NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
March, 1955]
A.
A.
BADR
55
stage of lactation, the average acidity for the month generally will be lower. No
seasonal trend was observed in connection with the monthly average acidity of
milk.
Variations in acidity from day to day and from milking to milking
Variations in the acidity of milk for a group of 10 cows and a group of
15 buffaloes were observed in each group over a 15-day period. Acidity determina-
tions were made on samples collected from consecutive milkings for a period of 15
days. Daily averages for the acidity of milk from these two groups of cows
and buffaloes did not vary more than 0.018 per cent for cow milk and 0.014 per
cent for buffalo milk throughout the 15-day period. It was true also that the
differences in the acidity of morning and evening milk were not significant. On
the other hand, the acidity of milk from individual cows or buffaloes show some
variation. The maximum variation observed between any two consecutive milk-
ing in cow and buffalo milk was 0.043 per cent and 0.039 per cent respectively.
Variations in acidity from different quarters of the same udder
Variations in acidity of milk samples collected singly from each quarter of the
same udder and from consecutive milkings for a period of five days were observed
in five individual cows and five individual buffaloes. The maximum variation
observed between the acidity of any two quarters of the same udder and milking
in cows and buffaloes was 0.009 per cent and 0.007 per cent respectively.
Effect of dilution on the titratable acidity of buffalo milk
In determining the titratable acidity of milk various procedures are used.
Some titrate the milk directly ; others dilute the measured sample with definite
amounts of water ranging from 1 to 10 volumes ; still others dilute the measured
sample with indefinite amounts of water used for rinsing the pipette. If such dilution
lowers the result as has been shown by Soldner [1888], Plant [1891], Hanne [1904],
Siegfeld [1900], Berberich [1907], Rice and Markley [1924] and Sommer and Menos
[1931], then this factor in the acid test should not be ignored as is now very commonly
the case. Sommer and Menos [1931] gave more detailed explanation of this dilution
effect and stated that the greater part of the dilution effect is attributed to a decrease
in the amount of tri-calcium phosphate precipitated during the titration. The
results reported by these investigators which have been compiled in Table V show
that dilution lowers the titratable acidity in cow milk. The aim of the present
work was to throw light on the effect of dilution on buffalo milk.
TABLE V
Effect of dilution on the titratable acidity as shown by various investigators
Investigators
Berberich
Soldner
Year
1907
1888
No. of
samples
3
1
Average acidity of samples
Undiluted
(per cent)
Diluted
(per cent)
Difference
(per cent)
(Dilution with one volume of water)
0.1357
0.1350
0.1174
0.1225
0.0187
0.0125
112 AR/54
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56
TITRATABLE ACIDITY OF COW AND BUFFALO MILK
[Vol. XXV, Part I,
TABLE V—(contd.)
Effect of dilution on the titratable acidity as shown by various investigators
Investigators
Siegfeld
Hanne
Sommer and Ménos
Berberich
Soldner
Siegfeld
Hanne
Berberich
Berberich
Soldner
Sommer and Menos
Rice and Markley
Year
1904
1904
1930
1907
1888
1904
1904
1907
1907
1888
1930
1927
No. of
samples
2
2
19
4
1
2
5
3
4
1
19
7
Average acidity of samples
Undiluted
(per cent)
Diluted
(per cent)
Difference
(per cent)
(Dilution with one volume of water)
0.1769
0.1350
0.1721
0.1544
0.1166
0.1393
0.0225
0.0184
0.0211
(Dilution with two volumes of water)
0.1398
0.1350
0.1854
0.2327
0.1175
0.0990
0.1445
0.2097
0.0225
0.0360
0.0409
0.0230
(Dilution with three volumes of water)
0.1357
0.1095
0.0262
(Dilution with four volumes of water)
0.1395
0.1035
0.0360
(Dilution with five volumes of water)
0.1350
0.0832
0.0518
(Dilution with nine volumes of water)
0.1721
0.1098
0.0623
(Dilution with 10 volumes of water)
0.1580
0.1010
0.0570
March
1955]
A.
A.
BADR
57
TABLE VI
Effect of dilution on the titratable acidity of buffalo milk
No. of
buffalo
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Average
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Average
Total
average
A—10 c.c. Milk
N/10
NaOH
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.6
2.6
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.9
2.9
3.2
3.2
3.5
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
Acidity
0.180
0.198
0.216
0.225
0.225
0.225
0.234
0.234
0.252
0.252
0.252
0.227
0.261
0.261
0.288
0.288
0.315
0.360
0.360
0.350
0.360
0.316
0.267
B—10 c.c. Milk
10 c.c. water
N/10
NaOH
1.8
2.0
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.4
2.3
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.8
2.6
2.9
2.9
3.2
3.2
3.7
3.6
Acidity
0.162
0.180
0.207
0.207
0.207
0.207
0.216
0.207
0.234
0.234
0.234
0.209
Colostrum
0.234
0.252
0.234
0.261
0.261
0.288
0.288
0.333
0.324
0.275
0.239
C—10 c.c. Milk +
90 c.c. water
N/10
NaOH
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.4
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.8
2.1
2.2
2.2
2.0
2.6
2.7
2.7
2.7
Acidity
0.108
0.117
0.135
0.153
0.126
0.153
0.153
0.153
0.162
0.162
0.153
0.143
0.162
0.189
0.198
0.198
0.180
0.234
0.243
0.243
0.243
0.210
0.173
Differences due to
dilution
A-B
0.018
0.018
0.009
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.027
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.027
0.009
0.054
0.027
0.054
0.072
0.072
0.027
0.036
0.042
0.029
A-C
0.072
0.081
0.081
0.072
0.099
0.072
0.081
0.081
0.090
0.090
0.099
0.083
0.099
0.072
0.090
0.090
0.135
0.126
0.117
0.117
0.117
0.107
0.094
112 A R/54.
11
March 1955]
A.
A.
BADR
59
3. The acidity of colostrum milk from 10 cows and 15 buffaloes was found
to be high averaging 0.42 and 0.47 per cent respectively, for the first
milking. With each succeeding milking a decrease occurred so that
by the third milking, the acidity of the milk averaged 0.28 and 0.33
per cent respectively, and at the tenth milking the acidity was 0.22
and 0.25 per cent respectively. A gradual decline in acidity occurred
during the first 15 to 20 days of the lactation.
4. The acidity of milk from two groups of 15 buffaloes and 10 cows showed
a gradual decline throughout the lactation. The most pronounced
change occurred at the beginning and end of the lactation period.
From the second to the seventh month of the lactation the acidity
remained fairly constant.
5. A marked decline in the average acidity of buffalo and cow milk was observ-
ed during the last month of the lactation period. The extent of the
change, however, varied widely between individual cows and buffaloes.
6. Variations from month to month in the acidity of milk for cows and buffaloes
were not large. Differences in the stage of lactation and in the number
and individuality of the cows and buffaloes represented in any one
month, appear to be responsible for the variations in the monthly
average for acidity which were found to occur.
7. Average variation in the acidity of milk from day to day and from milking
to milking for two groups of 10 cows and 15 buffaloes respectively, over
a 15-day period, were not significant. The milk from individual cows
and buffaloes within these two groups did show some variation from
one milking to the next. The maximum variation between any two
consecutive milkings for cows and buffaloes was 0.043 per cent and
0.039 per cent respectively.
8. The maximum variation observed between the acidity of any two quar-
ters of the same udder and milking in the individual cows and buffa-
loes examined was 0.009 per cent and 0.007 per cent respectively.
9. Dilution of the measured sample of buffalo milk lowers the titratable
acidity : dilution with an equal volume of water caused an average
decrease of 0.0212 per cent and dilution with nine volumes of water,
caused an average decrease of 0.0830 per cent.
REFERENCES
Berberich, F. M. (1907). Molkerei-Zeitung (Hildesheim), 1359-1362
Burgwald, L. H. and Bachtel, R. T. (1933). Abstracts of papers. Ann. Meet. Ann. Amer. Dairy Sci.
Ass., 53
Caulfield, W. J. and Riddell, W. H. (1936). J. Dairy Sci. 4, 235
Davies, W. L. (1939), The chemistry of milk, 120-128, 304-310
Hanne, R. (1904). Milch-Zeitung, 18, 659, 725
Henkel, T.H. (1907). Milchwirtschaftliches Zentralblatt, 34-369. Cited by Sommer (1935). Wisc.
Agric. Expt. Sta. Res. Bull, 127
Houston, J. (1931). J. Dairy Res. 2, 2-179
60
TITRATABLE ACIDITY OF COW AND BUFFALO MILK
[Vol. XXV, Part I,
McInerney, T. J. (1920). J. Dairy Sci., 3, 227
Plant, N. C. (1891). Archiv. fur Hygiene, 13, 133-172
Rice, Frank E. and Markley, Alton L. (1924). J. Dairy Sci., 7, 469
Richmond and Miller, V. (1920). Dairy Chemistry, London, 179
Rogers, L. A. (1928). Fundamentals of dairy science, 117-135
Siegfeld, M. (1900). Molkerei-Zeitung (Hildesheim), 205-207
Soldner, P. (1888). Laudwirtschaftlichen Versuchs-Stationen, 351-436
Sommer, H. H. and Hart, E. B. (1919). J. Biol. Chem., 1, 137
—(1921).
J. Dairy Sci., 4, 7-11
—and
Ménos, J. (1931). J. Dairy Sci., 14,136-155
DRESSING OUT PERCENTAGE IN SUCKLING
BUFFALO VEALS
By A, L. BADRELDIN, Professor of Animal Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Cairo
(Received for publication on 17 June 1954)
G ROWTH rate, development and dressing out percentage are the major factors
which control meat production. The efficiency of feed utilization by animals is
subjected to anatomical, physiological, genetic and environmental factors. During
the early stages of life, the young animals achieve their maximum feed utilization
when fed on milk. This is well illustrated when comparing the growth rates of
rabbits, doves and chickens ; the rabbits being faster in growth than others. The
rate of growth in different species is proportional to the percentage of protein in their
milk [Aron, 1913]. The high growth rate of the young is associated with the high
percentage of protein and ash in milk [Proscher, 1898 ; Belle, 1930].
Extensive slaughter experiments were carried out to determine dressing out
percentage of farm animals as affected by the plane of nutrition and method of breed-
ing. In Egyptian farm animals the dressing out percentage is 50 per cent for two-
year old calves [Badreldin and Zaki, 1951], 43 per cent for one-year old fat-tailed
sheep [Badreldin, 1951], 66 per cent for one-year old Fayoumi chick [Hafez, 1953],
50 per cent for 16-week old Baladi rabbit [Khishin et al., 1951] and 48.7 per cent for
mature buffaloes [Domingues, 1951]. Dressing out percentage is also affected by
the content of alimentary canal, age, state of fatness, breed and sex [Hammond,
1932].
It is hoped to study the dressing out percentage in suckling buffalo calves which
are usually slaughtered when 30 to 40 days old.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experimental work comprised two investigations, described below :
1. The study was carried out at Cairo slaughter house. Twenty-five suckl-
ing male calves were collected by the butchers from the vicinity round
Cairo. They were all healthy and from 30 to 40 days old. The animals
were weighed alive after fasting for twelve hours. Slaughtering
was carried out by severing the head, atlas and cranium bones by using
a sharp knife. The animals were skinned and the feet were cut off
between the cannon and pastern bones. The carcasses were dressed
out and weighed with offal (liver, kidney, heart, testes, mesenteric
fat and tail). The head, skin, four legs and the empty digestive tract
were weighed separately and the proportions of these different organs
to live and carcase weight were measured.
61
112 AR/54
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62
DRESSING OUT PERCENTAGE IN BUFFALO VEALS [Vol. XXV, Part I,
2. Sixteen buffalo male calves were available at the Animal Breeding Re-
search Farm, Giza. They were born to healthy mothers from October
to December 1952, and were kept under standard condition of manage-
ment and nutrition. The calves were isolated from the mothers and
were allowed to suckle twice a day. The amount of milk consumed by
each calf was calculated from the average daily production of the
mother when milked once weekly.
RESULTS
The live-weight of male suckling buffaloes at slaughter ranged from 109 to
167 lb. with an average of 136 lb. The carcase percentage (including liver, kidney,
heart, mesenteric fat and tail) ranged from 60 to 70 per cent with an average of
66 per cent. The average weight of the head, four legs and the skin as expressed to
the live-weight were 7.0, 5.0 and 8.0 per cent respectively. The head, four legs and
empty digestive tract comprise about 20 per cent of the live-weight and about 30
per cent of the dressed carcase. The average weight of empty digestive tract and
lungs including the trachea as expressed to the live-weight of calves was 6.29 per cent
and 1.26 per cent respectively (Table I).
TABLE I
Dressing out percentage to live-weight
Items
Live-weight
Carcase and offals:
Head
Feet
Secondary offals :
Lungs
Empty digestive tract
Hide
Other waste
Total
Average weight
in lb.
135.2
88.9
9.9
6.8
1.7
8.5
26.9
10.8
8.6
Weight to live-
weight (per cent)
100.00
65.75
7.32
5.03
1.26
6.29
19.90
7.99
6.40
The birth-weight of the buffalo male calves (second group) ranged from 61 to
124 lb. with an average of 90 lb. The live-weight of these calves at 30 days of age
ranged from 117 to 187 lb. with an average of 134 lb.
The total amount of buffalo milk consumed per calf during 30 days ranged from
280 to 455 lb. with an average of 336 lb. The amount of whole buffalo milk required
for one-pound increase in live-weight was on an average of 6.0 lb. (Table II).
March 1955]
A.
L.
BADRELDIN
63
The live-weight increase in the period of 30 days ranged from 42.75 to 130.5 lb.
with an average of 56.5 lb. This increase subsequently yielded an average increase
of 36.95 lb. of dressed carcase. Consequently, the average amount of buffalo-milk
required for one pound dressed meat was 9.0 lb.
TABLE II
Weights of major organs expressed to carcase and offal
Items
Dressed carcase
Head
Feet
Lungs
Empty digestive tract
Total
Hide
Other waste
Average weight
(lb.)
88.9
9.9
6.8
1.7
8.5
26.9
10.8
8.6
Weight to dressed
carcase (per cent)
100.00
11.19
7.60
1.90
9.60
30.30
12.10
9.70
DISCUSSION
The dressing out percentage of buffalo veal is considerably high as compared
with that of any other species in stored condition. This may be due to the fact that
in suckling calves, the fourth stomach (abomasum) is only developed and so the
contents of the digestive tract and the stomachs are small. Thus the carcase per-
centage obtained is much nearer to the empty carcase percentage. Moreover, the
proportion of secondary offals (head, feet, lungs and empty digestive tract) which are
edible in Egypt amounted to 20 per cent of the live-weight. Meanwhile at this
stage of slaughter (30 days old), the animals do not have the chance to be affected
by the parasitic diseases and infectious diseases which prevail under the sub-tropical
conditions and retard the growth-rate of the calves. It is interesting to note that the
hide percentage is not affected by age since Domingues [1951] has found in the case of
adult Brazilian buffaloes that hide is 11 per cent while the present estimate is 10
per cent of the live-weight.
The meat of buffalo veals is tender and very much liked by the consumers whilst
the meat from animals of older age is tough, coarse and less palatable. Moreover,
male buffaloes are not kept in the farm in big numbers owing to the fact that they
are ferocious, difficult to handle and less tolerant than bullocks to hard work, especially
during summer months. It is the general practice that the farmers prefer to get
rid of their male calves at an early age so that they can utilize the surplus milk from
the buffalo-cows in dairy industries.
64
DRESSING OUT PERCENTAGE IN BUFFALO VEALS
[Vol. XXV, Part I
The average amount of milk required to raise one dressed pound of meat is
9.0 lb. Although there is no financial return in this process of rearing, yet it is
essential to raise male calves for a few weeks in order to be ready for human con-
sumption.
SUMMARY
Twenty-five suckling male buffalo calves, 30 to 40 days old, were slaughtered,
dissected and the organs weighed (dressed carcase, head, offal, hide, empty digestive
tract, waste and feet). Sixteen male buffalo calves were available at birth. They
were fed on measured amounts of whole buffalo-milk for 30 days. The live-weight
was recorded at birth and when 30 days old.
The average live-weight at slaughter was 135 lb. The average dressing out
percentage (carcase+offal) was 66 per cent. The average weight of hide was eight
per cent when expressed to live-weight. The average birth-weight was 90 lb. whilst
when 30 days old it was 134 lb. The amount of whole buffalo-milk required for 1 lb.
increase in live-weight was 6.0 lb. whilst 9.0 lb. of milk were required for 1 lb. of
dressed meat. The slaughter of buffalo veals was discussed keeping in view the
farm practice and economical returns.
REFERENCES
Aron (1913). Biochemie des Wachstums des Menschen und der hoheren Tier Jena. Quoted by Ham-
mond, 1932
Badreldin, A. L. (1951). Faculty of Agric. Bull., 3
Badreldin, A. L. and Zaki, H. (1947). The effect of castration on Egyptian fattened calves (In Arabic).
Government Press Publ. No. 500, pp. 14
Belle (1930). Recherches sur la croissance de quelques mammiferes lyon. Quoted by Hammond, 1932
Domingues, O. (1951). A. B. A., 19, 171
Hafez, E. S. E. (1953). Personal communication
Hammond, J. (1932). Growth and the development of mutton qualities in the sheep
Khishin, A. F., Badreldin, A. L., Oloufa, M. M. and Kheirel Din, M.A. (1951). Faculty of Agric. Bull., 2
Proscher, (1898) Zeits Phyl. Chem. 24. Quoted by Hammond, 1932
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF AQUATIC SNAILS
(A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT)
By M. ANANTARAMAN, Research Officer (Helminthology), Madras Veterinary
College, Madras
(Received for publication on 18 June 1953)
(With Plate V)
O F the various kinds of Indian fresh-water snails, two common ones, Limnaea
and Indoplanorbis, are of great importance in the transmission of certain fluke
infections of animals and man. They serve to convey to cattle, sheep and goats, the
dreadful liver-flukes (Fasciola), blood-flukes (Schistosomes, one of which causes nasal
granuloma) and rumen-flukes (amphistomes causing 'Pitto' or 'Gillar'). Most of the
development of these worms is undergone in one or both of these snails, and the
young ones coming out of the snails either settle on grass and enter the animal
through the mouth, or directly penetrate its skin, when it comes to the pond or
stream. Once inside the animals these parasites impair their health, often killing
them.
Prevention of disease is best achieved by eliminating the snails from water
sources, and while chemical destruction by the use of copper sulphate and removal
by hand are practised all over the world, attempts are constantly being made to
devise other methods. In the centre for Helminthological research at Madras, aided
by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, a study was made for the last few
years' on these snails. Among other experiments, those on biological control produced
highly fruitful results, which are summarized here for the benefit of stock-owners
and others interested in animal health.
The two snails are easily distinguished from each other by the shape of their
shells. In Limnaea the shell is spirally twisted, whereas in Indoplanorbis it is
coiled like a watch-spring. They exist, often together, in fresh-water which is
stagnant or not fast moving, such as irrigation tanks and canals, banks of rivers,
ponds and paddy fields, and are intimately associated with vegetation. Some of
these weeds are used by them as support and food, and for deposition of egg-clumps.
They also prey upon minute animal forms and are attacked by insects, fish and
birds. Biological control of snails visualizes a disturbance in this balance between
them and other forms of life around them, so that they will be diminished in numbers.
This disturbance may be caused, for instance, by removing an article of food from or
by introducing a natural enemy into its habitat.
Removal of aquatic plants
Among many plants with which these snails are associated, Ceratophllum, Pota-
mogeton and Pistia (Water-hyacinth) are the most important. The snails may feed
and crawl on some of them and fasten their egg-cocoons to them. Removal of
weeds, from ponds and tanks of moderate size, will effectively reduce the numbers.
This may be done mechanically by appropriate tools or chemically by the addition
of toxic substances. Agroxone containing a plant hormone has been tested and
found to have a high degree of utility in destroying these weeds towards snail-control.
65
112 AR/54
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66
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF AQUATIC SNAILS
[Vol. XXV, Part I,
Insect enemies
Some insects are known to attack snails for food. Of these firefly-larvae or the
glowworms are notorious. A species of this insect has been successfully employed
in Hawaii Islands to control snails. Larvae of a firefly Lamprophorus tenebrosus,
were maintained in the laboratory for nearly five months on these two kinds of
snails, and each larva required at least one snail every day.
Fish predators
Fresh-water fish such as the carp are reported to have been used for mosquito
control, since they feed on them and reduce the weeds. The habits of some aquatic
fish were studied and the gourami (Osphromenus gourami) was found to be an all-
purpose kind. It is gluttonous when feeding and swallows large amounts of vege-
tation, young snails, and egg-cocoons, free or adherent to the plants.
Duck-keeping
The incentives to rearing ducks as an industry by itself are manifold, but an
additional one is that they prey on fresh-water snails and facilitate snail-control in a
locality. On a number of occasions, the author has watched these ducks dash into
the pond or stream and swallow all kinds of snails for hours on end, depleting their
population conspicuously by the close of the day. It is, however, obvious that for
effective reduction of snails in an area, one will have to employ a number of ducks
in proportion to the number of snails or the size of pond, repeat their visits to the
site continuously and restrict their food-supply otherwise. Mixed farming of this
type with ducks is therefore recommended.
Poisonous plants
Laboratory experiments with leaves, roots and fruits of various plants have
shown that when they were left in water containing snails, the latter were killed after
some time. Four such plants, whose fruits contain some snail-destroying substances,
are Balanites aegyptiaca, Sapindus emarginatus (soap-berry), Acacia concinna (soap-
nut) and Caesalpinia coriaria. These poisonous fruits should be allowed to soak
in snail-infested waters in large numbers, whole or in a crushed or powdered form,
but it would not be economical to accomplish this through human agency considering
the cost of the fruits and the wages for the men. Moreover, since the effect of saponin
or other lethal substances from the fruits will not last long, the application of the
fruits will have to be repeated many times over. Under these conditions this mode
of control is no better than chemical control. A method of biological control could,
therefore, be devised by the planting of these trees, by villagers themselves, on the
bund of ponds and along the edge of canals or ditches, so that the fruits will be
continually falling into the waters and check the snail population. Other incidental
advantages of such planting are the protection and shade available to the animals
and men in the fields, a good fence round the tanks if planted closely, and the
possible use of some of the fruits in other ways.
PLATE V]
[Indian J. vet. Sci., VOL. XXV, Part I
FIG. 1. A typical tank in which both snails occur among all kinds of vegetation
FIG. 2. (a) Indoplanorbis
(b) Limnaea
112 AR/54.