NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
122
GASTROENTERITIS IN YOUNG CALVES [Vol. XXVIII, Part III,
Other species, i.e. Salm. pomona and Salm. hvittingfoss, which were isolated each
from one case, have been recorded only occasionally from man and domestic animals
in foreign countries and appear to be rather infrequent in occurrence.
TABLE II
Correlation of age with the type of Salmonella infection
Salmonella type
Total examined
Salm. dublin
Salm. typhimurium
Salm. enteritidis
Salm. weltevreden
Salmonella sp. un-
identified (pro-
bably Salm. wel-
tevreden).
Salm. newport
Salm. richmond
Salm. Chester
Salm. pomona
Salm. nchanga
Salm. hvittingfoss
Salm. butantan
Total
Number of cases. Death within
1st week
of
birth
24
2
1
3
2nd week
of
birth
60
8
1
2
1
2
1
1
16
3rd week
of
birth
52
10
5
1
1
1
18
4th week
of
birth
33
10
3
1
3
1
1
19
2nd month
of
birth
9
4
1
1
6
3rd month
of
birth
13
11
1
12
Total
191
45
11
4
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
74
The nature of disease, observed on post-mortem examination, showed some case
to case variation regarding acuteness and distribution of lesions. In general, the
degree of acuteness was closely related to the age of calf at death rather than the
type of Salmonella infection involved. Usually, in cases below two weeks of age
and rarely in cases above three weeks, the infection was septicaemic in nature.
September, 1958] S. S. KHERA AND M. R. DHANDA 123
There was acute hyperaemia in internal organs and multiple haemorrhages in serous
membranes and different organs, especially those of the digestive tract. In these
cases usually the Salmonella organisms were isolated in pure culture from blood and
various organs from which cultures were made. In older calves the morbid picture
was less acute and frequently complicated with a pulmonary lesion. Thus, pul-
monary lesion varying from one or more patches of consolidation in a lung to acute
croupous pleuro-pneumonia affecting both lungs was present in 29 out of 55 cases
above the age of two weeks, and five out of 19 below two weeks. In some cases the
pulmonary disease appeared to predominate over the lesions in the digestive tract.
A brief description of each case is given in Appendix I.
The frequency with which ascending inflammatory lesions of umbilicus and
umbilical vessels was involved attracted particular attention. This was usually
accompanied with spreading exudative inflammatory condition of adjacent tissues.
In all, the umbilical lesion was noticed in 23 cases and Salmonella cultures were
isolated from the umbilical vessels in ten cases. It is difficult to point out the
significance of this isolation from this location. It appears likely that in some
cases the infection, leading to general disease, might have been contracted
through the unhealed umbilical stump especially when the newborn calves were
herded together in groups under unhygienic conditions. The number of cases
showing the presence of pulmonary and umbilical lesions of varying degree in rela-
tion to age at death are shown in Table III.
TABLE III
Occurrence of pulmonary and umbilical lesions in relation to age
Age at death within
one week
two weeks
three weeks
four weeks
two months
three mouths
Total
Number of cases
3
16
18
19
6
12
74
Number of cases positive for
pulmonary
lesion of
varying degree
1
4
8
9
4
S
34
umbilical lesion
3
10
6
4
—
23
Umbilical
culture
positive for
Salmonella
2
5
3
0
10
124
GASTROENTERITIS IN YOUNG CALVES [Vol. XXVIII, Part III,
In the bacteriological examination of material from different organs, the aggre-
gate figures of positive Salmonella cultures obtained from various sites are given
in Table IV. It was observed that organisms of the Salmonella group could be
isolated with greater ease and almost in pure culture from mesenteric lymph nodes
and spleen. Although enrichment media were employed for isolation from stomach
and intestinal contents, only 51 positive cultures could be obtained.
TABLE IV
Isolation of Salmonella organisms from various organs in 74 cases
Site
Heart blood
Spleen
Mesenteric lymph nodes
Stomach and intestinal contents
Liver or bile
Umbilical vessels
Number
positive
30
49
53
51
16/25*
10/23
Percentage
40.5
66.2
71.6
68.9
64.0
43.5
*The numerator denotes the number of samples positive and the denominator the number of
samples examined.
The occurrence of such a large variety of Salmonella types among calves at all
places under study calls for a more extensive study to be carried out, especially
in view of the public health importance of the disease. Since, after a clinical re-
covery from salmonellosis adult cattle usually remain carriers and continue to
discharge the organisms in their faeces, for an indefinite period, an attempt was
made to see if these could be the source of infection for calves. With this object
in view faecal samples from 100 buffaloes at Government Milk Colony, Aarey and
100 cows and 100 buffaloes at Government Dairy Farm, Chakganjaria, were examined
once only for faecal excretors of Salmonella. None of the animals examined at
Aarey yielded a positive culture while at Chakganjaria four cows and one buffalo
were found to excrete Salmonella in their faeces (see Table V). All the three
Salmonella types isolated from cows and buffaloes were earlier recovered from
cases of calf disease that were investigated.
September, 1958] S. S. KHERA AND M. R. DHANDA 125
TABLE V
Salmonella exeretors in cows and buffaloes
Place
Government Milk
Colony, Aarey
Government Dairy
Farm, Chakgan-
jaria
Samonella
type
i olated
Salm. richmond
Salm. hvittingfoss
Salm. pomona
Buffaloes
Number
ex am ined
100
100
Number
positive
1
1
Cows
Number
examined
100
Number
positive
4
1
1
2
DISCUSSION
The primary object of this study was to survey the bacterial causes of digestive
diseases of young calves in this country. Although the number of cases examined
during the course of this investigation was small to allow of a correct estimate
of the frequency with which the various types of infectious agents occurred, yet
the study furnished an idea of the large variety of organisms that are associated
with gastroenteritis in young calves at the places under study and possibly, also
in other areas.
The infection with various members of the Salmonella group accounted for the
greatest number of cases in this investigation, i.e., 74 out of 191 (38.74 per cent).
It was observed that Salmonella infection was responsible for mortality more fre-
quently in calves above the age of two weeks. Thus, in the first two weeks of life,
when the primary cause of disease can be ascribed to a variety of non-specific sub-
sidiary factors, only ten out of 84 deaths recorded were due to Salmonella infection
while among the older calves, out of 107 cases there were 55 deaths, dying between
the ages of two to three weeks and 43 out of 55 cases (67.3 per cent) above the age
of three weeks. It is interesting to note the isolation of as many as eleven different
types of Salmonella. All except Salm. pomona were isolated from Bombay and
three types namely, Salm. typhimurium, Salm. enteritidis and Salm. pomona were
responsible for one case each at Lucknow. Salm. dublin which was responsible
for 45 cases at Bombay was not recorded from Lucknow. None of the cases examined
at Mukteswar was found positive for Salmonella infection.
Salm. dublin, Salm. typhimurium and Salm. enteritidis, which accounted for
a total of 60 cases are known to be frequently responsible for calf salmonellosis
15 AR/58
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132
GASTROENTERITIS IN YOUNG CALVES [Vol. XXVIII, Part III
Smith, J. and Scot, W. M. (1930). Continued fever due to a Gaertner-like Salmonella of the type
" Dublin ". J. Hyg. 30, 32
Thomassen, M. (1897). Une nouvelle septicemic des veaux, avec nephrite et urocysitite (Bacteriurie)
causecutives. Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 11, 523
White, P. Burce (1929). Notes on organisms serologically related to Salmonella enteritidis Gaertner.
The dublin and tokyo types of Salmonella. J. Hyg. 29, 443
Wilson, G. S., and Miles, A. A. (1955). Topley and Wilsons' Principles of Bacteriology and Immunity,
4th Edition. Arnord, London
SOME FACTORS AFFECTING BLOOD CHOLESTEROL
LEVEL IN THE BUFFALO, IN THE SUB-TROPICS
E. S. E. HAFEZ 1 , M. H. MAGHRABI 2 and A. ANWAR 2
[ Received for publication on January 7, 1958
Accepted for publication on April 8, 1958]
(With 3 Text-Figures).
C HOLESTEROL is a common constituent of most cells and fluids in the animal
body ; it is, in fact, the characteristic sterol of higher animals. Body cholesterol
may be exogenous, i.e., absorbed from the intestine or endogenous, i.e., biosynthesis-
ed from compounds as simple as water and acetate [Bloch and Rittenberg, 1942].
In herbivorous animals, cholesterol is only synthesised in the body [Woods, 1950].
In carnivorous animals, although cholesterol may be exogenous, yet it is extremely
difficult by dietary measures to alter its concentration in systemic or portal blood
[Man and Gildea, 1932]. This is interpreted by the fact that absorption, synthesis
and destruction are mutually attuned to keep the total amount of cholesterol in
the blood unchanged. The level of blood cholesterol in farm animals in the absence
of any definite pathological condition varies with the breed, age, ambient tempera-
ture and period of lactation [Brody et al., 1949].
It was hoped in the present work to give an account of some environmental
and physiological factors affecting the cholesterol level in the domestic buffalo
Bos (Bubalus) bubalis, L. The major factors studied were season, direct solar radia-
tion and pregnancy.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Sixteen healthy adult Egyptian buffalo-cows were available at the Animal
Production Research Farm, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Cairo, Giza.
Three experiments were carried out. The technique used for cholesterol deter-
mination in the present experiment was that of Myers and Wardell and modified
by Reinhold and Shields [1936]. Statistical analyses of the data were made according
to Snedecor [1946].
1. Three non-pregnant, non-lactating, two-year old buff alo-cows were always
kept under semi-shade conditions. Oxalated blood samples were taken once monthly
for a period of nine months from June, 1953 to February, 1954, to study the seasonal
variation in blood cholesterol level.
1 Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University.
2 Ministry of Agriculture, Giza.
133
15 AR/58
4
134
BLOOD
CHOLESTEROL
LEVEL
[Vol. XXVIII, Part III,
2. Three non-pregnant, non-lactating, two-year old buffalo-cows were subjected
to direct solar radiation, to investigate its effect on blood cholesterol. On the 15th
August, oxalated blood samples were taken at 4 p.m. under normal conditions of
semi-shade. On the next day, the animals were subjected to direct solar radiation
from the early morning until 4 p.m. when the blood samples were taken for choles-
terol determination.
3. Ten lactating buffalo-cows at different phases of the lactation period were
available. Five of them were pregnant while the other five controls were non-
pregnant. To exclude the effect of stage of lactation, the animals were compared
in pairs (experimental and control) ; each pair was of the same date of the previous
calving. The stages of pregnancy studied were 5, 5.5, 6, 7 and 8 months. Oxalated
blood samples were taken in June 1954 for cholesterol determination.
RESULTS
Seasonal variations
In the non-pregnant, non-lactating buffalo-cows blood cholesterol ranged
from 84 to 118 mg. per 100 ml. with an average of 100 mg. during the experimental
period (June to February) (Table I) . The atmospheric temperature, all through
the experimental period, at this location (Giza, Egypt, 30°N) ranged from 52° to
84°F with an average of 69°F. Fig. 1 shows that blood cholesterol reached a maxi-
mum of 115 mg. per 100 ml. during January, and a minimum of 88 mg. per 100 ml.
TABLE I
Seasonal variation in blood cholesterol in non-pregnant, non-lactating buffalo-cows
Months
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
February
Cholesterol mg./100 ml.
Range
85—90
84—90
84—90
90—91
100—103
102—109
105—117
111—118
105—115
Mean
88
88
89
91
102
106
111
115
110
Mean atmospheric
temperature °F.
80
84
81
76
73
61
56
52
56
September, 1958]
E.
S.
E.
HAFEZ
et.
al.
135
FIG. 1. The effect of seasonal variation on the blood cholesterol content in non-pregnant, non-
lactating buffalo-cows.
136
BLOOD
CHOLESTROL
LEVEL
[Vol. XXVIII, Part III,
during June and July. Cholesterol content was reciprocally related to atmospheric
temperature. In one case the buffalo-cow was a T. B. case and the blood choles-
terol declined irrespectively to atmospheric temperature changes.
Effect of solar radiation
In the non-pregnant, non-lactating buffalo-cows kept under semi-shade, blood
cholesterol ranged from 90 to 92 mg. per 100 ml. with an average of 91 mg. When
the same animals were exposed to direct solar radiation, cholesterol decreased to a
range of 79 to 81 mg. with an average of 80 mg. per 100 ml. (Fig. 2).
Effect of pregnancy
Blood cholesterol at 5, 5.5, 6, 7 and 8 months of pregnancy was 125, 130, 120,
139 and 125 respectively. The control animals (non-pregnant) with similar lactation
period had significant lower levels. At the fifth month of pregnancy, blood choles-
terol was slightly lower in pregnant than in the non-pregnant. During all the
stages of pregnancy, blood cholesterol was slightly higher than during non-pregnancy.
However, the stage of pregnancy did not seem to affect the cholesterol level (Fig. 3).
DISCUSSION
In the buffalo, the seasonal variation in blood cholesterol is not as marked as
in European cattle. Environmental temperature does not affect appreciably the
cholesterol level. In the buffalo, each 10°F rise in temperature corresponds to 8 mg.
decline in blood cholesterol. In European cattle, cholesterol and fatty acids are
the major blood constituents which are affected by environmental temperature as
demonstrated in psychrometric rooms [Brody et al., 1949]. Each 10°F rise in the
ambient temperature is relative to 42 mg. decline in blood cholesterol. These
differences between the two species may be due to species differences in the respon-
siveness to rising temperature, or to factors other than atmospheric temperature
such as the nature of solar radiation. However, results obtained in psychrometric
rooms do not represent seasonal changes, since the animals were under shade in the
former case and were subjected to out-door conditions in the latter.
The Egyptian buffalo possesses thick skin which is darkly coloured by cutaneous
pigments [Hafez et. al., 1955]. The black colour protects the animals from high atmos-
pheric temperature, but not from high solar radiation. Since absorption, synthesis
and destruction of cholesterol are mutually attuned to keep its level unchanged,
this seasonal variation in blood cholesterol level reveals that the final equilibrium
is affected. It is possible that the destruction of cholesterol is carried out at a
higher rate than that of its synthesis.
The level of blood cholesterol decreases when the animals are subjected to
direct solar radiation. This may be due to the fact that the physiological phenomena
in the buffalo are sensitive to direct solar radiation. In this respect, Badreldin and
Ghany [1954] have shown that body temperature, respiration rate and pulse rate
are more affected by sunlight in the buffalo than in cattle. This is due to certain
September, 1958] E. S. E. HAFEZ et.
at.
137
FIG. 2. The effect of solar radiation on blood cholesterol content in the non-pregnant and non-
lactating buffalo-cows
FIG. 3. The effect of pregnancy on the blood cholesterol content of buffalo-cows
15 AR/58
5
138
BLOOD
CHOLESTEROL
LEVEL
[Vol. XXVIII, Part III
morphological and histological characteristics which render the buffalo unsuitable
or arid areas exposed to intense solar radiation.
Pregnancy seems to give rise to blood cholesterol, since it is a precursor of pro-
gesterone. It is of great interest to note that although progesterone increases through-
out pregnancy, blood cholesterol does not increase until the fifth month of pregnancy.
In woman, there is a progressive rise in the blood free cholesterol up to the thirtieth
week of pregnancy with corresponding decrease in the estercholesterol. The blood
returns to normal condition after puerperium [Wright, 1952]. The exact relation-
ship between blood cholesterol and the output of progesterone throughout pregnancy
is not known.
SUMMARY
Sixteen healthy, adult Egyptian buffalo-cows were used in three experiments to
determine the effect of season, direct solar radiation and pregnancy on blood choles-
terol level. Atmospheric temperature ranged from 52° to 84°F.
The level of blood cholesterol ranged from 88 to 115 mg. per 100 ml. Data
obtained indicate a reciprocal association between blood cholesterol and the atmos-
pheric temperature; a decrease in blood cholesterol after exposure to direct solar
radiation; and a rise in blood cholesterol after the fifth month of pregnancy. In
the buffalo, seasonal variation in blood cholesterol level is not as marked as in
European cattle. The practical application of blood cholesterol in relation to
heat tolerance is augmented.
ACKNOLWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank Prof. A. L. Badreldin, Faculty of Agriculture, University
of Cairo, for providing facilities and help.
REFERENCES
Badreldin, A. L. and M.A. Ghany (1954). Species and breed differences in the thermal reaction mecha-
nism. J. Agric. Sci. 44 : 160
Ploch, K. and A. Rittenberg (1942). On the utilisation of acetic acid for cholesterol formation.
J. Biol. Chem. 145 : 625
Brody, S. et. al (1949). Influence of ambient temperature 50° to 100° F., on the blood composition of
Jersey and Holstein cows. Univ. of Missori, Faculty of Agric. Res. Bull. No. 433
Hafez, E. S. E., A. L. Badreldin and M. M. Shafei (1955). Skin histology of Egyptian buffalo and
cattle with special reference to sweat glands. J. Agric. Sci. 45
Man, A. B. and E. F. Gildea (1932). The effect of the ingestion of large amounts of fat and of a balanced
meal on the blood lipoids of normal man. J. Biol. Chem. 99 : 61
Reinhold, J. G. and E. M. Shields (1936). The determination of blood cholesterol. Am. J. Clin.
Path. 6 : 22
Snedecor, G. W. (1946). Statistical Methods. 4th Ed. Iowa State College Press., Ames, Iowa
Woods, R. (1950). Cholesterol. Bord. Rev Nut. Res. 6 (7): 79
IMMUNOLOGICAL STUDIES ON PASTEURELLA
SEPTICA
II- FURTHER TRIALS ON ADJUVANT VACCINE
By M. R. DHANDA, J. M. LALL and R. N. SETH, Indian Veterinary Research
Institute, Mukteswar-Kumaon (U. P.)
[ Received for publication on August 27, 1957
Accepted for publication on February 4, 1958]
D HANDA et al. [1956] described the development of an adjuvant vaccine
against haemorrhagic septicaemia which, under experimental conditions,
was found to be far superior in its protective properties to the commercial broth
vaccine. The new vaccine was also tried as a prophylactic on a few organised farms
having the history of annual recurrence of haemorrhagic septicaemia and it was
satisfactory to find that, during the course of the year, none of the animals vacci-
nated with the adjuvant vaccine died of pasteurellosis. In view of these highly
encouraging results, it was decided to carry out large scale field trials in different
parts of the country so as to properly assess the value of the adjuvant vaccine.
Manufacture and standardization of the adjuvant vaccine
Eleven experimental brews of the adjuvant vaccine totalling about 1,50,000
ml. were manufactured according to the procedure given in Appendix I and within
3-4 days of its preparation, each brew was tested for its safety in Swiss albino mice
and hill-bulls. Later, all these mice and hill-bulls were challenged with a virulent
culture of P. septica with a view to determine the potency of each brew and to
co-relate the results of the tests in mice and hill-bulls. In addition to these studies,
the immunizing property of one of the brews, selected at random, was tested in
buffalo-bulls in order to study the immunogenic response in this species of animals.
The results of the potency tests in the hill-bulls, buffalo-bulls and mice are
presented in Tables I, II and III respectively.
It will be seen that out of 33 vaccinated hill-bulls, 32 (96.6 per cent) survived
the challenge with as high a dose as 1,000 million mouse M. I. D. of a virulent culture
of P. septica whereas all the five un-vaccinated controls died of pasteurellosis within
48-72 hours of inoculation of the challenge dose. As for the buffalo-bulls, 17 out of
the 18 vaccinated animals withstood the challenge while the only death in one of
the 18 vaccinated animals after challenge was due to causes other than pasteurel-
losis. Both the un-vaccinated buffalo-bulls receiving the virulent culture to serve
as controls died of pasteurellosis within 40 hours. These results confirmed the
earlier findings regarding the high protective properties of the newly developed
adjuvant vaccine [Dhanda et al., 1956].
The results in mice were, however, very inconsistent as the percentage of sur-
vival in them was found to vary considerably from brew to brew, whereas the tests
carried out in hill-bulls indicated that practically all the brews were of uniform
139
15 AR/58
140
IMMUNOLOGICAL STUDIES ON PASTEURELLA [Vol. XXVIII, Part III
TABLE I
The results of potency tests in hill-bulls
Brew
No.
1
2
4
5
6
7
8
0
10
11
No. of
animals
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
33
Details of
vaccination
2 ml. intra-
muscularly
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Un-vaccinated healthy hill-bulls
5
Interval
between vacci-
nation and
challenge
3½ months
do.
2 months and
23 days
2 months and
21 days
2 months and
14 days
2 months and
8 days
2 months and
4 days
2 months
1 month and
28 days
1 month and
22 days
1 month
Challenge
dose
1,000 million
mouse
M. I. D.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
No. of animals
survived
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
3
32
0
Percentage
survival
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
66.7
100.0
96.97
or 97.0
0.0
Result of bacte-
riological exami-
nation on animals
dying after
challenge
+
+++++
Notes—1.+= Positive for P. septica on bacteriological examination.
2. An 18 hour old broth culture of virulent P. septica was used for challenge purposes. Of
this I ml. of 10- 1 dilution was determined to contain 1,000 million mouse M. I. D.
3. Adult hill-bulls were used for testing all the eleven brews.
4. The hill-bulls were inoculated with the different brews within three to four days of pre-
paration of each brew and all the 33 vaccinated hill-bulls were challenged simultaneously.
potency. Judging from these results, it would appear that the resistance produced
in mice by the intramuscular inoculation of the adjuvant vaccine is of a low order
and, as such, mice may not be very suitable for assaying the potency of the vaccine.
This point will, however, be further investigated, with a view to decide finally,
whether mice could be used for testing the potency of the vaccine or the costlier
method of using cattle would have to be adopted.
Studies on the keeping quality of the adjuvant vaccine
This investigation was taken up, firstly, with a view to determine the period
for which the vaccine could be stored at low room temperatures without loosing its
potency and, secondly, to find out the range of the atmospheric temperature that
the vaccine would be able to withstand during transit in the hot summer months.
The details of the work carried out are given in Table II,