NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
180
SEMEN QUALITY OF GOATS
[Vol. XXII, Part III,
Besides the above mentioned physical characteristics, ' reaction-time' of the
animals was also noted as in rams [Shukla and Bhattacharya].
Colour and consistency were determined by the visual appearance of semen.
Volume was measured upto 1/100 of ml. Initial motility was scored according to the
criteria of Erb et al., [1942]. Hydrogenion concentration of semen was determined by
B. D. H. capillator. Sperm cencentration was determined by the usual haemacyto-
meter method. For the determination of percentage of abnormal spermatozoa the
method as adopted by Mukherjee and Bhattacharya [1947] was followed.
For the study of the effect of seasons on 'reaction-time' and semen quality, the
local seasons were distinguished as follows :—
Autumn i e from August to October.
Winter „ „
Spring
„ „
Summer „ „
November to January.
February to April.
May to July.
RESULTS.
Monthly averages of 'reaction-time' and semen quality are presented in Table I.
From the table it is apparent that there did not exist any relationship between the
'reaction-time' and the quality of semen produced by the goats. For instance, in
1945-46 the average 'reaction-time' in February, April and August was almost the
same but the quality of semen in these months varied very greatly. Similarly, in
1946-47 the average 'reaction-time' in the months of February, March, August and
September did not show wide variation, although there was conspicuous variation
during these months in the semen quality.
The colour of the semen samples during the entire experimental period was
creamy. The consistency of the samples, however, was either thick or thin. The
table shows that sperm concentration and total number of spermatozoa for thin
creamy samples varied from 1726 to 3240 millions per ml. of semen and 959 to 2092
millions per ejaculate respectively, while those in the thick creamy ones were 2329 to
4045 per ml. of semen and 967 to 2983 millions per ejaculate respectively. Thin
creamy samples had on the average higher pH. than thick creamy samples. There
was, however, no appreciable difference in the initial motility of spermatozoa between
thick and thin creamy samples.
Average monthly variations in 'reaction-time' and semen characteristics are pre
sented in figure I. From the figure it is apparent that the curve for 'reaction-time'
did not show any regular trend of variation from month to month. There is, however,
an indication that the average 'reaction-time' of the animals in the second year of the
experiment was lower than the first year. The curves for initial motility and pH did
not show any marked monthly variation. The curve for volume showed a tendency
to follow the curves for sperm concentration and total number of spermatozoa.
Distinct monthly variations were seen in the curves of sperm concentration and
total number of spermatozoa.
The curve for abnormal spermatozoa showed an opposite trend to that of sperm
concentration, i.e. high sperm concentration was associated with decrease of abnormal
spermatozoa and vice versa.
September, 1952] D. D. SHUKLA AND P. BHATTACHARYA 181
182
[September, 1952
Reaction-time (in seconds)
Colour and consistency of
semen
Volume of semen (in ml.)
Initial motility of sperm-
atozoa
pH of semen
Sperm concentration (in
millions per ml. of
semen)
Total No. of spermatozoa
(in millions)
Percentage of abnormal
spermatozoa
J
98
Th.C.
0.68
4.5
6.2
2967
1852
11.1
F
68
Th.C.
0.72
4.6
6.3
2743
1799
5.4
M
44
Th.C.
0.64
4.6
6.3
3804
2375
2.4
A
62
Th.C.
0.655
5.0
6.2
40414
25238
3.08
N
43 1
Th.C.
0.67
4.5
6.4
2329
1447
6.3
D
40
Th.C.
0.65
4.8
6.4
3226
1922
10.3
182
SEMEN
QUALITY
OF
GOATS
[September, 1952
TABLE I
Average monthly variation in 'reaction-time' and semen characteristics of goats
Reaction.time (in seconds)
Colour and consistency of
semen
Volume of semen (in ml.)
Initial motility of sperm-
atozoa
pH of semen
Sperm concentration (in
millions per ml.
of
semen)
Total No. of spermatozoa
(in millions)
Percentage of abnormal
spermatozoa
1945-46
J
98
Th.C.
0.68
4.5
6.2
2967
1852
11.1
F
68
Th.C.
0.72
4.6
6.3
2743
1799
5.4
M
44
Th.C.
0.64
4.6
6.3
3804
2375
2.4
A
66
Th.C.
0.69
5.0
6.2
4045
2524
3.0
M
30
T.C.
0.61
4.6
6.4
2595
1532
3.9
J
43
T.C.
0.67
4.6
6.4
2039
1412
4.4
J
45
T.C.
0.76
4.7
6.5
2023
1555
5.8
A
66
T.C.
0.65
3.8
6.2
1726
1078
5.9
S
58
T.C.
0.57
4.4
6.2
2149
1132
7.2
O
62
T.C.
0.46
4.2
6.2
2522
959
6.7
N
59
Th.C.
0.49
4.5
6.3
2314
967
6.7
D
45
Th.C.
0.51
4.2
6.3
2786
1532
5.2
1946-47
J
56
Th.C.
0.57
4.4
6.3
3350
1770
7.1
F
49
Th.C.
0.55
4.8
6.3
3718
2079
6.5
M
47
Th.C.
0.61
4.6
6.3
3045
1641
5.1
A
50
Th.C.
0.78
4.5
6.2
3812
2983
7.4
M
38
T.C.
0.63
4.6
6.3
3240
1823
6.9
J
45
T.C.
0.75
4.7
0.3
2784
2092
10.2
J
22
T.C.
0.78
4.5
6.5
1820
1718
5.7
A
48
T.C.
0.78
4.7
6.4
2064
1715
5.9
S
46
T.C.
0.64
4.5
6.5
1789
1153
5.1
O
42
T.C.
0.65
4.5
6.4
2014
1438
5.8
N
43
Th.C.
0.67
4.5
6.4
2329
1447
6.3
D
40
Th.C.
0.65
4.8
6.4
3226
1922
10.3
T.C.=Thin creamy.
Th.C.=Thick creamy.
Indian Journal of
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Content
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185
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Table IV
3
Table IV
6
gri
SA.
o
(w
D
S.
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16
(4
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107
MGIPC—M—1 AR/5
ERRATA.
Indian Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Vol. XXII, Part III, September 1952.
Page
Content
"
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187
219
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185
185
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1
2nd
article
4 from
bottom
8 from
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follo
heading
..
..
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Table IV
3
Table IV
6
For
gricultural
Seasonal Variation in 'reaction time' and semen quality
of goats.
(with plates XVI-XIX)
Discussgin
S. B. V. Rao, S. Narayanan, D, R, Ramnani and J. Das
..
"
In spring
(M.R.M.)
164
168
(4.50) (4.65)
164
137
160
168
1
2
3
169
1076) 1253) 1505) (1540) (1712) (1954) (2085)
(2565)
Read
Agricultural
Seasonal Variation in 'reaction time' and semen, quality
of goats (with one text figure)
(with plates XVII-XX)
Discussion
S. B. V. Rao.
"
"
In spring.
164
168
(4.55) (4.65)
164 137
160
168
1
2
3
169
(1076) (1253) (1505) (1540) (1712) (1954) (2085) (2565)
MGIPC—M—1 AR/53—25-5-53—1,774.
September, 1952] D. D. SHUKLA AND P. BHATTACHARYA 183
Seasonal variation in average 'reaction.time' and. semen quality of the goats are
presented in table II. It will be seen from the table that the 'reaction.time' in
summer was much less than in other seasons and there did not exist any relationship
between the average 'reaction.time' and the quality of semen produced by the goats
in different seasons. The average 'reaction.time' in summer was the least, while
the quality of semen, judged by its colour, consistency and sperm concentration,
was not better than in winter and spring. In autumn, winter and spring, when there
was no marked variation in the 'reaction-time', the quality of semen varied very
greatly, autumn being inferior to that of winter and spring. The quality of semen
in spring seemed to be better except in volume than in other seasons. Percentages
of abnormal spermatozoa in winter, autumn and summer were higher than in spring.
High percentage of abnormality in the ejaculates during, winter was due to the
presence of more bent tail spermatozoa and in autumn and summer due to tail.less
ones.
TABLE II
Seasonal variation in avrage 'reaction.time' and semen charactristics of goats
Reaction-time (in seconds)
Colour and. consistency
Volume of semen (in ml.)
Initial motility of spermatozoa
pH of semen
Sperm concentration (in millions per ml.)
Total number of spermatozoa (in millions)
Percentage of abnormal spermatozoa
Autumn
(August to
October)
53.0
T.C.
0.63
4.43
6.3
2,044
1,246
6.26
Winter
(November
to
January)
57.2
Th.C.
0.60
4.51
6.3
2,829
1,582
7.84
Spring
(February
to
April)
54.7
Th.C.
0.67
4.71
6.2
3,528
2,235
4.79
Summer
(May to
July)
38.4
T.C.
0.71
4.65
6.4
2,417
1,689
6.12
T.C.=Thin creamy
Th. C.=Thick creamy
The summary of the results of analysis of variance of the data on 'reaction.time'
and. semen qualities is presented in table III. From the table it is apparent that goats
varied in 'reaction.time' and all the characteristics of semen studied. Highly
significant variations in 'reaction.time', pH. of semen and total number of sperma-
tozoa were found between the years. The variations in semen quality as observed
among seasons (Table II) were real except in case of pH which was a chance variation.
Variations due to interaction between seasons. and years were highly significant for
'reaction.time' and pH of semen, and for initial motility it was only significant.
Between months within seasons highly significant variations were found in sperm
4A
184
SEMEN
QUALITY
OF
GOATS
[Vol. XXII, Part III,
concentration and total number of spermatozoa and significant variation in initial
motility.
TABLE III
The results of analysis of data on 'reaction-time' and semen characteristics of goats
Factors for Analysis
Reaction-time
Volume of semen
Initial motility
pH of semen
Sperm concentration
Total number of spermatozoa
Percentage of abnormal sper-
matozoa
Source of variation
Between
Animals
**
**
**
*
**
**
**
Between
years
**
0
0
**
0
**
0
Between
seasons
*
*
**
0
**
**
*
Interaction
between
seasons and
years
**
0
*
**
0
0
*
Between
months
-within
season
0
0
*
0
**
**
0
** Significant at five per cent level
*Significant at one per cent level
0 Non significant
With a view to test the differences between goats, between years and between
seasons, critical differences (C. D.) at five per cent level of probability of the variable
characteristics were worked out. These are presented in Tables IV to VI. In the
tables, the average figure under the same bar did not vary at five per cent level.
Table IV shows C. D. at five per cent level of the variable characteristics of semen
between goats. It is apparent from the table that the average 'reaction-time' of
goat 169 was significantly lower than of all others except 168. There was no signi-
ficant variation between goats 168 and 164 but their 'reaction-time' was significantly
lower than of goats 2, 160, 1, 137 and 3. Goat 3 showed the highest' reaction-
time'. The table also shows that there was no relation between the 'reaction-time'
and the quality of semen produced by the goats. For instance goats, 2,160, 1 and
137 did not vary in their 'reaction-time' but the quality of semen produced by them
varied very greatly. Similarly, goats 168 and 169 did not vary in 'reaction-time',
but their quality of semen as judged by volume, initial motility, sperm concentration
and total number of spermatozoa varied significantly. Goat 3 as the table shows
took maximum time to mount an anoestrous female but its semen quality was
not poorer than that of others. The volume of semen of goat 164 was significantly
lower than of the rest. Goats 160, 168, 137 and goat 1 had significantly lower semen
volume than goat 2 and 169. The latter, however, had the highest semen volume.
September, 1952] D. D. SHUKLA AND P. BHATTACHARYA 185
Table IV
Critical difference at five per cent level of probability in 'reaction-time' and variable
semen characteristics of the goat
Variable
characteristics
Reaction.time
Volume of semen
Initial motility
pH of semen
Sperm concentration
Total number of
Percentage of abnor-
mal spermatozoa
Value
of
C.D.
16.3
0.15
0.14
0.15
473
500
2.46
Average of goats are arranged in ascending order.
169
(15.0)
164
(0.29)
160
(3.50)
3
(6.2)
137
(2223)
164
(1076)
169
(3.17)
168
(16.3)
160
(0.53)
164
(4.50)
164
(6.2)
169
(2272)
137
(1253)
2
(4.26)
164
(31.6)
168
(0.53)
168
(4.65)
1
(6.3)
2
(2504)
160
(1505)
1
(4.50)
2
(56.2)
137
(0.56)
169
(4.70)
2
(6.3)
160
(2841)
168
(1540)
137
(4.69)
160
(56.2)
1
(0.61)
137
(4.73)
160
(6.4)
1
(2864)
1
(1712)
168
(4.88)
1
(61.2)
3
(0.63)
2
(4.83)
168
(6.4)
168
(2885)
2
(1954)
3
(5.40)
137
(64.5)
2
(0.78)
3
(4.85)
137
(6.5)
3
(3311)
3
(2085)
164
(6.30)
3
(106.0)
169
(1.12)
1
(4.86)
169
(6.5)
164
(3755)
169
(2565)
160
(17.03)
TABLE V
Critical difference at five per cent level of probability between years
Variable
characteristics
Reaction.time
pH of semen
Total number of spermatozoa
Value
of C.D.
(8.2)
0.07
251
The averages of the years are arranged in ascending order
1946.47
(43.7)
1946.47
(6.4)
1945.46
(1559)
1945.46
(58.1)
1945.46
(6.3)
1946.47
(1815)
186
SEMEN
QUALITY
OF
GOATS
[Vol. XXII, Part III,
TABLE, VI
Critical difference of variable characteristics at five per cent level of probability between
seasons
Variable
characteristics
Reaction-time
Volume of semen
Initial motility
Sperm concentration
Total number of spermatozoa
Percentage of abnormal sperma-
tozoa
Value
of C.D.
12.2
0.09
0.04
473
355
1.73
Summer
(38.4)
Winter
(0.60)
Autumn
(4.43)
Autumn
(2044)
Autumn
(1246)
Spring
(4.79)
Autumn
(53.0)
Autumn
(0.63)
Winter
(4.51)
Summer
(2417)
Winter
(1582)
Summer
(6.12)
Spring
(54.7)
Spring
(0.67)
Summer
(4.65)
Winter
(2829)
Summer
(1689)
Autumn
(6.26)
Winter
(57.2)
Summer
(0.70)
Spring
(4.71)
Spring
(3528)
Spring
(2235)
Winter
(7.84)
As regards the initial motility of all the animals, goat 160 showed the least moti-
lity of spermatozoa. The sperm concentration of this goat was inferior to goat 3 and
164 which had the highest sperm concentration. The low initial motility of goat 160
in spite of high sperm concentration might be due amongst other causes to the highest
percentage of abnormal spermatozoa found in this animal. Initial motility of goat
164 did not significantly differ from that of 168, but it was significantly lower than
the rest, except goat. 160. The low initial motility of this goat inspite of the highest
sperm concentration than of the rest of the animals might also be due to the presence
of a high percentage of abnormal spermatozoa which are likely to be less motile
than the normal ones. Goats 2, 3 and 1 had high initial motility which might
be due to the fact that goats 2 and 1 had high sperm concentration as well as low
percentage of abnormal spermatozoa. The reason for goat 3 showing high initial
motility inspite of high abnormality of spermatozoa might be its high sperm con-
centration. The higher initial motility of goats 137 and 169 in comparison with 160
and 164 might be due to their lower percentage of abnormal spermatozoa in spite
of their lower sperm concentration than of the latter goats. It seems that initial
motility rating, as has been done in this experiment by direct microscopical examina-
tion, depends not only on sperm concentration but also on the abnormality of sper-
matozoa. Abnormal spermatozoa are comparatively less motile than the normal
ones and an increase or decrease in their numbers might also affect the motility of
spermatozoa.
September 1952] D. D. SHUKLA AND P. BHATTACHARYA 189
Total number of spermatozoa. The result of analysis of data on total number
of spermatozoa showed that it was lowest in autumn and highest in spring. This
result agrees with that obtained in rams by Shukla and Bhattacharya [1947] but is
contrary to the findings of Phillips et al., [1943] who obtained highest average total
number of spermatozoa in summer and lowest in spring. The difference in our
result from that of Phillips et al., might be due to difference in climate of the two
places or due to limited number of data on which the results of Phillips and his
collaborators were based.
Percentage of abnormal spermatozoa. Results obtained on seasonal variation
of the occurrences of abnormal spermatozoa are similar to those reported in rams by
Shukla and Bhattacharya [1947]. In summer and autumn the tailless spermatozoa
and in winter the bent tail spermatozoa were more in the ejaculates. The bent
tails have been indentified by Mukherjee and Bhattacharya [1949] as immature forms
of spermatozoa. So it seems that in winter, when the rate of spermatogenesis was
higher than in autumn and summer, more of these immature spermatozoa were
carried into the male reproductive tract before they came to ampullae for ejectment.
During autumn and summer, when the semen quality was found to be poorer, the
tailless spermatozoa were found more in number and this might be due to high
environmental temperature.
SUMMARY
Seasonal variation in 'reaction-time' and semen characteristics of eight goats
were studied for two consecutive years.
Highly significant variations were observed among goats in 'reaction-time'
and in all the characteristics of semen studied except its pH which varied only signi-
ficantly.
' Reaction-time' in summer was found to be significantly less than in the other
seasons. 'Reaction-time' was found to be independent of sperm production.
Between years highly significant variations were found in 'reaction-time' pH'.
of semen and total number of spermatozoa.
Between seasons highly significant variations were found in initial motility
sperm concentration and total number of spermatozoa and significant variations in
'reaction-time', volume of semen and percentage of abnormal spermatozoa. The
semen quality was found to be poorer in autumn and richer in spring.
Between months within season highly significant variations were found in
sperm concentration and total number of spermatozoa and significant variation in
initial motility.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are indebted to Mr. A. Roy, Statistician, Indian Council of Agricultural Research
for his guidance in the Statistical analysis of data presented in this paper. They are also grateful
to Dr. D. P. Mukherjee of Animal Gonetics Section, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, for
many helpful criticism and assistance.
5
190
SEMEN QUALITY OF GOATS
[Vol. XXII, Part III,
REFERENCES
Erb, R.E. Andrews, F. N. and Hilton, J. H. (1942). J. Dairy Sci. 25, 815
McKenzie, F. F. and Berliner, V. (1937). Res. Bull Mo. Agri. Expt. Sta. 265
Mukherjee, D. P. and Bhattacharya, P. (1947). (Abst. Proc. Ind. Sci. Gong. Part 3 : 215) In
Press
Mukherjee, D. P. and Bhattacharya, P. (1949). Proc. Zool. Soc. Beng. 2, 149
Phillips, R. W., Schott, R. G., Eaton, 0. N. and Simmons, V. L. (1943) Corn. Vet. 33(3), 227
Shukla, D. D. and Bhattacharya, P. (1947). (Abst. Proc. Ind. Sci. Cong. Part 3) In Press
SEASONAL VARIATION IN HAEMOGLOBIN AND CELL.
VOLUME CONTENTS IN RAMS AND GOATS
By D. P. MUKHERJEE and P. BHATTACHARYA, Animal Genetics Section, Indian
Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar
(Received for publication on 5 January 1952)
(With two text.figures)
M UKHERJEE and Bhattacharya [1947] have shown that there exists a seasonal
variation in semen qualities and haemoglobin and cell volume contents of blood
in bulls. Shukla and Bhattacharya [1947 and 1948] have also observed seasonal
trend in the semen quality of rams and goats. The present study was undertaken
to determine if the two blood constituents, viz., haemoglobin and cell volume, in
sheep and goat follow a seasonal trend as in bulls, and if so, how far this trend follows
the seasonal changes in the semen of these species of animals as reported by Shukla
and Bhattacharya.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Blood samples were drawn from the jugular vein once a fortnight from each of
the 9 rams and 8 male goats for determining the haemoglobin and cell volume
contents. Haemoglobin was determined by the method of New Comer [1923] and
cell volume by that of Napier and Das Gupta [1941]. During the entire experi-
mental period the animals were kept under uniform nutritional and managerial
conditions as have already been reported by Shukla and Bhattacharya [1947].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Month to month variations in haemoglobin and cell volume in the blood samples
of rams and goats are shown in Table I.
TABLE I
Monthly variation in average haemoglobin and cell volume contents of blood in ram
and goats
Months
January
February
March
Bams
Hb. gram per
100 c.c. of blood
7.77±0.27
7.35±0.23
7.91±0.23
C. V. Per cent
34.83±1.38
34.62±0.71
34.12±0.93
Goats
Hb. gram per
100 c.c. of blood
6.79±0.20
6.63±0.66
7.09±0.13
C. V. Per cent
31.67±l.29
31.74±l.30
31.01±0.57
191
192
SEASONAL VARIATION IN RAMS AND GOATS
[Vol. XXII, Part III,
TABLE I—contd.
Monthly variation in average haemoglobin and cell volume contents of blood in rams
and goats
Months
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Rams
Hb. gram per
100 c.c. of blood
7.95±0.18
8.62±0.21
7.51±0.27
7.02±0.18
6.52±0.15
6.78±0.23
7.4.7±0.17
7.69±0.13
7.66±0.16
C. V. per cent
33.88±0.71
34.93±l.69
33.70±l.09
33.24±1.11
31.83±0.86
32.15±l.02
34.89±0.91
35.22±0.31
35.16±0.88
Goats
Hb. gram per
100 c.c. of blood
7.05±0.12
7.36±0.14
6.36±0.11
6.32±0.16
5.94±0.14
6.19±0.27
6.62±0.27
6.40±0.17
6.60±0.21
C.V. per cent
30.95±0.82
31.37±1.10
29.46±1.10
28.49±0.91
27.71±0.79
27.86±0.83
28.05±0.79
29.57±0.86
30.50±0.53
It will be seen that in rams the variation in the mean percentage of haemoglobin
was from 6.52 (±0.15) to 8.62 (±0.21) and that of cell volume from 31.83 (±0.86)
to 35.22 (±0.31) and in goats from 5.94 (±0.14) to 7.36 (±0.14) and 27.71 (±0.79)
to 31.74 (±1.30) respectively. The blood samples obtained from rams were richer
in haemoglobin and cell volume contents than those from goats. In both the
species, haemoglobin and cell volume were at their lowest level in the month of
August. During this month, as seen from Table II, the average air temperature
was high (85.9°F.) with almost highest relative humidity and high rainfall (6.11 in.).
TABLE II
Monthly variation in average air temperature, humidity and rainfall
Months
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Average
temperature
(°F.)
58.5
64.2
75.3
86.7
92.7
93.5
85.6
85.9
85.4
79.0
68.9
61.7
Average
percentage
of humidity
71
63
45
22
31
50
81
80
65
72
64
62
Average
rainfall
(in inches)
1.32
0.75
0.96
0.00
0.01
5.25
16.89
6.11
4.01
5.17
0.04
0.21
September, 1952] D. P. MUKHERJEE AND P. BHATTACHARYA 193
For haemoglobin, the month of May was the best in both the species. Although
the average air temperature was high (92.7°F.) during this month, the relative
humidity was almost the lowest and rainfall negligible.
Data collected under Tables I and II are graphically represented in
Fig. 1 and (Fig. 2). It will be seen from the figures that with the increase in the
air temperature, humidity and rainfall there was a concomitant decrease in
the haemoglobin and cell volume contents of blood in both rams and goats. The
trend of variation in the two blood constituents due to external factors was almost
similar to that of bulls as reported previously.
The data summarised in Table I were subjected to analysis of variance and the
results of analysis are presented in Table III.
TABLE III
Summary of the analysis of variance of blood characteristics of rams and goats
Factors analysed for Variance
Percentage of Hb.
Percentage of cell volume
Source of Variation
Between
Rams or
between
Goats
**
††
**
††
Between
seasons
**
††
**
††
Between
Months
within
season
**
††
°
†
** Highly significant for rams
†† Highly significant for goats
° Not significant
† Significant for goats
From this table it is apparent that the variations observed in haemoglobin
and cell volume among rams and goats were highly significant. In both the species,
the variation in the two blood constituents due to season was highly significant.
As in the previous study, the months have been grouped into four different seasons,
viz. :—
August to October
November to January
February to April
May to July.........
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Highly significant variation between months within season was found in
haemoglobin contents of blood in both rams and goats. Variation in cell volume
between months within season was found to be significant only in the case of goats.
In order to find out the most unfavourable and most favourable seasons for the
194
SEASONAL VARIATION IN RAMS AND GOATS
[Vol. XXII, Part III,
FIG. 1. Monthly variation in average haemoglobin and cell.
FIG. 2. Monthly variation average temperature humidity and rainfall.