NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
CHAP. IX. ]
Measures outside the Bombay Presidency.
259
North Western
Provinces rules.
of clothes, bedding and other effects. It is laid down in the revised
North-Western Provinces rule that on ordering the destruction of a
hut or other temporary structure the District Magistrate may
award compensation to persons who are so poor as to be unable
to replace at their own expense the structure that has been burnt
or destroyed. Provision is not specially made in the general North-
Western Provinces rules for the payment of compensation for des-
troyed clothing and other effects, but in the rules regarding the dis-
infection or destruction of the contaminated baggage of railway
travellers it is stated that the medical officer may, if the person
is poor, or for other sufficient reason, replace any articles destroyed
at the expense of the Government.
Bengal and Pun-
jab rules.
The Bengal Government Regulations of February, March and
November authorise the Chairman of the Calcutta Municipality and
the District Magistrate (outside Calcutta) to pay compensation to
any person who has sustained substantial loss and damage by reason
of anything done under the rules, provided that no person may of
right claim any such compensation. In a notification issued on the
8th April, the Government of the Punjab directed that compensation
may, in the discretion of the officers appointed for the purpose, be
paid for the destruction of any article or building.
Disposal of corpses.
Feelings of
native com-
munity.
This is another matter in which Local Governments found it
necessary to consider carefully the religious feelings and customs of
the Muhammadan and Hindu communities.
The original rule framed by the Government of the North-Western
Provinces and Oudh ran as follows :—
Original North
Western
Provinces rule.
" In the event of death occurring from bubonic plague, the Health (
Officer shall arrange for the disposal of the body. In the case of a
European or Muhammadan, the body shall be buried at least six
feet deep and be covered with chloride of lime : the place of burial,
if not an authorised cemetery, should be well away from habitations
and sources of water-supply. In the case of a Hindu, the body shall
be completely and thoroughly burned in an isolated locality in the
presence of a responsible official."
Revised North
Western
Provinces rule.
In the resolution explaining the revised rules issued by the Local
Government the following description was given of the rules pres-
cribed with regard to the disposal of corpses :—
" The friends and relatives of persons who have died of plague
will be left to dispose of their dead in accordance with their religious
customs, subject only to certain sanitary precautions which do not
conflict with the mortuary practices of any religion; but, should
26o
Measures outside the Bombay Presidency
[ CHAp. IX.
unfortunately deaths from plague become numerous in any city or
town, it may be necessary to establish burial-grounds outside cities
or towns for the interment of persons who have died of plague and
are not cremated. These burial-grounds can be selected in com-
munication with the heads of the community concerned and made
over to them by Government.
Use of quick-
lime.
"Exception has been taken to the use of quicklime in burials. The
Lieutenant-Governor does not regard the matter as of essential
importance. In cemeteries well removed from the inhabited portion
of a city and well away from the water-supply the precaution will not
be required. In cemeteries situated near habitations the precaution
is more necessary. Objections to the use of quicklime seem to be
met by a suggestion made to the Lieutenant-Governor by a deputation
of the representative Muhammadan citizens of Lucknow, vtz., that
if used, the lime should not be allowed to come into contact with the
coffin, takhta or corpse."
Sanitary preeau-
tions.
The mam sanitary precautions alluded to in the above passage
were in substance that the body must not be removed within six
hours after the delivery of notice at the nearest police-station and that
the friends of the diseased must obey the directions of the Health
Officer as to the time, route and method of removing the corpse to
the burial, or cremation place. In the event of the failure of the
relatives or friends to dispose of the body, the Health Officer was
directed to dispose of it in accordance with the religion of the
deceased.
Rules in other
provinces.
The revised rules issued by the Government of Bengal were
similar to those of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh. The Chief
Commissioner of the Central Provinces retained the original North
Western Provinces rule.
Infected conveyances.
Punjab rules.
The Government of the Punjab issued a special set of rules on
the subject of infected conveyances, and the matter was also dealt
with in the general rules of some other of the Local Governments.
The Punjab rules are to the following effect. Except under the order
of competent authority, proprietors and drivers of public conveyances
are prohibited from carrying any person suffering or believed to be
suffering from plague, or the corpse of any person who has died, or
is believed to have died of plague. Should any such person or body
be carried in a public conveyance, then the vehicle may not be used
for seven days and must be thoroughly disinfected. Compensation
may be paid to the proprietor on account of the disuse of his vehicle
and any injury occasioned by the process of disinfection.
CHAP. IX. ]
Measures outside the Bombay Presidency.
261
North-Western
Provinces rule.
Evacuation of infected localities.
In the North-Western Provinces and Oudh the Health Officer or
Sanitary Commissioner is empowered, with the sanction of the Gov-
ernment, to direct the inhabitants of any street, quarter or other
infected portion of a cantonment or municipality to evacuate their
houses and to remove to a temporary settlemsnt at a distance from
the infected locality.
Each householder is permitted to make suitable, arrangements
for the care of his house and property, and the Government promises
to arrange for the watch and ward of the empty houses. After eva-
cuation, the Health Officers are directed to arrange for the thorough
disinfection and cleansing of the empty premises, and are not to
permit the inhabitants to return until the premises are considered
to be free from infection.
These rules were worked with great success during the outbreaks
at Hardwar and Kankhal.
Bengal rule.
Calcutta.
The Bengal rule on the subject of evacuation is similar to that
in force in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh. Sites have been
selected and a scheme prepared for housing persons in the immediate
neighbourhood of Calcutta, in the event of any portion of the city
becoming infected with plague.
SIMPLE INSTRUCTIONS ON THE OCCURRENCE OF PLAGUE
CASES IN A RURAL LOCALITY.
North Western
Provinces and
Punjab rules.
In addition to the general set of regulations for municipalities and
cantonments, the Government of the North-Western Provinces and
Oudh prescribed for observance in rural areas a simpler set of regula-
tions drawn up by its Sanitary Commissioner. These regulations
were adopted by the Government of the Punjab, which issued them
in the form of executive instructions. The following is an outline of
the prescribed precautions.
Summary of
rules.
If plague exists in a village, the inhabitants of all the surrounding
villages should abstain from all dealings with that village till the
plague ceases. In like manner, in an infected village a family free
from the disease should not go near a house in which the disease
exists. The sick person should be segregated till he recovers or dies,
and the attendants of the sick should be kept apart for ten days.
If the patient is living in a large roomy house in which he and his
attendants can be kept apart, they should be permitted to remain
there.* If not, the patient should be at once removed to a temporary
*This is in accordance with the general principles of the revised North-Western
Provinces and Oudh rules. It has been stated above that in practice complete evacua-
tion of infected houses was carried out in a much more extensive manner in the places
in the North-Western Provinces where plague outbreaks occurred.
262
Measures outside the Bombay Presidency.
[ CHAP. IX.
hut to be constructed of grass screens and erected well away from
habitations. The site should be shady and near a well. This well
should not, if possible, be used by other people. The sick person's
relatives and friends should be permitted to accompany him, provided
they remain apart and abstain from communication with other
persons in the village. The village authorities should see to the
supply of food, fuel, etc. Ample accommodation should be provided
for males, females, and families when the house is temporarily aban-
doned. The landlord and village authorities should see that the
measures are carried out without interference with the religious
or social customs of the family. The temporary hut and the patient's
bed should be burnt when no longer required, and the well should be
cleaned out and disinfected. If the house in which the patient is
living is a hut of small value it should be burnt; houses of greater
value should be disinfected. Upon the recovery or death of the
patient, the clothes and bedding of the sick person and his attendants
should be thoroughly boiled and then spread out in the sun and wind
for forty-eight hours. Clothing and bedding of small value should
be burnt. The corpse should be disposed of by the friends in accord-
ance with the usual customs. In the case of cremation, the body
should be completely burnt in an isolated place. In the case of burial,
the body should be buried at least six feet deep, and the place of
burial should be well away from habitations and sources of water-
supply.
GENERAL SANITARY MEASURES.
Rules issued
by Local
Governments.
In addition to devising measures for the detection of cases of
plague and for stamping out the disease should it appear in any locality,
the various Local Governments and Administrations issued rules for
the carrying out of general sanitary measures, and either under
these rules or under executive orders much was done to improve the
sanitary condition of towns all over the country, thus rendering them
less liable to an attack of plague.
Summary of
rules.
The rules framed by the Government of the North-Western Prov-
inces and Oudh empower the District Magistrate to issue general
orders in any municipality or cantonment, that by a certain specified
date certain sanitary precautions of a simple nature, such as the
limewashing of houses, the cleaning of latrines, the removal of filth
and rubbish, shall be carried out. The Bengal regulations of Novem-
ber 1897 adopted these rules and contained further provisions for
improving the condition of insanitary premises and for the abatement
of overcrowding. The Health Officer may require the householder to
have the premises cleansed and to remove obstructions to light and
ventilation; in default of compliance the work may be carried out
CHAP. IX. ]
Measures outside the Bombay Presidency.
263
under the orders of the Health Officer, with the sanction of the local
authorities. The Chairman of the Calcutta Municipality, or the Magis-
trate of the District or the Cantonment authority (in places outside
Calcutta) may require the owner or occupier of any overcrowded
houses to abate the overcrowding by reducing the number of lodgers,
tenants or other inmates, or to vacate the dwelling. In default of com-
pliance, forcible ejectment may be enforced. The Government of
Madras prescribed similar rules. In the City of Madras the Presi-
dent of the Municipal Committee, or any officer authorised by him, is
empowered to enter upon any premises and summarily execute any
work under, or summarily abate any of the nuisances indicated in,
sections 313, 314, 321, 322, 326, or 327 of the City of Madras Munici-
pal Act, 1884. The sections named refer to the following matters :
keeping filth in an improper manner, allowing sewage to flow into the
streets, keeping buildings or land in an insanitary or filthy condition,
cleansing and lime-washing buildings, cleansing or filling up tanks
or wells. In other municipalities similar authority was given to the
Collector of the District or to any one appointed by him for the pur-
pose. The regulations for both the City of Madras and other munici-
palities in the Madras Presidency contain a regulation similar to that
prescribed by the Government of Bengal for the abatement of over-
crowding.
Sanitary survey
of Calcutta.
Shocking
insanitary
condition of
Calcutta.
The special Medical Board appointed by the Government of Bengal
in October 1896, deputed five sanitary officers, to make a sanitary
survey of the town of Calcutta. The Civil Surgeon of the 24-Par-
ganas was directed to make a similar survey of the suburban area.
The reports submitted by the officers disclosed a state of affairs which
can only be described as shocking, and which presented the gravest
menace to the health of the population. The Government of Bengal
summarised the results of the sanitary survey in the following terms :—
" I.—Overcrowded and badly built houses.—In many parts of the
town and suburbs both pucka houses and bustee* huts are
dangerously overcrowded, and are built in a manner which
renders proper ventilation and efficient conservancy
almost impossible.
" II.—Defects of public latrines.—The public latrines and urinals
are faulty in construction ; they are imperfectly cleaned
and their number is insufficient to justify even a limited
application of the penal provisions of the law in regard to
nuisances.
* Collection of native dwellings.
264
Measures outside the Bombay Presidency.
[ CHAP. IX.
"III.—Defects of private latrines.—The private latrines are in
many cases so constructed that they cannot be properly
cleaned, nor can the conservancy officers get access to
them ; and consequently many of them are choked with
accumulations of filth.
" IV.—State of house-drains and down-pipes.—The house-drains
and down-pipes are in many cases broken, choked, and
out of repair.
" V.—State of surface drains.—The surface drains are blocked
with foul matter, latrines are allowed to discharge into
them, and the drains themselves are often used as lat-
rines.
" VI.—Neglect of road scavenging.—The scavenging of the roads
is imperfectly carried out ; the staff is inadequate for the
work ; and the subsoil has become dangerously polluted.
" VII.—State of compounds and courtyards.-—The condition of
the compounds and courtyards of houses is in many cases
extremely filthy.
" VIII.—Pollution of wells.—Wells in courtyards are contami-
nated by the percolation of sewage impurities from the soil.
" IX.—-State of cowsheds and stables.—Cowsheds and stables are
situated in thickly populated places : their construction
is faulty ; they are greatly overcrowded, and their flooring
is soaked with sewage, which pollutes the wells on the
premises.
" X.—-State of hackney carriage stands.—The number of hackney
carriage stands is wholly insufficient to meet the current
requirements of the town, and they are imperfectly flushed
and cleansed.
"XI.—Condition of bustees.—Bustees are badly drained and im-
perfectly ventilated ; the huts are too close together ; the
latrine arrangements lead to the pollution of the soil ;
the roads and lanes are too narrow, and conservancy is
imperfectly carried out."
The Governments
of India and
Bengal consider
the situation very
grave.
After reading the report on the sanitary inspection the Gov-
ernment of India informed the Government of Bengal that
they viewed the position with grave concern, and that they fully
agreed with the view expressed by the Lieutenant-Governor (Sir
Alexander Mackenzie) to the Medical Board, that it constituted a
standing menace to the health of Calcutta. The remarks made in pre-
vious chapters of this report on the paramount influence of insanitary
conditions in fostering the growth of plague epidemics indicate the
CHAP. IX. ]
Measures outside the Bombay Presidency.
.265
extent to which the danger of the spread of plague to Calcutta was
increased by the filthy and unwholesome state of the city.
Cleansing of the
city.
In this emergency the Government of Bengal found it necessary
to adopt drastic measures. In the first place, with a view to the
remedy of the more glaring and dangerous evils, a special appoint-
ment of Chief Superintendent of Conservancy in Calcutta was sanc-
tioned by the Commissioners of the Corporation early in the month of
October, and Dr. Banks, who had gained large experience of practical
sanitation as Civil Medical Officer of Puri (the great pilgrim centre),
was appointed to the post. His duties extended over a little more
than six months, during which he was constantly engaged in super-
vising the conservancy arrangements of the entire town, and in
directing the work of the extra conservancy staff appointed by the
Commissioners on the 25th September, and largely increased in
January under strong pressure from the Local Government. The
total extra staff after its expansion consisted of—
2 Superintendents,
1 Inspector.
23 Sub-Inspectors.
1,500 Coolies.
343 Carts.
During the six months this extra staff removed 10,722 tons of
neglected filth, not including enormous quantities of night-soil removed
to the depots from privies, which though connected with the sewers
were not provided with any arrangements for flushing. They cleaned
and whitewashed 322 houses, many of them lodging-houses, 33 rooms,
and 1,322 privies ; and flushed and purified 3,436 drains. In addi-
tion to this work they issued notices under section 318 of the Calcutta
Municipal Act, which led to the limewashing by private individuals of
3)977 dwelling-houses containing 15,867 rooms, 120 stables, 30 coach-
bouses, 1,576 godowns, 133 cattle-sheds, 437 granaries, 29 bakeries,
s6 workshops, 12 warehouses, 49 manufactories, and 2,546 privies.
Although, except in four or five places, all old accumulations had
been removed, it was stated that, owing to the faulty construction of
the buildings, the dirty habits of the people, and the weakness of both
the menial and the supervising staff, the refuse accumulated in
some of the more crowded wards as fast as it was removed.
Revised building
regulations.
More fundamental measures were required than a mere temporary
cleansing of the city; it had become urgently necessary to remedy
the state of affairs which had caused it to sink into so insanitary and
filthy a condition. For some years past the Health Officer of the
Municipality had pressed upon the Corporation the necessity of amend-
ing the building regulations in order to make suitable provision for
34
266
Measures outside the Bombay Presidency.
[CHAP. IX,
(inter alia) fixing the minimum width of public streets, limiting the
height of houses in relation to the width of the streets on which they
stand, controlling the construction of brick buildings on bustee lands,
and fixing the minimum size of courtyards within houses, as also
the minimum space to be left between the backs of houses for
the purposes of ventilation. On the 6th of April the Government
of Bengal issued a resolution dwelling on the importance of the
subject, and appointing a committee (with the Honourable Mr. Justice
Trevelyan as president) to consider the measures that should be
adopted. The committee were directed to report the result of their
deliberations within six months.
Reform of the
Municipal
Administration.
The Government of Bengal next considered the general revision
of the Calcutta Municipal Act. The neglect to maintain the city in
a proper sanitary condition was considered to be largely due to the
failure of the Municipal Corporation to properly carry out the duties
entrusted to them, and this failure was mainly attributed to the
Commissioners having, by the formation of large sub-committees and
in other ways, assumed in far too great a degree the executive func-
tions properly belonging to the Chairman of the Municipality and his
subordinates. It is unnecessary to here trace the series of events
which led up to this condition of affairs or to explain in detail the
defects discovered in the system. The Government of Bengal being
convinced that better administration and more efficient working
were not to be looked for without a radical change in system, prepared
a draft Bill completely reconstructing the existing Act and defining
and largely increasing the powers of the executive. This proposed
legislation is at present under consideration. In the draft Bill special
attention is paid to sanitation, drainage, and water-supply, and the
revised building regulations will be embodied in it.
Places outside
Calcutta.
Outside Calcutta executive orders were issued during the first
period of the epidemic under which the municipalities of the large
towns carried out as extensive cleansing operations as their funds
would permit.
Sanitary reform
of places near
Calcutta.
After the issue of the revised regulations of November 1897, the
Government of Bengal decided that it was necessary to take drastic
measures under them for improving the sanitary condition of the
municipalities in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, the condition of
which was said to be worse than that of the city itself. The Magis-
trates of the Districts of Howrah, Hooghly, and the 24-Parganas were
directed to take the necessary steps to enforce reform by the appoint-
ment of Health Officers with a sufficient staff, etc.