NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
March, 1956]
C.
T.
PETER
29
Cercaria Gastrodisci secundi Peter and Mudaliar, 1948
This cercaria which was newly encountered in Indoplanorbis exustus during the
present studies and proved to be the larva of Gastrodiscus secundus Looss by trans-
mission experiments [Peter and Mudaliar, 1948], occurs very commonly in Madras
City, making its appearance in all seasons of the year. The rate of infection with
this amphistome in I. exustus is found to be 3.7 per cent which is the highest of all
the different kinds of amphistome infection recorded in the snail species. Curiously
enough, nowhere else the existence of this cercaria has been reported, although
its adult, Gastrodiscus secundus, is frequently met with everywhere in this country
as a common parasite in equines and rarely in elephants.
THE GYMNOCEPHALOUS CERCARIAE
Dawes [1946] recognized the group of Gymnocephalous cercariae as consisting
of all the four sub-groups (Parapleurolophocerca, Isopori, Agilis and Reflexae) of
the ' Distome Cercariae ' and one (Pleurolophocerca) of the ' Monostome Cercariae '
created by Sewell [1922]. The three gymnocephalous cercariae encountered during
the present investigations in Melanoides tuberculatus belong to the ' Pleurolophocerca'.
There is no previous record of their occurrence in Madras City. Apart from the
absence of a ventral sucker in the members of this sub-group, they are characterised
also by the presence of a pair of pigmented eye-spots, an armed oral sucker designed
for penetration, a rudimentary alimentary canal, a pair of conspicuous salivary
glands, a thick-walled reniform excretory bladder and a powerful muscular tail
provided with well-developed cuticular fin-folds.
Cercariae indicae III Sewell, 1922
This was originally recorded in India as a ' Small monostome ' from Melanoides
tuberculatus and M. lineatus by Kemp and Gravely [1919]. Subsequently, it was
fully described under the name Cercariae indicae iii by Sewell [1922] who reported
its occurrence in M. tuberculatus at Calcutta, Bombay and Malabar, in M. scabra
var. elegans at Malabar and M. lineatus at Calcutta. Only one specimen of M.
tuberculatus was found to harbour this larva during the present studies in Madras.
Cercariae indicae VII Sewell, 1922
This larva, which is very similar to Cercaria pleurolophocerca Sons., was first
obtained from Melanoides lineatus, Acrostoma variabile and Bithynia sp. by Kemp
and Gravely [1919] who considered it under the title ' Large monostome '. Sewell
[1922] came across this species only in M. tuberculatus collected from Calcutta and
Bombay and redescribed it as Cercariae indicae vii. As observed during the present
studies, the occurrence of this species of cercaria in Madras City is also rare since
only 3 out of 282 M. tuberculatus examined discharged it. This pleurolophocercous
cercaria has also been reported from Andhra [Ramanujachari and Alwar, 1954].
Cercariae indicae VIII Sewell, 1922
This form was first found by Sewell [1922] in Melanoides tuberculatus at Calcutta,
Bombay and Malabar, in Digoniostoma cerameopoma at Calcutta and in Acrostoma
variabile var. spiniferum from Assam. It also occurs in Hyderabad [Bhalerao, 1943]
30 STUDIES ON THE CERCARIAL FAUNA-IV [Vol. XXVI, Part I,
and in Andhra [Ramanujachari and Alwar, 1954]. In Madras City, eight out o
282 specimens of M. tuberculatus were found infected with this trematode larva.
SUMMARY
Four species of amphistome cercariae (two belonging to the ' Pigmentata '
type and two to the ' Diplocotylea ') and three of the gymnocephalous cercariae
(belonging to the ' Pleurolophocerca ') were encountered in the city of Madras,
of which the occurrence of Cercaria gastrodisci secundi Peter and Mudaliar in
Indoplanorbis exustus and of Cercariae indicae iii, vii and viii Sewell in Melanoides
tuberculatus has not been previously reported from there.
REFERENCES
Anantaraman, M. and Balasubramaniam, G. (1949). A study of Cercaria fraseri Buckley, 1939 in
Madras. Curr. Sci., 18, 124-126
Bennett, H. J. (1936). The life history of Cotylophoron cotylophorum, a trematode from ruminants.
Ill. Biol. Monogr., 14, 1-119
Bhalerao, G. D. (1943). The cercarial fauna of the irrigated tract of the Nizam's Dominions, with
suggestions regarding the relationship to the trematode parasites in man and in domestic and
other animals. Indian J. vet. Sci., 13, 294-296
—
(1945). The commonest amphistome of domestic animals in the Central Provinces
and its intermediate host. Proc. Indian Sci. Congr., 32, 97
Buckley, J. J. C. (1939). On a new amphistome cercaria (Diplocotylea) from Planorbis exustus. J.
Helm., 17, 25-30
Dawes, B. (1946). The Trematoda. Cambridge University Press, 1-644
Kemp, S. and Gravely, F. H. (1919). On the possible spread of schistosomiasis in India, Indian J.
med. Res., 7, 251-264
Mudaliar, S. V. (1945). Fatal enteritis in goats due to immature amphistomes, probably Cotylophoron
cotylophorum. Indian J. vet. Sci., 15, 54-56
Pande, P. G. (1935). Acute amphistomiasis of cattle in Assam. A preliminary report. Ibid, 5,
364-375
Peter, C. T. and Mudaliar, S. V. (1948). On a new cercaria, determined to be the larva of Gastrodiscus
secundus Looss, 1907. Curr. Sci., 17, 303-304
Ramanujachari, G. and Alwar, V. S. (1954). A check-list of parasites (classes—Trematoda, Cestoda
and Nematoda) in the Department of Parasitology, Madras Veterinary College. Indian vet. J.,
31, 46-56
Rao, M. A. N. (1932a). Cercaria kylasami sp. nov. Indian J. vet. Sci., 2, 259-261
—
(1932b). A comparative study of cercarial fauna in Madras. Indian vet. J., 9, 107-111
—and
Ayyar, L. S. P. (1932). A preliminary report of two amphistome cercariae and
their adults. Indian J. vet. Sci., 2, 402-405
Sewell, R. B. S. (1922). Cercariae indicae. Indian J. med. Res., 10, (Suppl.), 1-370
Sinha, B. B. (1950). Life history of Cotylophoron cotylophorum, a trematode parasite from the rumen
of cattle, goat and sheep. Indian J. vet. Sci., 20, 1-11
Srivastava, H. D. (1938). A study of the life history and pathogenicity of Cotylophoron cotylophorum
(Fischoeder, 1901) Stiles and Goldberger, 1910 of Indian ruminants and biological control to
check the infestation. Ibid, 8, 381-385
Vaidyanathan, S. N. (1941). Experimental infestation with Fischoederius elongatus in a calf at Madras
Ibid, 11, 243
INHIBITORY EFFECT OF KAMALA (MALLOTUS PHILIPPI¬
NENSIS) ON SUCCINIC DEHYDROGENASE OF TAPE WORM
(MONIEZIA
EXPANSA)
By AJIT SINGH* and I. M. CHAK, Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow
(Received for publication on April 29, 1955)
F OR nearly a century, kamala, consisting of hairs and glands of the fruits of Mallo-
tus philippinensis Muel Arg. has been regarded as a good anthelmintic against
tape worms and has been included as such in both the British Pharmaceutical Codex
[1934] and the British Veterinary Codex [1953]. The drug is obtained by rubbing the
small three-celled fruits and sifting the resulting powder. The precise way by which
this drug exerts its anthelmintic action is, however, not known. An attempt has
been made to find out whether the activity of kamala, could be correlated with any
of its effects on the various enzyme systems [Buiding, 1949] present in the tape
worm, and thus interfering with its metabolism. This article reports the results
of study of the action of the drug on succinic dehydrogenase of Moniezia expansa.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Enzyme preparation. The preparation was made from the whole worm (Moniezia
expansa) obtained fresh from slaughter house in an iced container. The worms were
crushed and extracted twice with phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) by adding 10 c.c. per
5 gm. of the worm tissue. The extract was then centrifuged at 3,000 R.P.M. and
was employed as such. For each experiment a fresh extract was made in the above
manner, except for the experiments carried out to study the effects of change in
pH, where the worms were extracted in distilled water instead of phosphate buffer
and the quantity of water used for this purpose was half that of the buffer used for
the other experiments.
Kamala solution. The solution was obtained by dissolving a known quantity
of the drug in minimum quantity of caustic soda solution (10 per cent) neutralising
this with HCL (10 per cent) and finally diluting the resultant solution with distilled
water to the desired concentration.
Sodium succinate solution. An M/3 stock solution of sodium succinate was first
prepared and any desired concentration was subsequently obtained by suitable
dilution with water.
Methylene Blue. (1 : 5000) 0.2 gm. of the dye was dissolved in a litre of distilled
water.
Phosphate buffer. The two stock solutions of Na 2 HPO 4 and KH 2 PO 4 (M/15)
were prepared according to Sorensen.
Determination of succinic dehydrogenase acitivity. The enzyme activity was
determined by employing Thunberg's technique, using methylene blue as an indi-
cator. The time taken for 50 per cent reduction of the dye was determined by com-
parison with the standard. Inhibition was studied at 37°C. in all experiments.
* Fellow of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
31
59 AR/55.
8
32
INHIBITORY EFFECT OF KAMALA
[Vol. XXVI, Part I,
The concentration of the different constituents taken are mentioned under each
experiment described below.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND RESULT
Experiment I. The degree of enzyme inhibition was studied by employing differ-
ent concentrations of kamala on a known amount of the enzyme. 1 cc. of kamala
solution (of different concentrations) and 0.3 cc. of the enzymic extract were taken
in the hollow stopper and 1 cc. of methylene blue and 1 cc. of the substrate in the
tube. The Thunberg tubes were then quickly evacuated, the contents mixed and the
tubes kept at 37°C. till 50 per cent reduction of methylene blue was obtained. The
time was recorded and the corresponding activity calculated. Each figure in the
Table corresponds to mean of three observations obtained in this manner. The
results are summarised in Table I.
TABLE I
Variation of inhibitory effect with change in concentration of kamala
Number
Control
1
2
3
4
5
Concentration
of Kamala
0
1:5000
1:4000
1:3000
1:2000
1:1000
Percentage
activity
(A=1/T×100)
11.1
8.3
4.0
3.3
2.2
0.78
Percentage
inhibition
0
25
64
70
80
93
It will be seen from Table I that the percentage inhibition of the enzyme increases
progressively with increase in drug concentration.
Experiment II. The substrate (1 cc.), methylene blue (1 cc.) and the phosphate
buffer (1 cc.) of required pH were taken in the tube, and 0.3 cc. of the enzymic
extract and 1 cc. of the inhibitor in the hollow stopper. The rest of the procedure
was identical with that followed in the Experiment I. Suitable controls were run
at different pH levels by replacing inhibitor with water, and the percentage increase
of time for 50 per cent inhibition was calculated at these pH levels.
TABLE II
The effect of change of pH on the inhibition produced by kamala
Number.
1
2
3
4
pH
6.0
7.0
7.4
8.4
Time of reduction
(in minutes)
With Kamala
75
45
33
27
With water
(control)
36
18
13
10
Percentage increases
of time for 50 per
cent inhibition
108
150
154
170
March, 1956]
AJIT
SINGH
AND
I.
M.
CHAK
33
It is evident from Table II that with the shift of pH towards the alkaline region
the time for inhibition correspondingly increases.
Experiment III. The same procedure (Experiment I) was employed except
that substrate concentrations were in this series varied. The concentration of
kamala used in this experiment was 1/1000. The results are given in Table III.
TABLE III
Variation of Inhibi ory effect of kamala with change in concentration of the substrate
Number
1
2
3
4
Concentration of the
substrate
M/10
M/6
M/4
M/3
Percentage
Activity
(A=1/T×100)
0.74
1.33
2.22
4.7
Percentage
inhibition
85
72
53
30
It is observed, that with a constant concentration of kamala the percentage
activity of the enzyme increased with increase in substrate concentration, and the
percentage inhibition of the enzyme was correspondingly reduced.
Experiment IV. The enzyme and the inhibitor (kamala 1 : 2000) were kept
together for different intervals of time to allow for the absorption of the inhibitor
on the enzyme surface and then activity of the enzyme was determined by combin-
ing it with the substrate, etc. in the manner outlined before. The results are presen-
ted in Table IV.
TABLE IV
The effect of change in time of contact on the inhibition produced by kamala
Number
Control
1
2
3
4
Time of
contact
(in hours)
0
0
2
4
6
Percentage
Activity
(A=1/T×100)
11.1
3.3
2.5
2.0
1.5
Percentage
inhibition
0
73.0
74.0
81.9
86.4
34
INHIBITORY EFFECT OF KAMALA
[Vol. XXVI, Part I,
It is clear from Table IV that with the increase in time of contact, the percentage
activity of the enzyme lessens and the percentage inhibition increases accordingly.
DISCUSSION
The result of the present study show that the drug kamala, has a pronounced
inhibitory action on the succinic dehydrogenase activity of Moniezia expansa. In
view of the importance of succinic acid as one of the stages in the conversion of
pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide and water, and the possibility of pyruvic acid
being the intermediate not only in the carbo-hydrate metabolism (Kreb's), but also
in the fat and protein metabolisms ; it is quite possible that inhibition of this
enzyme by the drug may be one of the factors responsible for its anthelmintic
properties.
It was observed that increase in concentration of the drug brings about an in-
crease in inhibition of the enzyme. Furthermore, it was found that the inhibition
of the enzyme decreases with the increase in the concentration of the substrate.
This indicates that the drug and the substrate may have the same point of attack
on the enzyme. As the concentration of the substrate is reduced, the points of
attachment for the drug on the enzyme surface are increased and hence there is an
increase in inhibition. These findings suggest that the inhibition produced by
kamala is of the competitive type.
SUMMARY
1. Kamala inhibits the succinic dehydrogenase activity of the worm.
2. The degree of inhibition of the enzyme increases progressively with the
increase in concentration of kamala.
3. The inhibition increases progressively in the alkaline region.
4. The percentage inhibition produced by kamala decreases with the increase
in concentration of the substrate.
5. The inhibition increases with the increase in time of contact of the drug and
the enzyme.
REFERENCES
Buiding, E. (1949). Physiological Reviews, 29, 195
The British Pharmaceutical Codex. (1934). 571
The British Veterinary Codex (1953). 188
CONTROL OF FERTILITY IN FARM ANIMALS
By E. S. E. HAFEZ,* Faculty of Agriculture, University of Cairo, Egypt
(Received for publication on July 23, 1954)
L ITTLE is known about the phenotypic and genetic correlations between
animal fertility and high production. In the Swedish highland cattle [Lagerlof,
1950 ; Lagerlof and Boyd, 1952] hypoplasia is associated with more butter-fat, and
cystic ovaries with greater quantity of milk. Thus selective breeding for high
production tends to spread sterility. There is always an interaction between climate,
husbandry methods and the genetic makeup of the animal.
The main components of climate involved in the expression of fertility are
the daylight environment and temperature. Their effects vary markedly with
the species and locality. Bovine fertility is associated with the ultra-violet com-
ponents of sunshine [Abrams, 1952]. It seems that short hours are detrimental
in high latitudes whereas high temperatures are detrimental at low latitudes. In
sheep, however, the short-days environment coincides with high fertility, especially
at high latitudes [Hafez, 1952a]. Meanwhile high atmospheric temperature is inimi-
cal to satisfactory gestation and causes a decrease in birth weight in sheep [Yeates,
1953].
The age and size at which the animals are bred are important factors with regard
to the economics of milk production. In cattle, the highest milk yields and the greatest
number of calves are produced when the first service is 16 to 18 months, the growth
and development of subsequent production of the resulting calves being normal
[Usakov, 1953]. There is always a positive correlation between milk production
of the first half of lactation and the service period [Olds and Seath, 1953]. However,
the fertility level is affected by the service period [Olds et al., 1949 ; Van Demark and
Salisbury, 1950], as well as the time of service during the heat period [Trimberger
and Davis, 1943 ; Trimberger, 1948], the season of mating [Badreldin, 1952 ; Sidky,
1953] and the method of breeding. In sheep, artificial insemination with mixed
semen (from two rams) increases lambing percentage, birth weight and subsequent
growth rate [Causovskii, 1952].
Inbreeding generally results in reduced fertility [Woodward and Graves, 1946]
the exact degree of which depends on the male because bulls differ considerably
in their fertility [Milk Marketing Board, 1950]. The bulls also differ in respect of their
daughters' fertility. There is little evidence to show that herd differences
in the fertility level are genetic [Trimberger and Davies, 1955 ; Olds and Seath, 1950].
In cattle, the heritability and repeatability of the cycle length is very low [Asdell,
1952]. Thus selection for fertility is not very effective.
In the improvement of farm animals, special stress is laid on the development of
certain characters like high milk production, high growth rate as well as high
* Present Address : The Worcester Foundation for Experimental Biology, Shrewsbury.
Massachusetts, U.S.A.
35
59 AR/55.
9
36
CONTROL OF FERTILITY IN FARM ANIMALS [Vol. XXVI, Part I,
fertility. The physiological means by which the activity of one particular part of
the body is stimulated is largely through the hormones [Hammond, 1950].
The present study is an attempt to recommend practical husbandry methods to
control fertility in ruminating farm animals.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The experimental material of this investigation comprised 33 domestic buffalo-
cows Bos (Bubalus) bubalis, 22 Egyptian cows, and 99 fat-tailed ewes (Ossimi and
Rahmani breeds) of different ages. Fertile males for each class of animals were
available. The animals were kept at the Animal Breeding Research Farm, Giza,
and were previously inbred for over 12 years. Cows and buffalo-cows were fastened in
double-row stables by means of chains and neck-halters while the ewes were running
in open paddocks. All the males were ochred on the brisket with coloured grease and
were joined with the females daily. Records were kept for the incidence of oestrus,
mating and conception for over two years. The animals were fed on green clover
Trifolium alexandrinum during the winter and with a mixture of concentrates (barley,
horse beans, rice polish and cottonseed cake) and green maize during the summer
months. In buffalo-cows and cows, rectal palpation was carried out at intervals
in non-pregnant and in pregnant animals 60,90 and 120 days after service. Parturi-
tions took place under close observation and the placental membranes (after-birth)
were carefully examined for detection of any foetal mortality. In addition, the
previous reproductive records of all the animals were inspected.
Non-pregnant genitalia from 30 cows and 45 buffalo cows were brought from
Cairo slaughter house during the months of September and October. The ovaries
wore examined macroscopically to determine the ovulation rate of the three species
of farm animals. Pregnant genitalia from 70 buffalo-cows and 40 cows were also
examined to detect the percentage of healthy pregnancies.
RESULTS
In buffalo-cows, the percentage of conception, which required one, two and three
or more services were 56,22,8 and 14 respectively. The average number of services
per conception was 1.46 while the average breeding efficiency as a whole was 93 per
cent. The average cycle length was 21.14 days. One silent heat occurred in 30
per cent of the cases, with an average cycle length of 44 days. Two successive
silent heats occurred in 11 per cent of the cases with an average cycle length of 69
days. The interval to post partum oestrus ranged from 10 to 76 days with an average
of 38 days. (Table I).
In Egyptian cows the number of services required for conception ranged from
1 to 5 with an average of 2.0. The percentage of conceptins which required one, two,
three or more services were 54,20,9, and 17 respectively. The interval to post partum
oestrus ranged from 12 to 60 days with an average of 38 days. Post mortem examina-
tion of the cows' ovaries after calving showed that the first post partum cycles were
ovulatory.
March, 1956]
E.
S.
E.
HAFEZ
37
TABLE I.
Fertility measures in Egyptian livestock (adults)
Observation
Conception after :
1 service
2 services
3 services
more than 3 services
Average services per conception
Range of cycle length (days)
Average cycle length (days)
Silent heat
1 silent heat
2 silent heats
Interval to post partum oestrus(days)
Range
Mean
Buffalo-cows
(per cent)
56
22
8
14
1.46
8.25—24.50
21.14±0.3
30 per cent
11 per cent
10—76
38±1.2
Cows
(per cent)
54
20
9
17
2.0
21.33±0.3
17 per cent
12 per cent
12—60
38±1.1
Ewe
Rahmani
(per cent)
50
10
10
30
1.8
18.1±0.4
11 per cent
..
17—62
40±1.0
Ossimi
(per cent)
0
42
16
42
2.3
17.7±0.3
7 per cent
..
29—63
41±1.4
40
CONTROL OF FERTILITY IN FARM ANIMALS [Vol. XXVI, Part I,
Lagerlof, N. (1950.) Hereditary forms of sterility in Swedish cattle breeds. Fertility & Sterility
2, 230-239
— and Boyd, H. (1952.) Post-mortem examination of the sexual organs of 6, 286 cows of the Swedish
Highland breed, with special reference to ovarian hypoplasia. Proc. 2nd Int. Congr. Physio.
(Copenhagen), 2, 164-174
Milk Marketing Board, (1950). Report No. 1, Production Division Thames Ditton, Surrey, England
Olds, D. and Seath, D. M. (1950). Predictability of breeding efficiency in dairy cattle. J. Dairy
Sci., 33, 721-724
— (1953) Repeatability, heritability and the effect of level of milk production on the occurrence of
first oestrus after calving dairy cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 12, 10-14
Morrison, H. B. and Seath, D. M. (1949). Efficiency of natural breeding in dairy cattle Ken. Agric
Exp. Sta. Bull. 539
Sidky, A. R. (1953). The buffalo of Egypt, Government Press, Cairo
Trimberger, G. W. (1948). Breeding efficiency in dairy cattle from artificial insemination at various
intervals before and after ovulation. Nebra. Agric. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull., 153
— and Davis, H. P. (1934). Conception rate in dairy cattle by artificial insemination at various
stages of oestrus. Ibid., 129
— (1945). Predictability of breeding efficiency in dairy cattle from the previous conception rate and
from their heredity. J. Dairy Sci. 28, 659-669
Usakov, V. A. (1953). The age of heifers at first service. Sovetsk.Zooteh, 8(3), 76-80 (Anim. Breed
Abstr. 21, 257)
Van Demark, N. L. and Salisbury, G. W. (1950). The relation of the post partum breeding interval
to reproductive efficiency in dairy cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 9, 307-313
Woodward, T. E. and Grayes, R. R. (1946). U. S. Dept. Agric. Tech. Bull., 339
Yeates, N. T. M. (1953). The effect of high air temperature on reproduction in the ewe. J. Agric.
Sci., 43, 199-203