NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
September, 1958]
M.R.DHANDA,
et.
al.
155
(vi) Inoculate four white mice each with the suspension in a dose of 0.5 ml. intra-
peritoneally to ensure complete death of the organisms in the suspension. None
of the inoculated mice should die of pasteurellosis during an observation period of
72 hours.
6. Mixing. (i) Mix with adjuvants in the following proportions :
Bacterial suspension opacity 6-7
Liquid paraffin
Anhydrous lanolin (melted)
15 parts
10 parts
1 part
NOTE. The adjuvants are previously sterilized in hot air oven at 160°C for on
hour.
(ii) Place in a waring blender and mix for 5 to 10 minutes until a homogenous
suspension is obtained. In order to prevent the blender getting heated, the process
may have to be carried out in two or three steps, with suitable intervals in-between
each operation.
(iii) Pool in suitable containers.
7. Sterility test. Transfer 1.0 ml. of the vaccine collected from the pooled lot
after thorough mixing into each of two flasks containing 100 ml. of nutrient broth and
another two flasks containing 100 ml. of sodium thioglycollate broth. Incubate for
48 hours and observe for signs of growth of micro-organisms as judged by increased
turbidity, gas production, etc. From the nutrient broth flasks, transfer 1 ml. volumes
on to three blood agar or tryptose agar slants ; incubate for seven days and observe
daily for evidence of growth.
8. Safety test. Inoculate six mice in a dose of 0.5 ml. each intraperitoneally.
No mouse should die of pasteurellosis during an observation period of seven days.
9. Potency test. Vaccine proving safe in mice should be subjected to the follow-
ing potency test:
(i) Inoculate intramuscularly, in the neck or in the gluteal region, three young
bovines or buffaloes in good condition between the ages of nine months to about
four years with 2 ml. of the vaccine in the case of animals weighing up to 300 lb. and
3 ml. for heavier animals.
(ii) All animals should remain well except for a slight rise in body temperature
up to a degree or two and a slight swelling at the site of inoculation during an obser-
vation period of seven days.
(iii) Four weeks after the date of vaccination, these animals along with two
healthy animals of the same type should be challenged by the inoculation, subcuta-
neously, of a virulent 18-hour old broth culture of P. septica stock strain 52, equi-
valent to at least 50 million mouse minimum lethal doses. Both controls should die
of pasteurellosis as revealed by the presence of large numbers of bipolar organisms in
blood smears of the dead animals and at least two of the three vaccinated animals
should survive the challenge during an observation period of seven days.
15 AR/58.
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156
IMMUNOLOGICAL STUDIES ON PASTEURELLA [Vol. XXVIII, Part III
10. Bottling, sealing, labelling, etc. (i) Bottle in amber-coloured bottles and cork
with skirt type rubber caps
(ii) seal with molten paraffin
(iii) label and store in cold storage.
11. Keeping quality. When stored in the cold at 5°C, the vaccine will retain
its potency for a period of at least one year.
However, where such ideal conditions of storage are not available, the product
may be stored in a dark, cool place until use. Period of storage under such condi-
tions should not exceed two months.
12. Dose. The vaccine is administered intramuscularly
(i) for animals weighing up to 300 lb.—2 ml.
(ii) for animals above 300 lb.—3 ml.
13. Instructions for use. (i) The vaccine is prepared from a highly antigenic
strain of P. septica killed by treatment with formalin. It is safe for cattle and
buffaloes in which it will not set up haemorrhagic septicaemia following its adminis-
tration.
(ii) The vaccine is intended for use as a prophylactic and is not to be used during
an outbreak. The vaccination work should be completed 21 days before the rainy
season begins. The vaccine confers an adequate protection against the disease for
a period of about a year and ordinarily it is not necessary to revaccinate before
winter rains, animals that may have been protected just before the monsoons.
(iii) The bottle should be thoroughly shaken before use, as a small oil layer may
separate at the top of the vaccine on standing.
(iv) The vaccine may be drawn directly from the bottle in a syringe fitted with a
reasonably wide-bored needle or the vaccine be poured in a sterile beaker or gallipot
and sucked directly into a syringe.
REFERENCE
Dhanda, M. R., Das, M. S., Lall, J. M. and Seth, R. N. (1956). Immunological studies on
Pasteurella septica. Indian. J. vet. Sc. and Anim. Husb. 26, 273.
FLEECE MEASUREMENT AND WOOL WEIGHT
By HENRY FOSTER
[ Received for publication on January 14, 1957
Accepted for publication on May 14,
1958]
(With 4 Text-Figures)
C ONVINCING evidence of the effectiveness of fleece measurement as an aid to
the selection of Merino sheep has now been made available by the Common-
wealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. Conceived as a result
of sheep-breeding data obtained at the National Field Station, " Gilruth Plairs ",
in Queensland, and by the New South Wales Department of Agriculture at Trangie,
the new system has already gained widespread acceptance by studmasters and
Merino breeders.
The basic information on fleece measurement was obtained from experiments
commenced at the Station in 1947. The critical figures concerned the extent to
which important wool characters in the Merino flock are handed on to the offspring
of the sheep possessing them.
In other words, is a sheep with, say, a heavier-than-average fleece likely to
produce offspring with fleece weights above the average for the flock ? It was
found that Merino sheep do pass on to their offspring a high proport on of their
superiority in many wool characters.
Wool weight, for instance, was found to be strongly nherited, as were also mea-
surable characteristics associated with wool production, such as staple length, fibre
diameter, number of fibres per square inch of skin, number of crimps per inch,
adult body size, degree of skin wrinkling and percentage yield of clean scoured wool.
So Merino sheep selected because of their superiority in one or more of these
highly heritable characters will pass on an effective proportion of that superiority to
their offspring. Selection based on measured performance for any of these charac-
teristics will, therefore, be reflected immediately in the performance of the next
generation.
The importance of measurement as distinct from visual appraisement, no matter
how skilled, s brought home by some interesting tests done by Dr. G. R. Moule, of
the Queensland Department of Agriculture and Stock.
Thirty studmasters and sheep classers were asked to select, by visual appraisal
alone, the best five sheep from a group of thirty. The average greasy fleece
weight of the five sheep receiving the highest number of votes was 0.4 lb. above the
average for the group as a whole. However, when selection was based on greasy
wool weights as well as visual appraisal the top five fleeces averaged 1.0 lb. above the
average.
The experiments at Gilruth Plains have been continued and expanded, and
some further interesting results are now available. In one experiment, rams and
ewes in a Merino breeding flock are being selected on clean wool weight and wool
157
15 AR/58
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September, 1958]
HENRY
FOSTER
159
FIG. 1. These young stud ewes having been previously inspected and any primary (obvious fault)
culls removed, the Flock Testing Officer is marking the mid-side area with a coloured raddle. This
mark identifies an area of the fleece which has been found to be representative of the whole fleece for
most Merino wool characteristics.
FIG. 2. The fleece and card is brought by the " picker up " and placed intact upon the tray of
the weighing scales.
160
FLEECE MEASUREMENT AND WOOL WEIGHT [Vol. XXVIII, Part III.
FIG. 3. The fleece is picked up from the weighing tray and thrown out on the skirting table. Here
the Flock Testing Officer examines the quality of the fleece and takes the previously marked mid-side
area for testing (scouring and appraisal). He notes any quality variations on the card. The skirters
proceed with the skirting of the fleece, which is then
rolled.
FIG. 4. Distribution of 30 fine wool ewe greasy fleece weights (lb.)
Average greasy fleece weight is 8.6 lb.
September, 1958]
RENRY
FOSTER
161
Confirmation of an earlier finding that there is not a strong association between
staple length and fibre diameter is of great importance. A long wool does not neces-
sarily mean a strong wool in terms of actual fibre diameter. The long staple
group, for example, is in fact finer in diameter than the group selected for short
staple, in spite of length. Also, the high wool-weight group has a longer staple and a
finer diameter than the low wool-weight group.
Crimp number and fibre diameter are not closely associated in these groups.
The long staple group, for example, with a crimp number of 11 per inch has a finer
diameter than the short staple group with a crimp of 15 per inch.
It is interesting to observe the effect of positive and negative selection for the
individual characters on clean wool weight. Mean clean wool weights were the
same in both wrinkly and plain groups. This demonstrates once again the falsity
of the belief that increased skin folding leads to higher clean wool production.
There was also no difference in wool weights between the fine and strong fibre groups
in spite of a difference of 22 per cent in fibre diameter. The large body size group
gave only 9 per cent more clean wool than the small body size group although the
weight difference was about 30 per cent. The high clean wool weight group cut
20 per cent more clean wool than the low group, the difference being accounted for
chiefly by increased density (fibre number) and longer staple.
The results are most encouraging. Not only do they show that predictions of
advances through the adoption of fleece measurement methods of selection were
correct, but the results provide a basis for the further refinement of the new
method.
15 AR/58
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STUDIES ON FISH OF THE BAY OF BENGAL
II—PROCESSING OF SHARK FLESH
A. N. BOSE, S. K. DAS GUPTA and B. N. SRIMANI,
Jadavpur University, Calcutta
[ Received for publication on September 18, 1957
Accepted for publication on February 6,
1958]
S HARKS account for a large percentage of catches from the Bay of Bengal. The
main use of sharks at present, is in the manufacture of shark-liver oil. Besides
liver, the body of shark is converted into manure or poultry feed. But several
workers [Mohanty and Roy, 1955 ; Bose, Das Gupta and Srimani, Unpublished]
have shown the high protein value of shark meat. Shark flesh has not been popular
because of its high content of urea which gives a bad taste to the flesh. If urea in
shark flesh can be removed or reduced, the flesh may be quite acceptable. Kamala
Sohonie and Ambe [1954] and Mohanty and Roy [1955] have reported methods for
removing fishy odour from powdered shark meat. Effects of treatments used by
them on the urea content of shark meat have not been indicated.
Urea in shark meat is decomposed by bacteria into ammonia during spoilage,
as has been shown by Shunizu and Oishi [1950]. However, there are little data on
the removal of urea from fish-flesh by chemical treatments. Experiments, reported
here were conducted with a view to find an economic and efficient method for
the removal of urea in shark meat by chemical treatment and making an acceptable
edible product out of it.
EXPERIMENTAL
The species Carcharias gangeticus commonly available in the Bay of Bengal was
utilised for the study. The total solid content of the meat of the species varies
from 23-24 per cent. Meat comprises 50 per cent of the body weight of shark and
the rest of the weight goes to the head, skin, bones and entrails. The meat obtained
was without any bones and was suitable for mincing.
The minced material was treated by various means for the removal of urea and
the effects of steaming, sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, sodium nitrite and
dehydration are given in Table I to V.
163
15 AR/58
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164
STUDIES ON FISH OF BAY OF BENGAL [Vol. XXVIII, Part III,
TABLE I
Effect of steaming on minced shark tissue
Steaming (at 2 psig.)
(time in minutes)
0
30
45
mg/100 gm. of wet tissue
T.V.N.
77.2
87.0
84.3
T.V.N.after urease
digestion
639.7
645.7
595.2
Urea—N
562.08
558.20
510.17
TABLE II
Effect of sodium chloride on minced shark tissue ; steeping for 30 minutes, in 4 per cent
NaCl
Steaming (at 2 psig.)
(time in minutes)
0
30
45
mg/100 gm. of wet tissue
T.V.N.
90.24
89.80
99.70
T.V.N. after urease
digestion
608.40
515.00
507.00
Urea—N
518.16
425.20
407.30
TABLE III
Effect of sodium bicarbonate on minced shark tissue; steaming for 45 minutes (2 psig.)
Steeping in 2 per cent NaHCO 3 )
(time in minutes
0
15
30
45
60
mg/100 gm. of wet tissue
T.V.N.
90.63
74.60
86.90
90.86
87.38
T.V.N. after urease
digestion
538.90
411.18
388.0
388.70
325.60
Urea—N
448.27
336.58
301.10
297.84
238.22
September, 1958] A. N. BOSE, S. K. DAS GUPTA AND B. N. SRIMANI 165
TABLE IV
Effect of sodium bicarbonate on minced shark tissue ; steeping for 45 minutes in 2 per
cent NaHCO 3
Steaming at (2 psig.)
(time in minutes)
0
30
45
mg/900 gm. of wet times
T.V.N.
77.6
108
97
T.V.N. after urease
digestion
639.7
489.9
344
Urea—N
562.68
389.90
247
TABLE V
Effect of sodium nitrite on minced shark tissue ; steeping for 45 minutes in 1 per cent
NaNO 3
Steaming at (2 psig.)
(time in minutes)
0
30
45
50
60
mg/100 gm. of wet tissue
T.V.N.
113.00
81.00
95.80
69.90
88.60
T.V.N. after urease
digestion
639.70
462.30
403.00
371.60
405.50
Urea—N
526.70
371.30
307.20
302.51
316.90
TABLE VI
Effect of dehydration on minced shark tissue ; dried to approx. 2 per cent moisture
content
Temp. of dehydration in °C
60*
70*
70
80
85
mg/100 gm. of dry tissue
T.V.N.
196
317
261
321
400
T.V.N. after urease
digestion
1336
1862
2338
2422
2418
Urea—N
1140
1545
2076
2101
2017
*Steamed at 2 psig. for 15 minutes
166
STUDIES ON FISH OF BAY OF BENGAL [Vol. XXVIII, Part III,
Canning trials
Canning trials were carried out after removal of urea by various methods
mentioned before. For removing urea the minced tissue was steeped in solution for
45 minutes. The solution was then drained out and the meat was washed to remove
any adhering chemicals and then steamed for 45 minutes.
Chemicals used for the removal of urea were 2 per cent NaHCO 3 , 1 per cent NaNO 2 ,
1 per cent NaH 2 PO 4 , 4 per cent NaH 2 PO 4 , 6 per cent NaH 2 PO 4 all in aqueous
solution or solution containing 1 per cent NaNO 2 and 2 per cent NaHCO 3 .
The processed tissue was canned without any liquid in the can. Processing time
was 1½ hours under 10 psig., steam pressure for 301 X 306 tin cans.
Cans were opened after one month (kept in an incubator at 37°C) and tested
organoleptically. The results of the tests are given in Table VII.
Following treatments were also tried :
(i) Shark meat in pieces was canned with 2 per cent NaCl solution
(ii) the pieces were steamed for ½ an hour and then canned in 2 per cent
NaCl solution
(iii) the pieces were fried in mustard oil and then canned in 2 per cent NaCl
solution.
The processing time in each case was 1 hour 15 minutes for 301×306 tin cans.
Organoleptic tests of the canned products which were well preserved, were carried
out with results as given in Table VIII.
DISCUSSION
In the removal of urea. NaHCO 3 treatment gives the best results. About 50 per
cent of the urea is removed when shark tissue is treated with 2 per cent NaHCO 3 for
45 minutes followed by steaming at 2 psig. for 45 minutes but the fresh colour of the
flesh is destroyed. Original colour of the tissue is maintained best by treatment with
sodium nitrite. The reduction of urea with sodium nitrite is less than that with sodium
bicarbonate treatment. Steaming with or without sodium chloride treatment does
not have much influence in the reduction of urea. Dehydration above 70°C gives
the product a brownish appearance. After steaming the minced tissue forms clumps
and presents difficulty during dehydration.
Of the three chemicals,-NaNO 2 , NaCl and NaHCO 3 -NaNO 2 solution gave the
canned product a good reddish appearance and the texture of the product was
acceptable but the main difficulty with NaNO 2 treatment was that the treated product
gave a very low vacuum in the can when it was opened and the flavour of the product
cannot be accepted though the urea removing property of NaNO 2 is as good as that
of the other two chemicals. Low vacuum is probably due to evolution of hydrogen
at the uncovered iron on the tin plate. NaNO 2 is known to enhance the rate of such
evolution. NaHCO 3 and NaH 2 PO 4 treated products are better and found to be
acceptable. During frying, the bad flavour is removed and the urea content is
much reduced. The residual urea content does not cause any off flavour and the
taste of the meat is good as judged organoleptically.
September, 1958] A. N. BOSE, S. K. DAS GUPTA AND B. N. SRIMANI 167
TABLE
VII
Results of tests on shark processed tissue canned under various conditions after removal of urea by various methods
Chemical used
2 per cent NaHCO 3
1 per cent NaNO 3
None
2 per cent NaHCO 3
1 per cent NaH 2 PO 4
4 per cent NaH 2 PO 4
6 per cent NaH 2 PO 4
1 per cent
NaNO 2
2 per cent NaHCO 3
2 per cent NaHCO 3
1 per cent NaNO 2
Steeping
time
45 min.
45 min.
None
45 min.
45 min.
45 min.
45 min.
45 min.
in each
45 min.
in each
Steaming
time
45 min.
45 min.
45 min.
30 min.
45 min.
45 min.
45 min.
45 min.
45 min.
Vacuum in
the can
17" in. Hg
4" in. Hg
16" in. Hg
20" in. Hg
18" in. Hg
16" in. Hg
12" in. Hg
9" in. Hg
16" in. Hg
Flavour
Fishy
Off flavour
Off flavour
No off
flavour
Fishy
Fishy
Fishy
Off flavour
Off flavour
Texture and
colour
Soft, grey
Soft, purple
Soft, reddish
white
Soft, grey
Soft, whitish
Soft, whitish
Soft, pinkish
Soft, reddish
yellow
Soft, reddish
T.V.N.
mg/100 gm.
wet tissue
148.7
—
83.37
160.5
157.4
160.0
184.9
—
—
T.V.N.
after
urease
d igestion
mg/100 gm.
wet tissue
361.3
—
650.8
235.9
255.8
236.8
243.6
—
—
Urea-N
mg./100 gm.
wet tissue
212.6
—
567.43
75.4
98.4
76.8
58.7
—
—
Remarks
Cancelled
Inedible
Inedible
Inedible
168
STUDIES ON FISH OF BAY OF BENGAL [Vol. XXVIII, Part III,
TABLE VIII
Results of tests on shark tissue canned under various conditions
Sample
Shark tissue (in pieces)
Shark tissue (in pieces)
Shark tissue fried in mustard oil
Steaming
time
None
45 min.
None
Vacuum
7 in. Hg
12 in. Hg
14 in. Hg
T.V.N. mg/100
gm. wet tissue
—
72.5
137.5
T. V. N. after
urease digestion
mg/100 gm.
wet tissue
—
674.4
237.6
Urea-N
mg/100 gm of
wet tissue
—
601.9
100.1
Remarks
Cancelled
—
—
September, 1958] A. N. BOSE, S. K. DAS GUPTA AND B. N. SRIMANI 169
SUMMARY
Urea is the most objectionable constituent in the shark tissue. Few methods for
removal of urea were tried. Steaming, dehydration and treatment with chemicals
like NaNO 2 , NaHCO 3 and NaCl were employed. NaHCO 3 gave the best result.
NaNO 2 treatment gives the product a good appearance. Other chemicals are little
effective in removing urea.
Canning after removal of urea was attemped. NaHCO 3 and NaH 2 PO 4 treated
products were found to be good while NaNO 2 treated product gave a bad odour when
the cans were opened.
Canning in pieces in 2 per cent NaCl solution was tried. Shark meat in pieces,
when canned after frying in mustard oil, was found to be acceptable.
REFERENCES
Chopra, B. N. (Ed) ((1951). Indian Fisheries, Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture publication
Mohanty, G. B. and Roy, A. B. (1955). Science, 121, 41
Bose, A. N., Das Gupta, S. K., and Srimani, B. N. (Under Publication)
Sohonie, Kamala and Ambe, K. S. (1954) Symposium on proteins in health and diseases, National
Institute of Science, India
Walasu Shunizu and Keichi Oishi (1950). Bull. Japan Soc. Science Fisheries, 16, 29
RUMEN DIGESTION
A REVIEW*
By O. P. AGARWALA, †Department of Dairy Husbandry, University of
Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, U.S.A.
[ Received for publication on February 1, 1958
Accepted for publication on April 4, 1958]
I N HERBIVOROUS animals the alimentary canal is highly specialized. It has
in its course a roomy compartment to accommodate a large intake of roughages,
to delay its passage for proper soaking and efficient digestion of cellulose, synthesis
of animal proteins and vitamins, and to neutralize the toxic substances such as
phytin taken with bulk ; but this roomy structure also results in large heat incre-
ments after eating, which the animals find difficult to dissipate, specially in hot
environments. In non-ruminant hervibores such as the horse, these functions are
performed by large caeca and colons; while in ruminants such as the cow, the
complex stomach consists of four chambers called rumen, reticulum, omasum and
abomasum, which (particularly the rumen) take care of the complex biological
fermentation of food. Between these two extremes, intermediate types also exist.
The hippopotamus and kangaroo have comparatively large stomachs which are
sacculated along the greater curvature and which bear cardial diverticula. In
the camel in which the omasum is absent, sacculations are found in the lower walls
of reticulum and colon and possibly compensate for the absence of the omasum.
In between the carnivores and herbivores are the birds in which the food picked
up is stored in the crop, from which it passes to the proventriculus, where it gets
mixed with gastric juices, and thence down to the gizzard where it is ground up.
There are two caeca which open at the junction of the small and large intestines.
In the cloaca the excreta from the intestines and urine get mixed up and are excreted
together through common vent.
REVIEW
Rumen digestion has been studied for a long time. Reports of Collin [1852],
Zuntz [1891] and Hagemann [1891] are worth mentioning as some of the earlier
studies on this subject. Hastings [1944], Thaysen [1945], Hungate [1946], Johansson
and Sarles [1949], and Doetch [1953] have reviewed the microbiological aspect of
rumen digestion. Vitamin synthesis in the rumen has been specially reviewed by
Goss [1943], Kon [1945], Najjar and Barret [1945] and Kon and Porter [1954].
General rumen digestion, specially cellulose digestion and synthesis of animal
*Prepared as per. assignment under course No. D. H. 302 entitled 'Advanced Dairy Production
Problems' of the University of Nebraska (Graduate College), Lincoln, Nebraska, U. S. A.
†Senior Lecturer, Department of Animal Husbandry, Allahabad Agricultural Institute, Allahabad,
U.P.
171
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