-
ticaemia.
Blackquarter
Anthrax
Foot and Mouth
January
1451
155
90
02
8542
February
1476
232
81
63
13307
March
1802
243
136
97
13900
April
1705
400
200
159
7094
May
1662
478
254
190
2199
June
1272
1339
580
250
930
July
1502
3330
1790
300
1382
August
1099
3121
1202
224
1608
September
1906
1779
007
107
1453
October
1384
597
259
91
1100
November
1058
230
141
41
1481
December
1104
139
80
44
3070
=18141
= 12055
= 5558
= 1088
= 56138
The largest number of outbreaks of rinderpest occur during the months of
March and September while the disease is at comparatively low ebb in November
and December. The peak period in haemorrhagic septicaemia coincides with the
months of July and August and the disease then abates registering a low incidence
during winter from November to February and again shows a significant increase
from April onwards with a marked rise in June due to the onset of rains, and the
position in respect of abatement and subsequent rise is similar to that of black-
quarter and anthrax. In the case of blackquarter also the acme is attained in
July and the largest number of outbreaks occur during July and August. With
anthrax the peak period is contemporaneous with the rainy months from June to
August and the acme again lies in July. Lastly, as regards 'foot and mouth', the
disease is at its peak during February and March and then shows considerable sub-
sidence touching a very low level in June with a significant increase being registered
from the month of December onwards. Calculations to show that the high incidence
of contagious diseases during certain months referred to in particular above, as
also the low incidence of rinderpest in November and December, can be held to be
statistically significant are detailed below :
Statistical significance of the chance factor
Calculating on the basis of the formula given below the value of 't' in the different
cases is specified under the respective heads :
t= (X1—X2)/SX
When X1 = mean of sample 1,
X2=mean of sample 2,
and SX =standard error.
9 A
212
MAIN
CONTAGIOUS
DISEASES
[Vol. XXII, Part III,
FIG. 2a. Seasonal Distribution.
FIG. 2b. Seasonal Distribution.