NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
76
REPORT OF THE INDIAN HEMP DRUGS COMMISSION, 1893-94. [CH. V.
functions, but the cultivators seem to be very hazy on the subject (Mr. Ebden). In
spite of the fact that one or two of the names applied to the various undesirable
plants which the parakhai casts out show a correct understanding of the
reason why they are mischievous, these names without distinction are given
by two witnesses as names of diseases, and it is probable that the
plants indicated are popularly regarded as diseased plants. Yet it is difficult to
believe that there should be so wide a gulf between this ignorance and the
intelligence found in the Central Provinces among people of the same race and
occupation, and not separated from the Bombay cultivators by any great dis-
tance as distances go in India. The forms of the plant, noxious from the
point of view of the ganja grower, which have received special names, are given
below, with the explanations of the witnesses regarding them in brief. These
explanations are evidently gathered from informants, and are not based on the
witnesses' own observations, except in the case of Mr. Ebden.
Andya (36), Andia (30).—Indicated by the "pin-like white flowers" (36);
by organic molecules formed in the top of the plants; affects plants in the begin-
ning of their growth, and lasts about a month (30).
Remark.—Apparently the simple male.
Bhangira (48), Dhatura (5).—Plant examined by Mr. Ebden, who says:
"Latter name identical with that of the common poisonous plant," and pronounc-
ed male.
Remark.—The simple male.
Shevarya (36), Sheora (30), Shewara (5).—One of the branches grows
higher, and bends down with a flower like jawari grain at the end of it (36). White
flowers grow on the flower top (30). Mr. Ebden has not seen specimen.
Remark.—A form of the male plant known by the same name at Khandwa.
Haldya (36), Haldia (30).—Recognised by a yellow shoot at one of the
knots of the plant (36). Affects the plant by producing a yellow colour in the
tops, and lasts till the full growth of the plant (30).
Remark.—The yellow colour may be caused by deposit of pollen.
Kapshia (36), Kapsha (30).—Recognised by a jawari like grain which gets
transformed into a white or yellow flower (36). Whitens the plant (30).
Remark.—Witness (36) describes a male blossom; witness (30) some sort of
disease or the deposit of pollen.
Bundia (36), Bunda (30).—Same description as that of Kapsha (36). The
seed is formed in the flower head, which afterwards produces flower (30).
Remark.—A bi-sexual form probably.
Mora (36), (30), Morai (5).—Recognised by the yellow flower on the top
branch, which makes its appearance sometimes fifteen days before reaping of the
crop, and has the effect of destroying the better quality of the ganja (36). Ap-
pears late, and causes breach (sic) of the flower spike (30). Female partly gone
to seed; is not exterminated; is regarded with regret, its meaning being that the-
male has somehow got access and partly spoiled the crop. Examined (5).
CH. V.] REPORT OF THE INDIAN HEMP DRUGS COMMISSION, 1893-94. 77
Remark.-Probably the same as the moria of Khandwa, and the female
with abnormal male blossom of Dr. Prain.
Charkha (30).—Makes the flower yellow, and lasts to the end (30).
Remark.-Much the same as Kapsha.
Aradnar (30), Ardhanar (5).-From the stock to the top of the plants
small buds are formed which give rise to white flowers (30). Not examined; but
must be, as its name implies, the bi-sexual plant (5).
Remark.—The same name, adnaria, is used in Khandwa for the ordinary
male plant with some female blossoms.
Tik (5).—Examined and pronounced bi-sexual; the ardhanar, which Mr.
Ebden did not examine, was probably the same (5).
Remark.—Sounds like a short name for the rather clumsy one which goes
before.
Ropda (5).—Mentioned, but not seen by Mr. Ebden.
The fact that the plant in its sexual arrangements takes so many forms
will probably be interesting to scientific readers, and the complete list is there-
fore given. And it is supplemented with such remarks as the information gather-
ed in the course of the Commission's inquiry seems to justify. The Commission
do not claim to have made any exact study of the subject, and have not even
had an opportunity of personally examining the plant and its cultivation in the
Bombay Presidency. As far as the cultivation is concerned, the enumeration of
these forms of the plant is of interest as illustrating the fact that the extermina-
tion of the male requires considerable practical skill, and that the existence of
the moria form, which develops its male blossoms with such delay and caution,
is a special difficulty in the way of the complete seclusion of the female, and
the production of the finest form of the drug.
The crop matures in about five months, and is therefore gathered in Novem-
ber or December in different localities according to the date of sowing. In
Bijapur the cultivation is carried on by the ganja farmer, and the parakhai seems
to supervise it up to harvest; and it would appear that elsewhere his services are
required for a longer period than they are in Bengal, and that he exercises a
wider control over the cultivation generally. As a rule irrigation is only resorted
to if the rainfall is insufficient or untimely; but the crop is nearly always raised
under the protection of a well. After the flower spikes are formed on the ganja
plants rain does damage. The crop does not ripen till a month or two after the
south-west monsoon has ceased, and during this period irrigation must often be
required. Witness (27) describes what must be the simple garden cultivation,
which, if it exists at all at the present day, is quite unimportant in this Presidency.
The evidence shows a striking unanimity on the point that the heavy rain-
fall of the belt lying immediately to the east of the crest of the Western Ghâts
renders that part of the country unsuitable for the cultivation of hemp. There
is a strong body of evidence that rich but light soil and only a moderate amount
of rain are required. This has an important bearing on the subject of the spon-
taneous growth.
20
Survey of India Offices, Calcutta, August 1894.
GATHERING THE GANJA CROP, NAOGAON.
16TH
FEBRUARY
1894.
Survey of India Offices, Calcutta, August 1894.
PREPARING FLAT GANJA, NAOGAON.
16TH FEBRUARY 1894.
Survey of India Offices, Calcutta, August 1894.
TREADING GANJA, AHMEDNAGAR.
27TH NOVEMBER 1893.
CHAPTER VII.
TRADE AND MOVEMENT OF THE HEMP DRUGS.
Bengal.
278. The area cultivated in the Ganja Mahal in the year 1892-93 was much
greater than in any one of the preceding 19 years,
being, 3,540 bighas (Excise Commissioner's Memo-
randum), equivalent to 1,180 acres. But the estimated outturn of the crop was
comparatively small, being only 7,575 maunds, and not much above the average
of the five years from 1888-89 to 1892-93, 7,317 maunds (Excise Report for
1892-93, page 36). For the purpose of examining the movements of the pro-
duce, therefore, 1892-93 is a fair average year.
Exports of ganja.
279. Bengal exports ganja by land to Assam, Kuch Behar, Nepal, and the
North-Western Provinces, and by sea to London,
British Indian ports, and places outside India. The
figures for 1892-93 are—
Maunds.
To Assam
681
Kuch Behar
89
Nepal
177
North-Western Provinces
563
London
128
British Indian ports
275
Foreign ports
89
Total
2,002
None of these figures is in a very striking degree abnormal. The exports to
Assam and Kuch Behar are taken direct from the head-quarters at Naogaon,
and the rest apparently from the local stores most convenient to the trade. The
balance left for home consumption is 5,573 maunds, which approximates
to the annual consumption. One of the most noticeable points in the information
relating to exports is the extraordinary shipment of 774 maunds in the year
1891-92 to other parts than those for which the Commission asked for informa-
tion by name in the statement. This export was ten times the ordinary
quantity, and no explanation is furnished about it.
Exports of ganja to North-
Western Provinces.
280. The history of the export trade to the North-Western Provinces is
also remarkable. It is sketched at page 38 of the
Excise Report for 1892-93. It is there stated that
the ganja trade of Rajshahi with the North-Western Provinces dates from
the very earliest period of the cultivation, and that the export was very
large till the year 1860, when the rate of duty was first increased. "The order
requiring payment of duty at Rajshahi may be said to have killed the trade of
that district with the North-Western Provinces. The exports which in 1854-55
amounted to 6,036 maunds, and to 4,250 maunds in 1861-62, fell in the following
year to 1,014 maunds, to 43 maunds in 1863-64, and ceased altogether in 1869-
70." The North-Western Provinces traders have since imported a certain
amount of ganja from the golas of the Patna Division, and it is probable that
by this arrangement they save in carriage something more than the differ-
ence between the cost of the drug at the central and local golas. Their
average total purchases for the last three years, viz., 565 maunds, are, however,
CH. VII.] REPORT OF THE INDIAN HEMP DRUGS COMMISSION, 1893-94. 109
Assam.
287. Assam draws its ganja supply from Rajshahi. The figures of import
are given from 1879-80 to 1892-93. The average
import of the first four years of this period was 644
maunds, of the next five years 677 maunds, and of the last five years 750 maunds.
The trade therefore is growing, and the increase is doubtless connected with the
development of the tea industry in Assam and the influx of coolies attending it.
The drug is not exported. There is reason to suppose that the consumption of
licit ganja, and therefore the import trade, is affected by the smuggling of inferior
ganja from the hill countries and by the existence in the valleys of the wild
growth in considerable abundance; but it is not possible to form any estimate
of the extent of this interference with the legitimate business. Charas is not
consumed. Licenses are not issued for the import of bhang probably because
there is no demand for Bengal bhang, the local weed being far more than suffi-
cient for the needs of the province. Nor is there any local trade in bhang.
Practically bhang is not recognized as a distinct article from ganja. There is
very little information about its use.
North-Western Provinces.
288. The province produces for itself a large amount of bhang and a very
small amount of ganja and charas. A considerable
quantity of bhang is nevertheless imported, and
practically the whole of the ganja and charas consumed are from outside the
province. All three drugs also pass out of the province, but ganja and charas
only to a small extent.
Ganja imports.
289. Mr. Stoker writes that the three main localities from which ganja is im-
ported are Bengal, Khandwa, and Central India, i.e.,
(a) Gwalior, and (b) Bundelkhand Native States.
The Bengal Excise Report for 1892-93 shows that the export from Bengal to the
North-Western Provinces in the last three years has been—
Maunds.
Average
maunds.
1890-91
667
1891-92
467 565
1892-93
563
It is nearly all brought from the golas in the Patna Division. The imports from
Khandwa (Excise Memorandum) were—
Maunds.
Average
maunds.
1890-91
1,530
1,490
1891-92
1,450
These figures together account for an average import of 2,055 maunds. The total
imports of the province were—
Maunds.
Average
maunds.
1890-91
4,920
1891-92
4,239
4,774
1892-93
5,165
or more than double the quantity which is drawn from Bengal and Khandwa.
28
CH. VII.] REPORT OF THE INDIAN HEMP DRUGS COMMISSION, 1893-94. 115
Bashahr. The distribution of the hemp drugs to the States would seem to be a
subordinate incident of the Punjab trade.
Central Provinces.
302. The Central Provinces grow their own ganja, consume no charas,
and import a trifling amount of bhang.
Quantity of ganja produced.
303. Mr. Drake-Brockman gives 16 maunds as the average outturn of an acre
of ganja cultivation (Memorandum on Cultivation).
Mr. Robertson puts it at 12 to 15 maunds (Memo-
randum on Cultivation). These estimates must take account of a great deal of
material that does not find its way on to the books of the Khandwa depôt. For
paragraph 54 of the Excise Memorandum gives figures which would put the
outturn at hardly 10 maunds. The quantity of ganja brought to store and the
quantity exported since 1888-89 are given in that paragraph as follows:—
Quantity sold for
Quantity stored.
export beyond
Difference.
Central Provinces.
Maunds.
Maunds.
Maunds.
1888-89
9,450
5,052
4,398
1889-90
10,854
7,933
2,921
1890-91
7,224
4,108
3,116
1891-92
6,685
3,916
2,769
1892-93
6,686
4,233
2,453
Total
40,899
25,242
15,657
Average
8,179
5,048
3,131
Mr. Drake-Brockman writes that only one-fifth of the crop is locally con-
sumed, but this statement does not take account of waste. The average recorded
consumption, including that of the Feudatory States, is shown to be 1,282 maunds.
The column headed "difference" represents this provincial consumption, together
with waste in cleaning, principally the drug consumed in the province, but also
to a less degree that which is exported.
Export of ganja.
304. Of this export the North-Western Provinces take about 1,500 maunds,
and the destination of the rest is indicated in a
report of the Excise Commissioner of the year
1887 quoted at paragraph 41 of his memorandum: "The part played by the
Khandwa store as an entrepôt for the supply of the ganja demand of these
provinces is quite insignificant when compared with its use as a mart for the con-
venience of foreign purchasers. To it throng traders from Bhopal, Indore,
Gwalior, Rutlam, Dhar, Jodhpur, Udaipur, Rewa, Panna, Baroda, and other
States of less note, and licensed vendors from the North-Western Provinces
compete with contractors from Berar for the purchase of the cultivator's stock."
At that time the Commissioner of Excise states that the export was between
6,000 and 7,000 maunds. In making this calculation, he includes the figure of
the year 1885-86, which reached the exceptional amount of 13,380 maunds.
There is reason to suppose that a little business is done in the sale of seed
from the crops grown at Khandwa for that product. There is information as to
CH. VII.] REPORT OF THE INDIAN HEMP DRUGS COMMISSION, 1893-94. 119
supply the demand of those districts. The import from the Central Provinces
cannot be large.
Exports by sea.
314. It will be seen from the following statement that there is a consider-
able export of ganja by sea. Something less than
one-half of the whole goes to British Indian ports,
several of which are probably in the Bombay Presidency. A little more than a
quarter finds its way to foreign Indian ports, which would include those of
Cutch and Kathiawar. There is not, however, any definite information of the
Indian ports, British and foreign, to which the drug is carried. As much of the
drug as is imported into the Presidency and its Native States has, of course, been
included in the above survey of import and consumption. About 28 per cent.
goes to Aden, Arabia, Africa, and Europe. The export to London is very con-
siderable. There is no reason to suppose that any of the sea export consists
of other than Bombay ganja.
Export of ganja from ports in the Bombay Presidency for 1890-91 to 1892-93.
Year.
From what port.
To British Indian ports.
To Foreign Indian ports.
To Aden.
To Muscat.
To Zanzibar.
To London.
To Liverpool.
To Marseilles.
Total.
REMARKS.
Bombay
116 948 3/4 16
22
560
124 1/2
1,787 1/2 The figures are In-
dian maunds.
Complete information
for previous years
not available.
1890-91
Other Bombay ports
1,202
16
1,218
The figures are In-
dian maunds.
Complete information
for previous years
not available.
The figures are In-
dian maunds.
Complete information
for previous years
not available.
Total
1,318 964 3/4 16
22
560
124 1/2
3,005 1/4
The figures are In-
dian maunds.
Complete information
for previous years
not available.
1891-92
Bombay
126 1/2 832
30
24
18 1,055 67
30
2,182 1/2
1891-92
Other Bombay ports
1390
47
1,437
Total
1,516 1/2 879
30
24
18 1,055
67
30 3,619 1/2
Bombay
195 623
32
48
26
700
1,624
1892-93
Other Bombay ports
1,345
147
1,492
Total
1,540 770
32
48
26
700
3,116
Total of 3 years
4,374 1/2 2,613 3/4 78
72
66 2,315 191 1/2 30 9,740 3/4
Average
1,458 871
26
24
22
771
63
10
3,246
Distribution of ganja produced in
the Presidency.
315. The result of this survey of the distribution of the ganja produced in
the Bombay Presidency is as follows:—
Maunds.
Consumed in British districts
3,000
Consumed in Native States
2,000
Exported by sea
1,500
Unaccounted for
650
Total
7,150
122 REPORT OF THE INDIAN HEMP DRUGS COMMISSION, 1893-94. [CH. VII.
maunds. The average of registered consumption is two-thirds of this amount.
The drug imported would seem to be grown in the Madras Presidency. Charas
is not used, nor is bhang regarded as a distinct article from ganja.
Baluchistan.
326. The information from Baluchistan does not enable the Commission to
judge of the extent of the trade in the province. The
farms in two divisions—Bolan and Quetta-Pishin—
fetch over Rs. 4,000 each; but it is not clear that these do not include the right
to sell other intoxicating drugs besides the hemp products. There is practi-
cally no local production of the drugs. It would appear that the consumption of
bhang and ganja are about equal, and that of charas is twelve times as great
as either.
Burma.
327. There is no legitimate trade in Burma. The smuggling which is carried
on on a considerable scale will be dealt with more
appropriately in connection with prohibition and excise
arrangements. A few facts may be noted in this place. It appears from the
information collected that the contraband article is introduced from ports on the
Madras coasts, amongst which Pondicherry is prominently mentioned. The
volume of the smuggling cannot be estimated. The Financial Commissioner
reports the following detections:—
1890-91.
1891-92.
1892-93.
Tolas.
Tolas.
Tolas.
Rangoon
8,423
9,771
13,115
Moulmein
932
213
92
Akyab
245
567
1,018
Bassein
0
0
0
Total
9,600
10,551
14,225
And the Assistant Collector of Customs reports for 1893-94 (1st April
to 30th November) tolas 30,353, or nearly 10 maunds. This is probably but a
fraction of the total imports. The smuggling into Upper Burma from the Shan
States and Kachin Hills is probably insignificant in quantity.
Mysore.
328. The figures of import and retail sale of ganja on the five years' average
are respectively 400 and 300 maunds. The drug is
brought principally from North Arcot. There is
reason to think that some comes into the northern districts from Dharwar in
the Bombay Presidency and from the Hyderabad State. There are no
exports. Charas is not used, and bhang is not distinct from ganja. The latter
remarks apply also to Bangalore, where the average import of ganja is 57
Indian maunds. This also comes from the Madras districts. There appear
to be no exports.
Hyderabad.
329. The report of the Hyderabad State shows that "charas is almost un-
known in the whole dominion." Bhang is a bye-
product of ganja cultivation and manufacture. The
CH. VII.] REPORT OF THE INDIAN HEMP DRUGS COMMISSION, 1893-94. 123
cultivation extends to between 300 and 400 acres. The Director of Agriculture
states that the outturn may be taken to be 5 or 6 maunds per acre. The total
produce of the State would then be about 2,000 maunds. The memorandum
states that the local production is sufficient to meet the requirements of the
people in ordinary seasons. It is only in abnormal years that exports to, or
imports from, British territory take place. The average of these for the last five
years is 75 maunds of import and 10 maunds of export.
Rajputana.
330. The Rajputana States appear to grow most of the bhang they require,
and to import ganja and charas. The trade in charas
is mostly in the hands of travelling Kabulis, called
in these parts Vilayatis; but bhang and ganja are transported by the local traders
of all grades, from Marwaris in a large way of business to Tambolis (pan sellers)
and grocers. The following facts about the trade in some of the States are re-
ported:—
Kotah.—A small quantity of bhang is locally produced. Ganja is imported
from Jhallawar, Gwalior, and Tonk. No charas has been imported for some
years.
Jhallawar.—About 140 maunds of ganja and 26 of bhang are said to be
produced locally. About 90 maunds of bhang and ganja are imported and 105
maunds exported annually. The returns do not distinguish between the two
drugs. There is no information about charas.
Jeypore.—It is reported that 10,000 maunds of bhang are produced locally.
It looks as if the figure was a clerical error, for the export from the State is small,
and the local consumption cannot be very enormous. This amount would
represent 1,000 acres of cultivation, and the account of the cultivation does
not justify the belief that there is anything approaching that area. Bhang of a
superior kind is imported to the amount of 64 maunds; of ganja 54 maunds and
of charas 129 maunds are brought in from the Punjab; 27 maunds of bhang
are exported.
Kishengarh.—Ganja and bhang are locally produced to a small extent,
but they are both also imported,—the former from Malwa, and the latter from Jey-
pore. Charas is also imported. Figures are not given. There are no exports.
Bikanir.—Some 13 maunds of bhang are produced locally, but no ganja or
charas. The three drugs are all imported from the Punjab, Indore, and Jeypore.
The bhang, which seems to come through Bhartpur, is called thatia, probably
the same word as tatia, the name of the bhang produced in Farakhabad and
Hardoi, derived, as Mr. Stoker explains, from a village of the name in the former
district. Charas is of two kinds, Indori and Yarkandi; the former name would
indicate manufacture in Indore, of which there is no decided proof. The only
places in Central India where there is information of any manufacture of this drug
are Gwalior and Bhopawar. The import of charas appears to be about 16 maunds
and of ganja 4. It is possible that this ganja is what is known in the State as
Indori charas; for the two drugs are mixed up in the accounts, and in one place
it is stated that there is no import of ganja. Of bhang, 126 maunds are
imported.