NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
THE LIFE HISTORY AND BIOLOGY OF THE REDUVID—
ACANTHASPIS SIVA—A PREDATOR OF THE INDIAN
HONEY BEE—APIS INDICA F.
By M. S. SUBBIAH and V. MAHADEVAN, Agricultural college and Research
Institute, Coimb atore
[Received for publication on May 4, 1956
Accepted for publication on April 1, 1957]
(With 2 Text figures)
R EDUVID bugs are predatory in their habits. Eleven species have been recorded
in South India. Of these Acanthaspis siva D. (Fig. 2) was noted as a predator
of the Indian honey bee—Apis indica F. Both the adults and nymphs are found
freely lurking around the hives, in crevices or in cracks, in tree trunks near the
locations of the nests of the Indian bee. In one instance two adults were found
inside the cavity of a tree on which a wild colony of bees was hived at a neighbouring
village of Coimbatore. The adults and grown up nymphs pierce the workers with
the long snout and suck up the liquid portion. An adult bug under captivity was
found to feed on two workers a day. Though this bug is not so serious an enemy
of honey bees as the wax moths and predatory wasps, it is also capable of causing
great havoc in certain seasons. The study of this bug was, therefore, taken up under
the aegis of Bee keeping Scheme sanctioned by the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research. Following is the gist of observations made during the course of the three
years.
Review of previous work
This was recorded as an enemy of hive bees for the first time by Mahadevan
[1951]. The systematic position of the insects is given by Distant [1903].
Seasonal occurrence
A record of the systematic collection of adults and nymphs at Coimbatore during
the different months of the year was maintained to get on idea of the seasonal dis-
tribution, the number of brood in nature, and the optimum period of occurrence of
the insect. Table I shows that a larger number of adults was collected during the
months of September, October and November and this indicates that rainy and wet
weather are favourable for the activity of adult bugs.
Life history
The egg. Fig. 1(1). The female lays small, spherical, brownish or white eggs singly
in crevices on the hive stands or over moist or decaying leaf moulds accumulated in
the vicinity. The eggs are about 0.75 mm. in diameter and finely sculptured.
An adult female is capable of laying 252 eggs in the course of 169 days, the maxi-
mum laying per day being 18.
117
18 AR/57
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118
LIFE HISTORY AND BIOLOGY OF REDUVID
[Vol. XXVII, Part III,
Fig. 1.—(1) Eggs of Acanthaspis siva
(2) Nymph of Acanthaspis siva
Fig. 2.—Acanthaspis siva (adult).
September, 1957 ] M. S. SUBBIAH AND V. MAHADEVAN 119
Eggs laid and kept in tubes under laboratory conditions did not hatch.
Warmth and treatment with diluted hydrochloric acid failed to hatch them. Mois-
ture is found to be essential for the hatching of these eggs as adults and nymphs were
found in larger numbers during the wet seasons of October—December. Hence to
simulate the natural environment as in the wet seasons, batches of eggs laid were
kept over moist blotting paper or wet sand in petri dishes. The blotting paper and
sand were kept moist by continuous wetting as often as required. A few were kept
inside the tubes without moisture. In the first case, the eggs hatched out, while
those kept in tubes without moisture did not hatch out at all; they got shrunk even-
tually without hatching.
Egg period. The egg period under laboratory conditions varied from 17—28
days, the shortest being in April, the longest in December. The egg periods noted
during the different months are given in Table II. Even under continuous moist
conditions variations in egg period were observed in the same batch of eggs. In
some instances, the eggs kept in tubes without moistening for over a month began
hatching due to subsequent moistening.
The percentage of nymphs to eggs varied widely. During the moist season even
a cent per cent hatching was noted ; but it should be stated that in the majority of
observations, a few eggs laid by the same female on the same day under similar con-
ditions did not hatch at all. The percentage of nymphs to eggs in the different months
is noted in Table III.
The nymph. The newly hatched nymphs are pale red and about 2 mm. long with
dark eyes and the tip of the abdomen slightly pinkish. The emergence of the nymphs
is indicated by the opening of the operculum which is pushed off by the nymph at
the time of hatching. Very often the empty egg shell is carried by the nymph on its
back. In the course of about six hours, the head, thorax and the leg joints darken
a little. Freshly hatched nymphs feed on young caterpillars of Corcyra cephallonica
in the laboratory. As they grow older they take to workers and drones freely.
Development of the nymph. Fig. 1 (2). There are five instars in the course of
the development and emergence as adult. At every successive instar, the eyes,
antennea, etc. get well set and the wing pads and appendages increase in size. The
casting of the moults takes place by the splitting of the skin from the head region
and proceeds backwards. Immediately after moulting, the nymphs remain
stationary without feeding. The moulted skins together with the remains of the
prey are accumulated and carried on the back of the nymphs probably as a protective
measure. In their natural habitats, the nymphs are not easily distinguishable be-
cause of their protective colouration and their apparently close resemblance to spiders
especially when they are still. While moving, they have got the habit of making
jerky movements. The total nymphal period varied from 107—186 days, the details
are given in Table IV.
12A
120
LIFE HISTORY AND BIOLOGY OF REDUVID [Vol. XXVII, Part III,
TABLE I
Seasonal occurrence of Acanthaspis siva in nature
Year
1953
1964
TOTAL
January
A
2
2
4
N
8
1
9
February
A
1
1
N
1
2
3
March
A
1
3
4
N
April
A
1
3
4
N
7
7
May
A
N
3
3
June
A
1
1
2
N
July
A
1
4
5
N
3
3
August
A
2
2
N
September
A.
2
4
6
N
2
2
October
A
3
4
7
N
4
4
November
A
2
5
7
N
9
9
December
A
2
1
3
N
A—Adults
N Nymphs
TABLE II
Average duration of egg period during different months (in days)
Tear
1954
January
24
February
21
March
19
April
18
May
20
June
20
July
22
August
23
September
22
October
24
November
25
December
26
TABLE III
Percentage of nymphs to eggs during the different months
Year
1954
January
38
February
48
March
50
April
54
May
15
June
41
July
47
August
56
September
34
October
40
November
100
December
77
September, 1957] M. S. SUBBIAH AND V. MAHADEVAN 121
TABLE IV
Nymphal period observed during different parts of the year
Date of hatching
2-12-1953
24-2-1954
11-4-1954
11-4-1954
11-4-1954
17-4-1954
18-4-1954
20-5-1954
20-5-1954
26-5-1954
26-5-1954
Dale of emergence
11-6-1954
29-7-1954
10-8-1954
30-8-1954
30-8-1954
1-9-1954
3-9-1954
20-9-1954
20-9-1951
10-9-1954
22-9-1954
Nymphal period in days
186
155
121
141
141
137
138
123
123
107
199
122
LIFE HISTORY AND BIOLOGY OF REDUVID
[Vol. XXVII, Part III
The adult. The female is distinguished by its broad boat shaped abdomen
with an obtuse tip divided by a longitudinal slit covered over with a few
strong spiny hairs. In the case of the male the abdomen is comparatively
slender, pointed and naked without the longitudinal division. The male
lives longer than the female, their maximum longevity under laboratary conditions
being 202 and 115 days respectively.
The fact that the eggs require wet weather for their hatching and that
the duration of the nymphal period is prolonged coupled with the occurrence
of large number of young nymphs and adults during October-November
in nature, indicates that there is only one brood in a year under natural
conditions.
The status of the bug as a bee enemy
The first and second state nymphs require a worker bee a day for their maintenance
and the later stage nymphs and the adults consume two workers a day on an average.
At this rate a single bug can account for about 650 workers in the course of its life.
This only indicates the enormous possibilities of havoc the bug is capable of doing.
But it may be also noted that the extent of damage is considerably reduced
because of the high mortality of the nympheal stages especially during the first instar
stage and only about 7 per cent of the nymphs hatched reach the adult stage. Be
sides, as the eggs hatch out only during moist conditions and as there are only very
few wet days, in a year, a major proportion of the eggs laid by a female perish without
hatching. Thus during normal years, the depletion of the hive population due to
this predator is not much.
Control
The predator can however, be kept under check by frequent cleaning of the base-
boards. Hive stands and the surroundings of the apiary may also be kept clean and
tidy.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are thankful to Shri K. P. Anantanarayanan Iyer, Government
Entomologist, for the guidance and criticism received in the preparation of the article.
REFERENCES
Distant, W. L. (1903).—Fauna of British-India—Rynchola Vol. 2
Lefroy, M. (1909).—Indian Insect Life
Mahadevan, (1951).—Indian Bee. Vol. XIII, Nos. 11 and 12
ABSTRACTS
Immunisation against contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia, with special reference to
the use of a dried vaccine. F. W. PRIESTLEY (1955)—J. comp. Path. & Thera. 65,
168-182
P RIESTLEY has described the successful use in Sudan of a dried contagious
bovine pleuropneumonia vaccine containing 1 per cent agar as an adjuvant.
On the basis of his experimental observations he is of the opinion that the Australian
method of inoculating a relatively virulent culture into the tip of the tail produces
a better immunity response than Bennet's method of using attenuated culture
vaccines. According to the author, the disadvantages of culture vaccine in tropical
countries are too many. There is a continuous fall in the number of viable organisms
resulting in the lowering of its immunogenic property. Besides, the virulence of the
organism gets progressively attenuated as the number of subcultures progresses.
In order to overcome such drawbacks the author reports the results of trials carried
out with vaccines prepared from dried young cultures and puts forth direct evidence
that the dried vaccine can be stored for two months without affecting its immunizing
properties. He has indirect evidence to show that such a vaccine would retain
its immunogenic properties for at least four and a half years. The reconstituted
vaccine cannot survive very long and has to be used within two hours.
The observations that dried organisms fail to establish themselves when in-
oculated into cattle and thus do not set up immunity have been confirmed. In order
to overcome this difficulty he incorporated 1 per cent agar as an adjuvant Eighteen
bulls inoculated with 0.2 ml. suspension of dried organisms in a suitable fluid to
which 1 per cent of agar had been added were later countered with virulent culture
along with a sufficient number of controls. Excepting two vaccinated animals
all proved immune while the controls succumbed. Duration of immunity on the
basis of a single trial was found to be as long as three years. Detailed description
of the maintenance of the 'seed' material and preparation of the vaccine has been
given (R. N. S.)
Immunization of chickens against New Castle disease and infectious bronchitis by the
spray method. J. F. CRAWLAY—Proc. Tenth World Poultry Conference (1954)
L ITERATURE regarding immunization of chickens against infectious bron-
chitis and Newcastle disease has been reviewed.
The currently used vaccine against New Castle disease (N. D.) and infectious
bronchitis (I. B.) is a combined one, incorporating a high egg-passaged strain of I. B.
(R. 1) and the Blacksburg strain of N. D. (B. 1) of low virulence but high titre. The
123
18 AR/57
14
124
ABSTRACTS
[Vol. XXVII, Part III,
vaccine is administered by spraying a fog over the head of baby chicks, confined in
chick boxes, any time during the first five days of age if the chicks possess parental
immunity, or between the second and fifteenth week if chicks are from non-immunized
parents. The success of this method is due to the use of a sprayer which delivers
uniform droplets of optimum size, i.e. 3—10 microns in diameter ; and the selection
of strains for their strength and length of immunity induced. The antibody levels
in day-old vaccinated chicks reach their heights in 3 and 6 weeks for N. D. and I. B.
respectively and last up to 3 months or more, when a boosting dose of the same vaccine
induces life-long immunity without causing reactions. About 1 per cent mortality
may be encountered when the vaccination is carried out on a mass scale. Over
10 million chicks have been vaccinated so far in Canada with satisfactory results.
The immunity produced in adults is superior to that by the ocular method, and of a
comparable level to that stimulated by the wing-web type of vaccine. (S. B. V. R.)
The effect of frequency of ejaculation on the semen production, seminal characteris-
tics and libido of bulls during the first post-puberal year. BAKER, F. N.,
T HE present paper records the results of experiments designed to determine
the age at which bulls become sexually mature and the effect of frequency of
ejaculation on semen production, seminal characteristics and libido of early post-
puberal bulls and the effect on later semen production of the bulls.
Nine Holstein bull calves were divided at random into a groups of three each
to be assigned to collection frequencies of one, two and three times per week. All
particulars regarding their sexual behaviour up to the time of their response in
artificial vagina and thereafter semen characteristics of 50 samples from each collec-
tion frequency group were recorded.
The sexual interest was first expressed at an average age of 29.4 ±2.14: weeks.
The bull calves showed ability to ejaculate at the mean age of 38.9±1.30 weeks.
There was. no significant effect of frequency of ejaculation on semen volume, per
cent motile sperm, sperm concentration, total sperm per ejaculation, per cent atypical
sperm and total motile sperm per ejaculation in all frequency groups, while signi-
ficant differences were found as the bulls aged during a 1-year period after puberty.
The libido, however, reduced significantly in the three-times-per-week group as
measured by the proportion of failures to mount and ejaculate. (S. G. S.)
Acquired resistance to Dictyocaulus viviparus, the Lungworm of cattle. E.
RUBIN and J. T. LUCKER—Cornell Vet. 46 (I), 88-96
T HE paper deals with investigations into the phenomenon of acquired resistance
of cattle to the lungworm, Dyctyocaulus viviparus. The authors conducted a
series of experiments with the following objectives : (i) to clarify the factors respon-
sible for retardation or arrest of the development of this parasite in naturallyinfected
September, 1957]
ABSTRACTS
125
cattle reported by previous workers, and (ii) to explore the possibility of developing
an adequate and durable acquired resistance to reinfection which might lead to feasible
procedures of immunization against the lungworm disease, for which there is no
satisfactory drug treatment.
The authors have reported that recovery from an initial lungworm infection
conferred a strong resistance to reinfection on nine out of eleven calves or yearlings.
These animals were initially infected with 5,000 to 43,000 infective larvae and were
subjected to reinfection after they had eliminated their initial infection. No clini-
cal effects occurred in five animals challenged with single dose of 52,000 to 58,000
infective larvae which proved fatal to previously unexposed animals. But severe
clinical effects occurred in most of the others whose resistance was challenged with
over 200,000 infective larvae, and one animal failed to survive such a challenge infec-
tion. Animals whose resistance was repeatedly challenged became highly immune.
Administration of as many as 750,000 infective larvae to such animals did not result
in the development of a patent infection and had little or no clinical effects. The
resistance lasted for at least seven months after recovery from an initial infection.
In case of an animal subjected to repeated re-exposures, the resistance lasted for at
least eleven months.
As regards factors responsible for this resistance, the authors have been unable
to demonstrate directly whether or to what extent resistance prevents ingested
larvae from penetrating the gut wall and reaching the circulation or destroys the
larvae while in the lymphatic or circulatory system. They have opined that probably
the percentage of the larvae administered that reaches the lungs is considerably
less in resistant than in susceptible animals. They found that some of the larvae
administered reached the lungs of resistant animals, but nearly all the young
lungworms usually were eliminated in an immature state within three weeks.
(H. C. M.)
MGIPC—M—18 AR/57—1-11-57—1,000.
ADVERTISEMENT.
HERBAGE ABSTRACTS
AND
FIELD CROP ABSTRACTS
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abstracts dealing with crop husbandry, varieties, crop botany,
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book reviews and notices.
For those engaged in agricultural research or in the giving of
agricultural advice or information, the reading of these two
journals offers a ready means of keeping abreast of current develop-
ments without recourse to the labour of scrutinizing the mass of
agricultural publications now appearing in many languages. The
annual subject and author indexes, dating from 1930 and 1948,
respectively, form a valuable source conference to past work.
The price of each Journal (with index) 50 s per annum,
post free. Orders should be sent to Commonwealth Agricultural
Bureaux, Central Sales Branch, Farnham Royal, Bucks, England.
STUDIES ON FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE VACCINATION
IN INDIA
II-A CONCENTRATED CRYSTAL VIOLET VACCINE
By M. R. DHANDA, V. R. GOPALAKRISHNAN and H. S. DHILLON, Indian Veterinary
Research Institute, Mukteswar-Kumaon, U.P.
[ Received for publication on July 22, 1955
Accepted for publication on July 3, 1957]
I N an earlier paper [Dhanda et al., 1953] experimental trials on foot-and-mouth
disease vaccination with crystal violet vaccine containing 2.5 per cent virus
have been described. The dose of this vaccine was 30 to 50 cc. given subcutaneously.
It was rather anunwieldy dose and difficult to administer in large numbers of animals,
hence it was thought necessary to carry out further experimental work to modify
the vaccine so as to facilitate its use in large-scale vaccination in the field.
Attempts were, therefore, made to prepare a vaccine with a higher percentage of
virus content and reduce the volume of vaccine per dose. Since the minimum dose
of crystal violet vaccine is 30 cc., the modified concentrated vaccine has six times
the virus content (15 per cent), while the dosage of the vaccine is reduced to
one-sixth, i.e. 5 cc. for subcutaneous injection.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Preparation of the vaccine
The tongue epithelium with the vesicular fluid collected from hill bulls inoculated
artificially in the tongue with the virus is well triturated and suspended in phosphate
buffer pH 7.6 and filtered through Seitz filter. The filtrate is mixed with blood
collected from virus donors at the height of thermal reaction. Sufficient quantity
of buffer is added to bring the concentration of epithelium to 15 per cent. The
addition of blood is so regulated that the liquid content of the vaccine consists of
half blood and half buffer solution. Crystal violet is then added to give a final
concentration of 0.03 per cent of the dye. The vaccine is incubated for 7 days at
37°C. It is tested in cattle before use.
The percentage of virus in the vaccine is based on the quantity of the tongue
epithelium that goes into the vaccine. This tissue is very rich in virus. By in-
corporating blood collected from the virus donors into the vaccine, a certain amount
of virus contained in the blood is also added to the vaccine by way of reinforcement.
It is known that though its concentration may be variable, virus is present in the
blood at the height of thermal reaction. Besides, addition of blood maintains the
homogenity of the vaccine.
127
28 AR/57
December, 1957]
M. R. Dhanda ET. AL.
129
TABLE I
Concentration of epithelial tissue (foot-and-mouth-disease virus) in crystal violet
vaccine for establishment of immunity at a flat dose of 5 cc. of the vaccine
Series No.
I
Unvaccinated
controls to
Series No. I
II
Unvaccinated
controls to
Series No. II
Concentration
used
15 per cent
10 per cent
Hill Bull No.
91
71
85
99
83
69
111
65
53
10
26
17
27
25
142
138
144
132
145
139
115
79
55
23
118
135
133
125
113
86
Reaction
to test
inoculation
—
—
—
—
—
—
+
+
+
+
+
—
+
—
+
—
—
+
+
—
—
—
+
+
+
+
+
+
Remarks
Died of other causes not
connected with foot-
and-mouth disease be-
fore test inoculation
Immune
do.
do.
do.
do.
Died of other causes not
connected with foot-
and-mouth
disease
before test inoculation
Immune
Susceptible
do.
do.
do.
do.
Probably immune as a
result of previous natu-
ral infection
Susceptible
Immune
Susceptible
Immune
do.
Susceptible
do.
Immune
do.
do.
Susceptible
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
1. The vaccines were monovalent products of foot-and-mouth disease virus Type 'O'. The test
inoculations were with the homologous type of virus administered intralingually in 4 tracks, in addition
to aphthisation and contact infection.
2. Animals in Series I were tested after an interval of 23 days and those in Series II after an interval
of 27 days following vaccination.
3. Vaccines for the two series were made at different times and tested separately with controls for
each series.
December, 1957]
M. R. Dhanda ET.
AL.
131
TABLE II
Duration of immunity following vaccination with concentrated crystal violet vaccin
bivalent type 'O' and 'A'
Immunity
test No.
I
Unvaccinated
Controls
II
Unvaccinated
Controls
Animal
Cow calf
do.
Buff calf
do.
Cow calf
do.
Buff calf
do.
Cow calf
Buff calf
Cow calf
Buff calf
Cow calf
do.
Buff calf
do.
Cow calf
Buff calf
do.
Cow calf
Buff calf
Cow calf
Buff calf
Number
443
515
392
362
537
664
374
309
542
322
564
304
554
392
310
319
669
322
7
677
360
681
341
Type of
virus used
for test
'O'
do.
do.
do.
'A'
do.
do.
do.
'O'
do.
'A'
do.
'O'
do.
do.
do.
'A'
do.
do.
'O'
do.
'A'
do.
Reaction
to test
inoculation
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
+
+
+
—
-
—
—
—
—
—
+
+
+
+
Remarks
Immune
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Did not react to
test inoculation
Susceptible
do.
do.
Immune
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Susceptible
do.
do.
do.
1. The concentration of virus of each type was 15 per cent in the vaccine.
2. The test inoculation were made with 1: 100 suspension of fresh guinea-pig pad virus, adminis-
tered intradermolingually in 5 tracks, 4 parallel and one across.
3. The first immunity test was carried out on January 3, 1955 at an interval of 10 months and
10 days following vaccination and the second immunity test was carried out on August 12, 1955
at an interval of 17 months and 25 days after vaccination.
28 AR/57
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