NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
12
SERIES No. VI.— Experiments to ascertain if the serum of a horse immunised
with the venom of Hopiocephalus curtus has the power to neutralise the
venom of Bungarus fasciatus.
The same serum as was used in the experiments tabulated in Series No. V was
employed. The observations were made on rabbits. The test dose of venom
was the same as was used in the experiments of Series No. II A, viz., 4 milli-
grammes per kilo., that is to say, about 6 lethal doses. In each instance this
test dose (1 per cent. solution) and the serum in different quantities were mixed
in vitro.
The mixture was allowed to stand at laboratory temperature for half an
hour. In was then injected into the marginal vein of the ear of the rabbit.
The following were the results obtained :—
Animal.
Weight.
Amount of venom
per kilo.
Amount
of
serum.
Result.
Rabbit 1 .
1,450 grammes
. 4 milligrammes
.
0.5 c. c.
Died in 32 minutes.
„
2 . 1,780
,,
. .
4
,,
.
.
1 c c..
,, ,,
12
,,
„
3 . 1,460
,,
. . 4
,,
. .
2 c. c.
,, ,,
22
,,
„
4 . 1,68o
„ . .
4
,,
. .
5 c. c.
,, ,,
1
0
,,
„
5
.
(Control.)
1,490
,,
. .
4
,,
. .
Nil.
,, ,,
30
,,
From this series of experiments it is at once evident that the serum of a
horse immunised with the venom, of Hoplocephalus curtus has no power to neu-
tralise the venom of Bungarus fasciatus.
SERIES NO. VII.— Experiments to ascertain if the serum of a horse immunised
with the venom of Hoplocephalus curtus has the power to neutralise the
venom of Daboia Russellii.
The serum which was used for these experiments was the same as was
employed for the experiments tabulated in Series Nos. V and VI. Rabbits were
the animals used.
Two series of experiments were performed.
A. In the first series of observations the test dose of venom employed was
0.5 milligramme per kilo., viz., an amount which, as regards this sample of
venom, did not cause intravascular thrombosis when injected intravenously.
This test dose and varying quantities of serum were mixed in vitro. The
mixture was allowed to stand at laboratory temperature for half an hour.
It was then injected into the Marginal vein of the ear of the rabbit.
13
The following were the results obtained :—
Animal.
Weight.
Amount of venom per kilo. Amount of serum.
Result.
Rabbit
1
. 1,480 grammes .
0.5 milligramme
. . 1 c. c.
Found dead after 18 hours
,,
2
. 1,680
„
.
0.5
„
. . 2 c. c.
Ditto.
,,
3
. 1,400
„
. 0.5
„
. .
3 c. c.
Ditto.
,,
4
. 1,510
„
. 0.5
„
. . 4 c. c.
Ditto.
,,
5
.
(Control.)
1,28o
„
. 0.5
„
. . Nil.
.
Ditto.
B. In the second series of experiments a different sample of venom was used.
Of this sample it was found that the minimum amount which caused intravas-
cular thrombosis, when injected intravenously into a rabbit, was 0.2 milligramme
per kilo. A single experiment was made with this sample. The test dose used
was 0.6 milligramme per kilo., viz. , three times the amount which could cause
intravascular thrombosis.
The technique was as follows :—5 c. c. of serum were injected into the
marginal vein of one ear : five minutes afterwards the test dose of venom
(0.1% solution) was injected into the marginal vein of the other ear.
The following was the result obtained :—
Animal.
Weight.
Amount of venom per kilo. Amount of serum.
Result.
Rabbit
. 1,380 grammes . 0.6 milligramme
. 5 c. c.
. Died in 1½ minutes.
From these series of observations it is therefore evident that the serum of a
horse immunised with the venom of Hoplocephalus curtus has no power to
neutralise the venom of Daboia Russellii.
Notes and references.
1. The information used in this paper concerning the classification of the
poisonous snakes was taken from ' Fauna of British India—Reptilia and
Batrachia' by Boulenger.
2. Calmette : ' Le venin des Serpents ': Paris, 1896. ' Notice sur le Sérum
Antivenimeux et sur le Traitement des Morsures de Serpents ': Lille, 1901.
3.
' Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology ': Edinburgh and London : 1902,
Vol. VIII, page 1.
14
Paper :' On the action of the venoms of the cobra (Naia tripudians) and of
the daboia (Daboia Russellii) on the red blood corpuscles and on the blood plasma':
in process of publication by the Government of India in Scientific Memoirs by
Officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Government of India,
New Series.
4.
' Inter-colonial Medical Journal of Australasia,' August 20th, 1897: Ibid :
April 20th, 1898.
5. Tidswell: 'Preliminary Note on the serum-therapy of snake-bite.'
Australasian Medical Gazette, April 21st, 1902, page 177.
6.
' Scientific Memoirs by Officers of the Medical and Sanitary Depart-
ments of the Government of India ': 1902 : New Series, No.1
' Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology ': Edinburgh and London : 1902,
Vol. VIII, page 1.
7.
' System of Medicine ': Clifford Allbutt: Vol. II, .page 809.
8. Loc. Cit. (Reference 3.):
' Lancet ': August 16th, 1902.
9. 'Australasian Medical Gazette ': April 21st, 1902, page 177.
10. Loc. Ci t .
11. ' Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology ': Edinburgh and London: 1902,
Vol. VIII, page 1.
12. The minimum lethal dose for rats of about 115 grammes weight of
the sample of venom used for these experiments was found to be 0.07 milli-
gramme. In a previous paper (vide reference 6), I stated that the minimum
lethal dose for rats of this weight was 0.04 milligramme. A different sample
of venom, however, had been used for these first observations. It is evident,
therefore, that, as different samples of venom vary in toxicity, for each sample
the minimum lethal dose should be determined for all experiments having in
view the testing of an antitoxic serum.
13.
'Lancet': August 16th, 1902.
A NOTE ON SURRA IN CAMELS
FOR COMMANDANTS OF CAMEL CORPS
BY
H. E. CROSS, M.R.C.V.S., D.V.H., A.Sc.
Lahore :
PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, GOVERNMENT PRINTING. PUNJAB,
1914.
A note on Surra in Camels
FOR
Commandants of Camel Corns.
Definition.
Surra is an acute protozoan remittent fever accompanied by emaciation,
anæmia and debility and characterised by the pre-
sence of trypanosomes in the blood during the par-
oxysm of fever.
Synonyms.
Surra, meaning rotten, is the most widely used term for the disease, other
common names for the disease in India are:—
Pithgaya, Purana, Tibirsa, Sarhgaya, Kanahogaya.
History.
The disease was first discovered by Griffith Evans in 1880 at Dera Ismail
Khan when he demonstrated the trypanosomes
in the peripheral circulation of camels.
Etiology.
The cause of the disease is a flagellate—Try panosome Evansi. The
trypanosome belongs to the class flagellata of the
protozoa. It consists of an elongated body, un-
dulating membrane and a flagellum. It is 20 to 40 m in length and 1 to 1.5 m
in width. It is actively motile, and by reason of its size and motility can be
easily seen in wet films of blood under a low power objective. In dry pre-
paration the organism is readily stained by Giemsa or Leishman's method.
In the camel we meet with two forms of Surra :—
Varieties.
(1) The acute form.
(2) The chronic form.
The latter is the most prevalent. In the acute form the disease runs a rapid
course, the animal dying in a few months, In the chronic form the disease
is of long duration, the animal lingering on for 1 to 3 years, becoming gradu-
ally more and more emaciated and debilitated till he finally becomes nothing
but skin and bone.
Diagnosis.
In the diagnosis of surra it must be remembered that the trypanosome
only appears in the peripheral circulation at in-
tervals and when it does appear in the peripheral
circulation it is accompanied by paroxysm of fever. It is only very excep-
tional that trypanosomes will be found in the peripheral circulation without
2
SUTRRA IN CAMELS.
the camel showing a morning temperature of 99° F. or over. Before we can
make certain that a camel is suffering from surra the trypanosome must be
demonstrated in the blood, and to demonstrate its presence a wet film pre-
paration must be made and examined under 1/6 inch objective, or a smear of
the blood must be taken and stained.
Toprepare a wet film a very small portion of the edge of the ear is cut
with scissors and the ear squeezed till a small drop of blood exudes. To
this drop of blood is applied a clean cover glass (¼ inch square is a suitable
size) so as to get a small drop of blood in the middle of the cover glass, then
apply the cover glass to a clean slide (3" × 1" is a suitable size). The blood
will then be between the cover glass and the slide, and will run out to the
edge of the cover glass. Too large drops of blood must be avoided, or there
will be difficulty in seeing the trypanosome. The film is then examined.
A north light is best. If trypanosomes are present, they will be seen wriggl-
ing about amongst the corpuscles. The movement of the trypanosomes
becomes gradually slower till it finally ceases altogether after about ½
hour, under ordinary conditions of temperature.
To prepare a smear for staining. Touch the drop of blood on the ear
with a clean glass slide ½ inch from the end of the slide. Apply the edge of
another slide across the drop of blood and draw the second glide along the
length of the first slide. The first slide should then be waved to and fro
until the blood has dried. The smear can be examined at leisure after
staining by Leishman's method.
Leishman's method.—In this method the smear is fixed and stained
at the same time. The stain can be bought in powder or tabloid form.
The latter is very convenient—all that is necessary being to dissolve one
tabloid in 10 c.c. of alcohol. To stain the smear, drop on the smear a few
drops of the stain, allow this to remain for 1 minute, then add double the
quantity of water and shake the slide to insure the water and stain mixing.
Allow the stain to act for 15 minutes to ½ hour, then wash with water and
dry with blotting paper and examine under the 1/12 oil immersion When
using 1/12 oil immersion it must not be forgotten that a condenser is neces-
sary.
After the blood has been taken, to the edge of the ear that has been
cut, a little pure carbolic acid on a cotton woolplug should be applied to
stop any bleeding. If this is not done, flies are attracted even by this very
small wound and may transmit surra from a surra-infected camel to the
healthy one by mechanical means,
SURRA IN CAMELS.
8
After using the scissors on one camel they must be disinfected in a weak
solution of carbolic acid and thoroughly dried before being used on a fresh
camel.
The detection of surra
in a largo number of
camels.
It has already been stated that the trypanosome only appears in
the peripheral circulation during the paroxysm
of fever, and that these paroxysm occur at intervals
varying from about a fortnight to several weeks.
Because no trypanosomes are present in the peripheral circulation on one
day the camel cannot be declared free from surra ; all that can be said
is that on that particular day the blood is free from trypanosomes. To
detect surra the examination must be continued for several weeks daily,
but if a Commandant of Camel Corps has a large number of camels under
his charge, he will at once state that it would be impossible to examine the
blood of every camel daily. This is perfectly true and could not be done,
but if it be remembered that the trypanosome only appears during the
paroxysm of fever, all that is necessary is for the temperatures of all camels
to be taken every morning, and only the blood of those camels showing a
temperature of 99° F. or over need be examined. If 10 half-minute ther-
mometres are used, the temperatures of 10 camels can be taken in ½ minute.
Allowing another ½ minute to allow the temperature being read, etc., the
temperature of say 300 camels could therefore be taken in ½ hour. It is
imperative that the temperatures should be taken once daily if all cases
of surra in the Corps are to be diagnosed. It is obvious from what has been
said that by spasmodic blood examination cases of surra are sure to be
missed.
Symptoms.
I. In the acute form.—The disease runs a fairly rapid course, death
taking place within a few months. The paroxysm
of fever occur frequently. There is a watery dis-
charge from the eye which instead of being bright is dull. The animal goes
off his feed and becomes quickly tired at work. The hump becomes rapidly
smaller. Sometimes there is oedema on the pads and on the abdomen and
sheath.
II. In the chronic form.—The paroxysm occur at longer intervals
than in the acute form. The animal is noticed periodically to go off his
feed.
The eye becomes dull. The animal becomes gradually thinner and more
debilitated till finally he is nothing but skin and bone, the hump having dis-
appeared and the thigh muscles having gone, Paralysis and pneumonia
4
SURRA IN CAMELS.
are frequently seen in chronic surra cases and oedema on the pads and on
the abdomen is also sometimes met with. In dachis infected with surra
abortion is common.
Very few cases of chronic surra recover. The generally accepted view
is that if the camel lasts over 3 years he will recover.
Post-mortem appearances.
On post-mortem there are no characteristic appearances in camels
dead from surra, except those of extreme emacia-
tion.
Disposal of the carcase.
All camels that have died of surra should be at once burnt or buried ;
the trypanosome may remain alive from 20—80
hours in the blood and lymph, and in order to pre-
vent dogs, etc., from eating the carcase and become infected, and crows and
ordinary flies from spreading the disease to healthy animals by mechanical
means, the carcase should be burnt or buried as soon as possible.
Treatment.
The treatment with which I have had the most successful results con-
sists of 5 doses of 5 % solution of soamin (injected
subcutaneously) and 5 gradually increasing doses
of arsenious acid 1 % solution (injected intravenously). The soamin and
arsenious acid are injected alternately with an interval of one day between
each injection.
The tolerance of the camel to arsenious acid is very variable, but from
experiments that I have carried out, as a rule the largest dose that can be
safely given is 1.2 gms. per 1,000 lbs. body weight.
The following doses should be given :—
1st day—100 c.c. of a 5 % solution of soamin subcutaneously.
3rd day—0.6 gm. of a 1 % solution of arsenious acid intravenously.
5th day—100 c.c. of a 5 % solution of soamin subcutaneously.
7th day—0.8 gm. of a 1 % solution of arsenious acid intravenously.
9th day—100 c.c. of a 5 % solution of soamin subcutaneously.
11th day—0.8 gm. of a 1 % solution of arsenious acid intravenously.
18th day—100 c.c. of a 5 % solution of soamin subcutaneously.
15th day—1 gm. of a 1 % solution of arsenious acid intravenously,
17th day—100 c.c. of a 5 % solution of soamin subcutaneously.
19th day—1.2 gms. of a 1 % solution of arsenious acid intravenously
per 1,000 lbs. body weight of the camel.
The camel should be given good grazing and liberal ration. Should
the animal go off feed after any dose, the next dose should be postponed till
SURRA IN CAMELS.
5
ho is feeding well. Colic should be treated by chlorodyne in doses of 8 oz.
in 1 to 2 pints of water (of chlorodyne containing 1 grain of morphia per
fluid ounce). Constipation should be treated by 1—2 lb doses of Epsom
salts dissolved in water.
The solutions must be freshly prepared and sterile and filtered before
being injected. The injections should be injected at blood heat by means
of an Ehrlich's injection flask. Should an animal relapse after treatment,
he should be submitted to the treatment again.
Method of spread.
In order for surra to spread two factors are necessary :—
(1) The reservoir (i.e., a camel infected with
surra).
(2) The transmitting agent (i.e., blood sucking flies, the most important
of which as transmitters are the Tabanidae (termed by the natives bara dang).
If either of these two factors are wanting, the disease cannot be spread
from the surra-infected animals to the healthy. If on the other hand there
is a surra-infected camel amongst a batch of healthy camels and Tabanidae
are present, the fly while sucking the blood (containing the trypanosome)
from the surra-infected camel may be dislodged and attack a healthy
camel; during the act of biting this camel, he inoculates the healthy camel
with surra. This is known as direct or mechanical transmission. It has
been proved by experiment that surra can be transmitted in this way, and
under favourable conditions (e.g., when camels, amongst which are surra-
infected ones, are herded together and blood sucking flies are present) there
is no reason why surra should not be transmitted in this way ; but whether
this is the usual method of transmission or whether the trypanosome does
not undergo a cycle in the fly is still undecided. It has been shown with
reference to sleeping sickness that flies are capable of infection 20 days after
they have fed on an infected host, and the majority of workers on sleeping
sickness agree that direct transmission seldom occurs.
If direct transmission is the means by which surra is spread from camel
to camel, any blood sucking fly may transmit the disease, and considering
the number of blood sucking flies in India and the number of reservoirs of
surra, it is difficult to imagine that a single camel could have escaped becom-
ing surra-infected. The spread of surra is probably at times by direct trans-
mission, but generally not. It is probable that the trypanosome undergoes
a cycle in the fly, (and in a particular species of fly only—a percentage only
of these flies being capable of infecting healthy camels), i.e., the cycle is not
completed in every one of the flies that has fed on blood containing trypano-
somes,
6
SURRA IN CAMELS.
The principal blood sucking flies are :—
Tabanidæ.
Stomoxya.
Hæmatopota.
Hæmatobya.
Ehilæmatomyia.
Simulidae.
Lyperosia.
Hippobosca.
From practical experience there is no doubt the most dangerous flies in the
spread of surra from camel to camel are the Tabanidæ.
Life history of Tabani-
dæ.
The mature fly lays its eggs on the under surface of leaves of trees or
blades of grass overhanging water, in masses of 500
eggs. These egg masses are white when fresh, but
after a few days they become brown. From these eggs a larva is hatched
out; this drops into the water and buries itself in the mud towards the edge
of the pool or bank of the river and finally becomes a pupa from which the
mature fly emerges.
The Tabanidæ are most prevalent in the plains in July, August, Septem-
ber and beginning of October ; in the hills in May. June and July. There
are 8 broods of flies in the year—roughly one in March, one in July and one
in October. They are however most prevalent during July, August and
September, but the time they appear and disappear depends upon climatic
conditions.
As has already been stated for the spread of surra, 2 factors are neces-
Prevention of the spread sary :—
of surra.
(1) The reservoir of infection (i.e., a surra-infected camel).
(2) The transmitters [i.e., blood sucking flies).
If either of these two factors could be got rid of, we could eliminate the dis-
ease :.we cannot get rid of the fly, but we can destroy or isolate and submit
to treatment any Government camel found to be suffering from surra. We
cannot however destroy, on account of expense, every privately owned
surra camel. To prevent the spread of surra amongst the Government
camels, our first object must be to get rid of the reservoirs of infection and our
second object to keep camels isolated from privately owned camels during
the fly season,
SURRA IN
CAMELS.
7
We can accomplish our first object by submitting the camels to daily
examination. Although the blood of every camel cannot be examined daily
as explained under the heading diagnosis, it is quite easy and takes only a
short time to take the morning temperature daily of a large number of camels
and examine the blood of any showing a morning temperature of 99° F. or
over. Any diagnosed with surra should be at once destroyed or isolated and
submitted to treatment. If this methodis systematically carried out, in a
short time every case of surra in a corps will be detected. We can ac-
complish our second object (i.e., isolation of Government camels from
the privately owned during the fly season) by setting apart rakhs
free from Tabanidae for Government camels. To sum up, the spread
of surra can be prevented by (1) getting rid of the reservoir of infection;
(2) grazing the camels in rakhs free from biting flies during the fly season and
in which private camels are not allowed to graze.
To determine whether a rakh is free from Tabanidae we must search
The examination of a for—
rakh for biting flies.
(1) The mature fly.
(2) Egg masses.
(3) Larvae and pupae.
I. To search for the mature fly.-—Three or four camels should be taken
and kept close to a pond or any permanent water in the rakh. If after 2 or
3 days no Tabanidae appear on the camels at the different ponds, it is safe
to assume that no mature flies are about,
II. To search for egg masses.—The blades of grass or rocks overhanging
the water, as also the leaves of trees overhanging the water, must be care-
fully examined for egg masses. If no egg masses are discovered, we have to
search for the larvae and pupae;
III. To search for larva and pupa—The mud round the ponds, must
be dug up to a depth of 2 or 3 inches by means of a knife. A start should
be made on the mud at the edge of the water (for larvae) and working
back from the wetter mud to the drier (for pupae).
Only if all 3 are absent, can we state that the rakh is free from Tabanidae,
Time to purchase re¬
mounts.
Before any remount for a corps is purchased the blood should be care-
fully examined, but as has already been explained
because the blood is free from trypanosomes on
the day of examination it does not necessarily follow that the camel is not
8
SURRA IN CAMELS.
suffering from surra. The camel becomes infected with surra during the fly
season; in the majority of cases the camels are not worked during this time
and get good grazing; they therefore do not lose condition rapidly, so that
at the beginning of the cold weather, though surra-infected, they may still
be in good condition. On the other hand, towards the end of the cold weather
the surra-infected camel, especially if has been worked during the early part
of the winter, will have lost a good deal of condition. It is therefore obvious
that the time to purchase remounts is at the end and not at the beginning
of the cold weather, and no camel should be purchased that is not in good
condition, special attention being paid to the thigh muscles which should
be well developed.
All remounts should be kept for 6 weeks isolated from the remainder
of the corps camels.
H. E. CROSS, I.C.V.D.;
Camel Specialist.
Indian Hemp Drugs Commission.
VOL. III.
APPENDICES.
MISCELLANEOUS.
SIMLA:
PRINTED AT THE GOVERNMENT CENTRAL PRINTING OFFICE.
1894.