NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
22
INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
[VOL. XXIX, PART I
the Fayomi cocks were intermediate. Breed differences in this respect were highly
significant. There were also significant differences between these breeds in the percen-
age of live sperms in stored semen. Nevertheless, the Leghorns ranked first in this respect
followed by the Fayomi, then the Baladi. Again, no marked differences were observed
between the three breeds with regard to the percentage of sperm abnormalities, although
the differences were statistically significant. The percentage of abnormalities was about
the same for both the Leghorn and the Baladi cocks, while it was slightly higher for
the Fayomi cocks. The maximum sperm concentration was produced by the White
Baladi cocks, followed by the White Leghorns. The least concentration was produced
by the Fayomi cocks. These differences are highly significant. As regards the total num-
ber of sperms, number of live or abnormal sperms per ejaculate, the Leghorn cocks
produced the largest numbers.
The numbers for the Fayomi cocks were extremely
low, while the Baladi cocks produced the intermediate numbers in this respect. Breed
differences between the numbers were highly significant. The analysis of variance for the
previous semen characteristics are shown in Table III. The Fayomi and Baladi cocks
weighed about the same, while the Leghorns were markedly heavier. In general, it
could be observed that the best semen characteristics were recorded for the White Leghorn
cocks.
TABLE III—Analysis of variance of semen characteristics as influenced by breed differences
Characteristics
1
Semen volume
Motility
Per cent live in fresh
Per cent live in stored
Source
of
variation
2
Breeds
residual
TOTAL
Breeds
residual
TOTAL
Breeds
residual
TOTAL
Breeds
residual
TOTAL
Degrees
of
freedom
3
2
152
154
2
152
154
2
152
154
2
152
154
Sum
of
squares
4
0.2641
5.6130
5.8771
38.59
1842.16
1880.75
3023
40233
43256
1079
45832
46911
Mean
square
5
0.1321
0.0369
..
19.30
12.12
..
1514
265
..
540
301
..
F. value
6
3.58 *
..
..
1.59 N.S.
..
..
5.71 †
..
..
179 N.S.
..
..
MARCH,
1959]
SEMEN CHARACTERISTICS OF FOREIGN AND NATIVE FOWLS
23
TABLE III—contd.
1
Per cent abnormalities
Conc. (mils-c.mm.)
No. of sperm-ejac. (mils.)
No. of live sperm-eiac. (mils.)
No. of abnormal sperm-ejac. (mils.)
2
Breeds
residual
TOTAL
Breeds
residual
TOTAL
Breeds
residual
TOTAL
Breeds
residual
TOTAL
Breeds
residual
TOTAL
3
2
152
154
2
152
154
2
152
154
2
152
154
2
152
154
4
413
17616
18029
250.94
1884.40
2135.34
66467976
908726917
975194893
45443311
621441804
666885115
2791428
53436328
56227756
5
207
116
..
125.47
12.40
..
33233988
5978467
..
22721656
4088433
..
1395714
351555
..
6
1.78 N.S.
..
..
10.12 †
..
..
5.56 †
..
..
5.56 †
..
..
3.97 *
..
..
N.S.—Not significant
*Significant at per cent level
†Significant at 5 per cent level.
Sperm abnormalities
As will be observed from Table IV, most abnormalities in sperms occurred as coiled
tails for the three breeds. No particular trend could be strictly distinguished between
the breeds in the forms studied (Fig. 2). However, the lowest percentages of coiled tails
were formed by the Baladi, whilst the maximum was produced by the Leghorns; Fayomi
TABLE IV—Breed differences in percentages of abnormal forms of sperms
Abnormal forms
Coiled tail
Broken tail
Tailless
Coiled head
Hooked head
Ruptured head
Other forms
TOTAL
White
Baladi
4.68
4.41
5.61
2.63
1.42
1.81
3.31
23.87
White
Leghorn
6.30
4.62
5.75
2.52
1.38
1.07
1.50
23.14
Fayomi
5.60
5.66
7.22
3.07
1.40
1.38
2.37
26.70
Total
average
5.73
5.11
6.20
2.74
1.40
1.42
2.39
24.99
cocks were in between the two. The least percentages of broken tail and tailless sperms
were formed by the White Baladi cocks. These percentages were lower for the White
Leghorns than for the Fayomi cocks. The lowest percentages of coiled, hooked, ruptured
or other head abnormalities were in the White Leghorn cocks. Although the White Baladi
24
INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
[VOL. XXIX, PART I
cocks showed a high frequency of ruptured and other head abnormalities than the Fayomi
cocks, this trend was reversed in coiled heads. The three breeds were about the same in
producing hooked sperms.
Fig. 2. Breed differences in abnormal forms of sperms
DISCUSSION
The differences observed between various breeds at the same locality and conditions are
to be attributed to the fact that they possess quite different genetical make-ups. The difference
in the origin of each breed, with consequent differences in environment and physiology
is also another factor involved. However, White Leghorn cocks gave almost the highest
values in semen characteristics, as compared to the other two indigenous breeds.
This
is to be expected since the indigenous breeds are still lacking in homogenity in their genetic
make-up. The selection which they have undergone is not enough to build up a standard
breed. This condition retarded the progress in the physiological characteristics as well as
the productive, reproductive and the morphological characters. However, while the indi-
genous breeds had lower semen characteristics than the White Leghorn cocks, it was obser-
ved that the differences between individuals within the two native breeds were very wide
and that some of the Fayomi and Baladi cocks produced semen with higher semen characte-
ristics than that of the White Leghorns. This provides a good opportunity for selection
and improvement of these native breeds.
In this experiment, the breeds were compared during spring in a restricted part of the
year. When comparing them during the other parts of the year or for the whole year
these results may not hold good. It is known that the indigenous breeds are resistant to
the summer conditions prevailing in Egypt, and the Fayomi cocks were found to produce
their highest semen qualities during this period [Kamar, 1958]. It is doubtful whether
the foreign breeds like White Leghorn can resist the climatic conditions in summer; their
semen characteristics may decrease greatly during this period.
There are great differences in semen characteristics of White Leghorn cocks when the
results obtained in this experiment are compared with those obtained by other investigators.
This is mainly due to the differences in the technique employed in obtaining semen ejaculates
as no milking for the copulatory organs was practised at all. There are also other factors
involved, viz. differences in latitude, locality, management, nutrition and surroundings.
MARCH, 1959] SEMEN CHARACTERISTICS OF FOREIGN AND NATIVE FOWLS 25
Within the same breed, like Fayomi, wide individual differences were observed in
semen characteristics. These wide individual differences may be due to the fact that the
Fayomi birds represent six strains or groups as classified by their down feathers [Foud,
1954], where each group may have a quite different reproductive capacity than the others.
Also wide individual differences have been observed in semen characteristics of White
Baladi which are slight among White Leghorn cocks.
Fayomi males produced the highest percentages of abnormal sperms which may explain
the high embryonic mortality in Fayomi eggs [Hafez and Kamar, 1955]. This is supported
by the highly significant correlation between sperm abnormalities and embryonic morta-
lity [Allen and Champion, 1955].
SUMMARY
Semen samples were collected from 12 White Leghorn cocks, 12 White Baladi cocks
and 18 Fayomi cocks during the months of March, April and May. Two collections were
obtained each month. The following results were obtained :
The averages of successful trial percentages, semen volume, motility, percentage of live
sperms in fresh or stored semen, total abnormalities, sperm concentration, total number of
sperms per ejaculate, number of live sperms per ejaculate, number of abnormal sperms
per ejaculate, and body weight were 73, 0.25 cc., 5.7, 77, 60, 23, 6.03 mils. c.mm., 2641
mils., 2127 mils., 568 mils. and 2245 gm. for White Leghorn cocks ; 63, 0.32 cc., 4.5, 66,
55, 24, 6.53 mils. c.mm., 2092 mils., 1411 mils., 496 mils. and 1586 gm. for White Baladi
cocks ; and 68, 2.26 cc., 5.5, 68, 55, 27, 3.74 mils. c.mm., 1137 mils., 843 mils., 271 mils.
and 1629 gm. for Fayomi cocks respectively. White Leghorn cocks yielded semen of
the best quality value, showed the highest sexual activity and the heaviest body weights
of the three breeds studied.
REFERENCES
Allen, C. J. and Champion L. R. (1955). Poult. Sci. 34: 1332
Foud, I. (1954). M.Sc. Thesis. Fac. Agric., Cairo University
Hafez, E.S.E. and Kamar, G.A.R. (1955). Poult. Sci. 34: 524
Kamar, G.A.R. (1958). In press
Raimo, H. F. (1943). Bol. Indust. Animal, N. S., 7: 61
Snedecor, G. W. (1950). Statistical Methods (The Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa, U. S. A.).
PLATE I
[Indian J. vet. Sci. VOL. XXIX, PART I
Fig. 1 :
Fig. 2 :
Fig. 3 :
Fig. 4 :
Fig. 5 :
Fig. 6 :
Fig. 7 :
Fig. 8 :
Fig. 9 :
Ovary of Cirrhina reba
Stage I oocytes and ovococl in the ovary of Cirrhina reba.
A nest of small oocytes.
A Stage I oocyte and yellow granular pigment mass.
Stage II oocytes with vacuoles in the cytoplasm.
A solitary Stage III oocyte showing initiation of yolk deposition.
A few Stage IV oocytes where the yolk deposition is complete.
A portion of the vitelline membrane of adjacent Stage IV oocytes. Thin follicular
layer formed of elongated cells may be noted.
Proliferating oocytes in the ovigerous lamella in the depleted ovary.
Stages in the resorption of atretic oocytes. Follicular hypertrophy may be seen.
X 100
X 550
X 400
X 120
X 100
X 60
X 350
H 650
X 110
Key to the lettering
pig.—pigment masses, ocy. I — Stage I oocyte, ocy. II — Stage II oocyte, ocy. III — Stage III oocyte
ocy. IV — Stage IV oocyte. Ovc. — ovocoel, nst. ocy. — oocyte, vac. — vacuole, yk — yolk, vit. mb.—vitelline
membrane, fol. ly — follicular layer, atr. ocy — atretic oocyte.
PLATE II
[Indian J. vet. Sci. vol. xxix, part
Fig. 1 :
Fig. 2 :
Fig. 3 :
Fig. 4 :
Fig. 5 :
Fig. 6 :
Fig. 7 :
Fig. 8 :
Fig. 9 :
Testis of Cirrhina reba
Germ cells in active state of division in the Stage C testis of Cirrhina reba. Cysts of
dividing spermatocytes and a spermatogonium situated in the middle may be seen.
Stage C test is showing the sperm duct filled with sperm.
'Parachute-like' arrangement of the sperm mass.
Sperm-filled lumina of the lobules in Stage D testis. The narrow lobular wall and the
establishment of open connection between adjacent lobules are brought out.
A portion of Stage F testis showing lumina of the lobules with few degenerating relict
sperm. Abundance of stromal element and spermatogonia with round, nuclei also
may be seen.
Stage F testis with empty sperm duct and lobules.
A few lobules of Stage A testis showing the arrangement of spermatogonia along the
lobular wall.
Amitosis of a spermatogonium by nuclear plate formation in Stage A testis.
Polymorphic nuclei in the spermatogonia of Stage A testis.
X 500
X 60
X 450
X 100
X 500
X 500
X 700
X1500
X1350
Key to the lettering
spe — spermatocyte, spg — spermatogonium, v. def — vas deferens, spm — sperm, cnt. ts — connective
tissue.
MARCH, 1959]
GONADS
OF
Cirrhina Reba
31
The sexual cycle of C. reba is broadly divided into post-spawning, pre-spawning and
spawning phases, [Sathyanesan, 1957]. In this division, the post-spawning phase is consti-
tuted, by stages VI, I and II of the female and stages F, A and B of the male. Stage III of
the female and Stage C of the male represent the pre-spawning phase. Stages IV and V of the
female and D and E of the male go to form the spawning phase.
TABLE I : The monthly condition factor of the Gonads
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Condition
factor
(Female)
2.6
4.1
7.9
18.2
61.6
110.3
138.1
139.0
175.2
8.8
3.7
3.4
Stage of
ovary
I
II
IV
VI
III
V
I
Condition
factor
(male)
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.7
3.2
4.2
5.8
5.9
2.7
3.9
2.6
0.3
Stage of
testis
A
C
D
F A
B
E
The monthly condition factor of the gonads exhibits an increase which coincides
with their growth and enlargement. This value reaches its peak during the spawning period
when the gonads are fully ripe. Immediately after spawning a downward trend of this factor
is in evidence. In the case of the female, the slope is sharp whereas in the male it appears
gradual (Table I).
DISCUSSION
This minor carp C. reba is an annual breeder, spawning during July to September which
coincides with the onset of the monsoon. The gross morphological variations of the gonads
have definite relation with the changes in their histology. The variations in the condition factor
(Table I) may also be taken as a safe guide to determine the condition of the gonads.
Breeding of C. reba during June to September in River Cauvery was reported by
Alikunhi and Nagaraja Rao [1951]. However, Chacko [1950] observed the spawning period
of this minor carp in the same river during July to October. This small shift in the spawning
period may be rightly attributed to the changes in the environmental conditions responsible
for the induction of spawning. The factors influencing the breeding of carps, major carps in
particular, have not yet been fully solved [Hora, 1945 and Mukerjee, 1945]. Since a dis-
cussion on these factors has little relation in this study, it is not included here. However,
C. reba being a minor carp, a description of the type of pond in which they breed is of im-
portance. This tank is roughly 5 acres in its area, having mud bunds all around. The water
is shallow towards the bank where the luxuriant grassy vegetation is seen even above the
surface of the water. It is fed by an artificial channel from one of the tributaries of the river
Cauvery. The fishes were prevented from escaping out of the tank by closing the feeding
INVESTIGATIONS ON SUBSIDIARY FEEDS
RICE (ORYZA SATIVA) HUSK AS CATTLE FEED
N. D. KEHAR, K. CHANDRA and P. N. JOHRI, Indian Veterinary Research Institute,
Izatnagar (U.P.)
Received on June 17, 1958 and accepted for publication on August 8, 1958
India is one of the food-deficit countries. According to a recent estimate [Kehar, 1953]
food requirement of the livestock is short by 77 per cent in digestible crude protein and 62
per cent in starch equivalent. Efforts have been made in these laboratories to meet this quanti-
tative shortage by exploring, hitherto, unutilized sources of food. These investigations have
shown that substances like ripe munj (Saccharum munja) and molasses [Kehar, 1944], mango
(Mangifera Indica Linn.) seed kernel [Kehar and Chanda, 1945], entrails [Kehar and Chanda,
1947], jaman (Eugenia jambolana) seeds [Kehar and Sahai, 1949 a], maize (Zea mays) husk [Pandit-
tesekere, Ray and Kehar, 1948], kans (Saccharum spontaneum) [Kehar, 1948] and tamarind-
(Tamarindus indica) seed [Kehar and Sahai, 1949 b], which do not find economical use at
present, can be successfully exploited as animal feed. The observations reported in this article
relate to the use of rice husk as cattle feed.
Rice is one of the most important food crops of India. While grains are used for human
consumption and straw as cattle feed, the husk that is obtained as a by-product, during the
preparation of the grain for human consumption, is not economically utilized.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Rice husk was analysed for some of the organic and inorganic constituents. These values,
as compared with some of other husks, are given in Table I.
TABLE I—Percentage chemical composition of rice husk with some other common husks on dry
matter basis
Name of husk
Rice (Oryza sativa) husk
Arhar ( Cajanus indica) husk
Gram ( Cicer arietinum) husk
Maize ( Zea mays) husk
Organic constituents
Crude
prote-
in
6.07
7.04
5.75
8.12
Ether
extract
0.59
0.40
0.91
1.52
Crude
fibre
28.00
44.10
48.40
15.67
Nitro-
gen-free
extract
49.98
42.98
38.95
72.50
Total
carbo-
hydra-
te
77.98
87.05
87.35
88.17
Inorganic constituents
Total
ash
15.36
5.67
5.99
2.10
Calci-
um
(Ca)
0.230
..
0.165
0.310
Phos-
phorus
(P)
0.360
..
0.090
0.092
Table I shows that in protein content, rice husk is richer than gram husk (Cicer
arietinum) but poorer than maize (Zea mays) husk and arhar (Cajanus indica) husk. The total
carbohydrate content of rice husk is somewhat lower than the other husks taken for compari-
son. As regards the inorganic contents, viz., calcium and phosphorus, rice husk is found to
be richer than others.
Feeding experiments with rice husk were conducted on four adult Kumauni bullocks.
It was observed that the animals did not relish rice husk when fed alone, hence it was gradually
introduced in the roughage quota of the animals. It took rather a long time to stabilize the
35
36
INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
[VOL. XXIX, PART I
consumption of feed. The ration of the animals finally consisted of 1 lb. rape cake as con-
centrate and 5.3 lb. roughage which comprised of rice husk and wheat (Triticum vulgare) bhoosa
in the proportion of 1:1, for the animal weighing about 387 lb. In addition, the animals were
provided with common salt at the rate of 1 oz. per head, daily, The experimental feeding was
continued for a period of 40 days, during the last ten days of which, a metabolic trial was
conducted on the animals, to determine the nutritive value of rice husk.
DISCUSSION
Food consumption and general condition of the animals
The daily dry matter consumption of the animals during the metabolic period was
on an average, 649.7 gm. of dry matter per 100 lb. body weight, per day. Throughout the
feeding period, the animals maintained healthy appearance and showed, on an average,
an increase of 10 lb. per head, in body weight at the end of the feeding period.
Digestibility and nutritive value
The digestibility coefficients of rice husk were determined by the process of elimination.
The average digestibility coefficients for rice husk with respect to crude protein,
ether extract, crude fibre, nitrogen-free extract and total carbohydrates were found to be,
38, 48, 26, 38, and 34 respectively. The digestible nutrients in rice husk, in lb. per 100 lb.
dry matter, were found to be: digestible crude protein 2.31 lb. and total digestible nutrients
29.20 lb. A comparison of the nutritive value of rice husk per 100 lb. of dry matter, as com-
pared with some other common feeds, has been shown in Table II.
TABLE II—Digestible nutrients in rice husk and some other husks (in 100 lb. dry matter)
Name of husks
Rice ( Oryza sativa ) husk
Gram ( Cicer arietinum) husk
Wheat bhoosa
Maize ( Zea mays ) husk
Digestible
crude
protein
2.31
0.00
0.00
4.54
Total
digestible
nutrients
29.20
61.33
47.56
75.30
Table II shows that rice husk has an appreciably higher digestible protein content
as compared to such dry roughages as gram husk and wheat bhoosa. In energy value, however,
rice husk is shown to be much poorer than the roughages taken for comparison.
Nitrogen and mineral balances
Balance studies, under rice husk feeding, were made with respect to nitrogen, calcium
and phosphorus. The average relevant data are shown in Table III.
Table III shows that the animals were in positive balance with respect to nitrogen,
calcium and phosphorus.
The above observations indicated that rice husk could be used with advantage as a part
of the roughage in the dietary of animals.
MARCH,
1959]
RICE HUSK AS CATTLE FEED
37
TABLE III—Average nitrogen and mineral balances (in gm.) per day
Nitrogen
Calcium
Phosphorus
Intake
Rice
husk
10.114
2.420
3.787
Rape
cake
22.384
3.109
5.305
Wheat
bhoosa
6.225
4.017
1.130
Total
38.723
9.546
10.222
Voided
Urine
11.255
0.496
0.137
Faeces
15.885
8.542
8.798
Total
27.140
9.038
8.935
Balance
+11.583
+0.508
+1.287
SUMMARY
Investigations were made to find out if rice husk, which is being wasted at present,
could be utilized as a livestock feed. Chemical analysis of rice husk revealed that it was fairly
rich in crude protein and total carbohydrates.
The husk was mixed with wheat bhoosa in the proportion of 1:1 to make it palatable
The average digestibility coefficients of rice husk with respect to crude protein, ether extract,
crude fibre, nitrogen-free extract and total carbohydrates were found to be, 38, 48, 26, 38 and
34 respectively. The nutrients in lb. per 100 lb. of dry matter of rice husk, were found to be:
digestible crude protein 2.31 lb. and total digestible nutrients 29.2 lb.
Results of balance studies indicated that the animals were in positive balance with res-
pect to nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus.
In view of the above observations it may be concluded that rice husk may be used with
advantage in the dietary of animals as a part of the roughage ration.
REFERENCES
Kehar, N. D. (1944). Indian J. vet. Sci. 14: 40
——(1948). Indian J. vet. Sci. 18: 211
——(1953). Presidential address, 40th Session of Indian Sci. Cong. Assoc.
——and Chanda, R. (1945). Indian. J. vet. Sci. 15: 280
——(1947). Indian J. vet. Sci. 17: 189
——and Sahai, K. (1949 a). Indian J. vet. Sci. 19: 37
——and Sahai, B. (1949 b). Sci. and Cult., 14: 434
——and Negi, S.S. (1950). Sci. and Cult., 15: 447
Pandittesekere, D. G., Ray, S. C. and Kehar, N. D. (1948). Indian J. vet. Sci. 18:81.
6-4 I C. A. R./59.
INVESTIGATIONS ON SUBSIDIARY FEEDS
MAHUA (BASSIA LATIFOLIA) FLOWERS AS CATTLE FEED
N. D. KEHAR, K. CHANDRA and P. N. JOHRI, Indian Veterinary Research
Institute, Izatnagar
Received on May 23, 1958 and accepted for publication on August 8, 1958
According to a recent estimate [Kehar, 1953] the food requirement of livestock in
India is short by 77 per cent in digestible crude protein and by 62 per cent in starch equivalent.
Investigations carried out on a number of substances, which do not find economic use at
present, viz., ripe munj (Saccharum munja) and molasses [Kehar, 1944], mango (Mangifera
indica Linn.) seed kernels [Kehar and Chanda, 1945], entrails [Kehar and Chanda, 1947],
kans (Saccharum spontaneum) [Kehar, 1948], jaman (Eugenia jambolana) seed [Kehar and Sahai
1949], maize (Zea mays) husk [Pandittesekere et al., 1948] and groundnut (Arachis hypogea)
husk [Kehar and Negi, 1950], etc., have revealed that they can be utilised as cattle feed after
suitable processing. These studies have thus made available large quantities of hitherto un-
exploited materials as useful animal feeds. In the present article observations have been pre-
sented on the use of mahua flower as cattle feed.
Mahua tree is found abundantly in the dry and stony regions of Bengal and over the
greater part of Central India. It is highly appreciated by the poorer people for its edible flowers
and its fermentation products.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Mahua flowers were chemically examined for some of the organic and inorganic consti-
tuents. Their chemical composition along with some of the common grains is given in Table I.
TABLE I—Percentage chemical composition of mahua flowers and other feeding stuffs on dry matter basis
Name of feed
Mahua ( Bassia latifolia) flowers
Rice ( Oryza sativa)
Maize ( Zea mays)
Oats ( Avena sativa)
Organic constituents
Crude
prote-
in
8.00
8.33
10.50
10.07
Ether
extract
1.38
0.88
3.30
6.55
Crude
fibre
30.40
0.38
2.20
12.71
Nitro-
gen-
free
extract
52.43
89.13
82.10
65.88
Total
carbo-
hydra-
tes
82.83
89.51
84.30
78.59
Inorganic constituents
Total
ash
7.79
1.28
1.85
4.79
Calcium
(Ca)
0.221
0.16
0.05
0.11
Phos-
phorus
(P)
0.162
0.210
0.400
0.410
It will be seen that the crude protein content of mahua flowers is less than those of maize
(Zea mays) and oats (Avena sativa), but compares favourably with that of rice (Oryza sativa).
The total carbohydrate content of mahua flowers is comparable to maize and oats. In calcium
content, mahua flowers are richer but in phosphorus content mahua flowers are poorer than
rice, maize and oats.
Feeding experiments with mahua flowers were conducted on three adult, healthy
Kumaoni bullocks. The ration fed to the animals consisted of 6 lb. of mahua flowers and wheat
39