NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
March, 1954]
A.
K.
VARMA
25
Population
Owing to large areas occupied by rivers and marshes, human habitation is
limited; but in certain parts of Darbhanga district and areas bordering on the Ganges
the density exceeds a thousand per square mile. Livestock population is, however,
tremendous and chiefly consists of cattle, buffaloes and goats, which are all victims
of the disease. Wild rodents and ruminants are plentiful including hares and various
antelopes, which have been found to act as reservoir-hosts of the parasite in other
countries. Their presence in enormous number is critical for control measures.
Cultivation
During the heavy early rains and subsequent flooding a large acreage of land
in the district of Purnea is utilised for the cultivation of jute and autumn rice.
Maize and winter rice and grown in the higher and lighter lands towards the west
that are liable to early flooding and are thus well supplied with moisture. There are
large tracts of pasture lands along the various old and new channels of the Kosi
and other rivers, which serve as potential avenues of infection to the grazing animals.
METHODS EMPLOYED IN THE SURVEY
Owing to vastness of the area on the one hand and extremely limited time at
the writer's disposal on the other, it was decided to visit only the areas showing very
high incidence of infection in the districts of Saharsa and Purnea. In selecting
such areas the writer was chiefly guided by the officers of the State Veterinary
Department. The main object of such a brief survey was to study the factors having
probable bearing on the endemicity of the disease and to find out, if possible, the
chief molluscan intermediary and also the prevalent species of the parasite. The
scope and application of various control measures were also explored in the light of
available data concerning the infection and its transmission.
There is no recorded evidence of any survey work undertaken in the area to
estimate the intensity of infection. The State Veterinary Disease Investigation
Officer, in a personal communication, reported that '60 to 90 per cent of cattle and
buffaloes harbour either Fasciola gigantica or Fasciola hepatica'.
In the present work series of faecal samples were examined for the eggs of the
parasite in three different endemic locations viz., Supaul, Saharsa and Purnea;
and also no opportunity was lost to conduct autopsies to collect and examine adult
worms with a view to ascertaining the prevalent species. The faecal specimens were
examined by the ordinary sedimentation method, as followed in the nasal schisto-
somiasis area. Aquatic molluscs particularly belonging to Limnaeid and Planorbid
groups, were searched for and collected in and around each location and some of them
were tested for natural infection without any conclusive result. An effort to examine
some wild life to throw some light on the 'carrier problem' was not successful
owing to extreme shortage of time.
INCIDENCE OF INFECTION
Supaul area
Samples of faeces from 178 animals (68 cattle, 82 buffaloes and 28 goats), col-
lected from Supaul proper and some adjacent villages within a range of about three
March, 1954]
A. K. VARMA
27
treatment of these animals in the recent past. The area being in the same Kosi
belt has more or less identical topographical conditions in relation to the molluscan
habitats. Some Limnaea and Planorbis snails were collected and examined for
cercariae with negative results.
Purnea area
Faecal samples from 92 animals (34 cattle, 42 buffaloes, 10 goats and six sheep)
were examined and 20 (58.8 percent), 30 (71.4 per cent), five (50 per cent) and four
(66.6 per cent) were respectively found positive for fasciola infection. There was
no evidence of any anthelmintic treatment of these animals. One adult cattle was
examined post-mortem, but no fluke was recovered. Autopsy of two buffaloes yielded
several hundreds of flukes and paramphistomes from the bile ducts, which were
found very badly infested.
Due to shortage of time snail-searches could not be undertaken; but the topo-
graphical features of the area have similarity with the aforesaid localities, as the Kosi
was flowing through this area some years ago and when it worked its way westward
it left behind many water-pockets for the snail-hosts of the parasite.
TABLE VII
Summary of the incidence of fasciola infection
Locations
Supaul
Saharsa
Purnea
Grand total
* C=Cattle
Total number
of animals*
examined
C
B
G
68
82
28
18
23
7
34
42
10
120
147
45
B=Buffaloes
Total number
found positive
for infection
C
B
G
32
65
22
10
19
5
20
30
5
62
114
32
G=Goats
Percentage
of
infection
C
B
G
47
79
78
55
83
71
59
71
50
52
77
71
DISCUSSION
From the foregoing data it is quite conceivable that the incidence of infection
varies considerably in different categories of susceptible animals. It was found to be
highest in buffaloes and lowest in cattle, the goats coming intermediate. This
phenomenon is apparently attributable to the grazing habits of these herbivora,
rather than to any selective affinity of the parasite for any particular host. Buffaloes
are voracious feeders and on account of their aquatic habit of grazing on grass grow-
ing over swamps, are comparatively more exposed to infection. Cattle have a
8 AR/53 5
March, 1954]
A.
K.
VARMA
31
Monthly Weather Reports of India
Preston, H. B. (1915). Fauna of British India—Mollusca
Rao, M. A. N. (1933). Bovine nasal schistosomiasis in the Madras presidency with a description
of the parasite. Indian J. vet. Sci., III (1), 29-38. (W. L. 9941 h)
— (1934). A comparative study of Schistosoma spindalis Montgomerie, 1906 and Schistosoma
nasalis n. sp. Ibid., IV (1), 1-28
— (1935). Further observations on bovine nasal schistosomiasis. Ibid., V (3) 266-273
Sewell, R. B. S. (1922). Cercariae indicae. Indian J. Med. Res. X-suppl., 1-370. (W. L.
9940)
Srivastava, H. D. (1944). A new intermediate host of Fasciola gigantica of Indian ruminants
(abstract). Proc. 31st Indian Sci. Congr., Delhi, III, 114
Varma, A. K. (1953). On a new species of Fasciola indica n. sp. with observations on
F. lepetia F. gigantica. J. Helminth. 27 (in press)
March, 1954]
A.
K.
VARMA
33
2. Eggs were concentrated from heavily infected faecal samples from endemic
areas. For this advantage was taken of the routine examination of population
samples carried out during the course of survey of the infected foci. A fair quantity
of the desired sample was emulsified with filtered water and strained through an
ordinary tea-strainer to get rid of the coarse debris. To the strained emulsion was
added some more filtered water, sufficient to make it fairly thin. It was then
allowed to stand for about 20 minutes after which the supernatant fluid was decanted.
The sediments were washed and sedimented five times with filtered water after which
the final sediment containing concentrated eggs was put in a clean glass tube, for
despatch by air, throwing off the excess water.
Results. Both the methods proved successful, but the latter method delivered a
wide variety of helminth eggs along with those of Fasciola and Paramphistomum.
Methods used for despatching living snails
Two types of cigarette tins, the flat and the cylindrical ones, were used for
despatching living snails. The flat kind could take only one layer of snails; the
other kind accommodated five or six layers.
Living snails (Planorbis and Limnaea) were despatched to London by air-mail,
using different methods of packing. Limnaea and Planorbis were packed separately
in the cigarette tins from different areas of nasal schistosomiasis fascioliasis and
paramphistomiasis. About half a dozen snails were put (not very closely) in between
the layers of either damp (i) sterile powdered charcoal or (ii) sterile sand or (iii)
cotton wool. The lids were tightly sealed with adhesive tape.
Results. None of the packing methods was successful with the Limnaea, all of
which arrived dead; whereas two examples of Planorbis, which were packed in
damp charcoal powder, survived the journey well and arrived alive.
APPENDIX B
List of fresh-water snails collected from different localities in Bihar
District
Patna
Shahabad
Saharsa
Locality
Fatwah, Hilsa, Islampur,
Bakhtiarpur, Harnauth
and Biharsharif
Arrah, Piroo, Bikramganj
Jitaura and Ramnagar
Bhojpur Tal
Supaul and Saharsa
Species collcted
1. Limnaea luteola (Lamarck) in abundance
2. Indoplanorbis exustus (Desh.)
3. Vivipara bengalensis (Lamarck)
4. Melania variabilis (Benson)
5. Unionid species
1. Limnaea luteola in abundance
2. Indoplanorbis exustus (Scanty)
3. Vivipara bengalensis
1. Limnaea auricularia (Linne) race rufescens
(Hubendick) (syn. Limnaea acuminata) in abund-
ance
1. Limnaea auricularia race rufescens in abundance
2. Limnaea luteola (scanty)
3. Indoplanorbis exustus
INFLUENCE OF FACTORS AFFECTING SEX DRIVE ON
SEMEN PRODUCTION OF BUFFALOES
I. PHYSIOLOGICAL STATE OF THE 'TEASER' COW
By S. S. PRABHU and P. BHATTACHARYA, Division of Animal Genetics, Indian
Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar
(Received for publication on 24 March 1952)
T HE introduction of artificial insemination as one of the routine practices in
animal husbandry has in recent years drawn special attention to the desirability
of testing the individual performances of bulls in respect of semen production and
general breeding behaviour. Under a system of natural mating, the defects in
semen quality would normally remain undetected till a noticeable damage has been
produced in the herds. Any such danger is eliminated altogether in the new techni-
que of breeding in which only semen previously tested for quality is used. Inciden-
tally, this method has led to a further increase in the number of factors taken into
account in selecting breed sires for herds in which artificial insemination is practised.
Thus in selecting bulls for artificial service, in addition to their pedigree, type,
breed characteristics and progeny performance, a certain amount of desired respon-
siveness in them for service in the artificial vagina and the ability to give large
ejaculates of uniformly high quality when semen is so collected are also taken into
consideration. A perusal of the excellent monograph on the work done on semen
of farm animals and its use in artificial insemination by Anderson [1945] and of the
articles that have appeared from time to time subsequently bearing on like subject,
shows that very little controlled work on factors affecting sex-urge of bulls, and the
influence of such factors on semen production has so far been done. Rowson [1946]
read a paper on the subject before the British Society of Animal Production in which,
in addition to his own observations, he cites the work conducted by Milovanov on
inhibited bulls in Russia.
The Indian water buffalo, B. bubalis, occupies an unique position in the dairy
industry of this country. The bulls of this species under artificial service are at
times found to be erratic, giving cause for anxiety to artificial insemination techni-
cians. A clear understanding of the factors responsible for variations in sex and
breeding behaviour should prove valuable in speeding up the economic and
more efficient utilisation of these bulls at the artificial insemination centres. Accord-
ingly, the present studies were undertaken.
Background for the studies
Among bulls of both B. indicus and B. bubalis kept under identical and
uniform management and husbandry, wide variation is observed in reaction
time, volume of semen produced, quality of the ejacula collected, longevity
of stored semen samples and the fertilising capacity of sperm [Bhattacharya
35
8 AR/53.
6
36
SEMEN PRODUCTION OF BUFFALOES
[Vol. XXIV, Part I,
and Prabhu, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953; Bhatnagar, 1952 (unpublished)]. Bulls with
initially high sex-urge and drive were noticed in certain instances to slow down and
exhibit signs of inhibition after being in artificial service for a few months. Similar
behaviour was observed in adult active bulls transferred from one region to another;
for example, such difficulties were found in bulls of Sahiwal and Murrah breeds
transferred from Delhi and Rohtak respectively to Calcutta; and Murrah bulls
transferred from Rohtak to Izatnagar. Occasionally, such defects have developed
in otherwise sound bulls. At times, the fault was traced to carelessness of the
operators, and use of unsatisfactorily prepared artificial vaginas for collection,
or to change in diet. Rowson [1946] mentions a case where a bull suffering from
loss of sex-urge, was restored to normalcy through change in the dress worn by the
operator, and Milovanov cites an instance where a bull showing all signs of sex
inhibition behaved normally when the tall operator gave place to a short one.
However, authentic cases are on record where apparently no direct or indirect
causal agent could be detected for a sudden drop in sex-urge by otherwise normal
and healthy bulls. At Izatanagar, where artificial insemination is being practised
for the past ten years, sex-inhibitions occurring in bulls have been sucessfully treated
by one or other of the following methods:—
(i) Changing the site of collection
(ii) Changing the 'teaser' cow
(iii) Using differently coloured teaser cows
(iv) Using a male bull as a teaser
(v) Showing a cow on heat
(vi) Allowing the bull to run with the herd for some time
(vii) Resting the bull
(viii) Controlling the rations given to the bull
(ix) Injection of PMS-gonadotrophin
The beneficial effect produced by the above treatment on the inhibited bulls,
however, was temporary and lasted for varying periods. It appeared desirable to
test the efficacy of these various treatments on normal bulls, i.e. bulls which have
not yet shown definite signs of inhibition, so that the practical value, if any, of these
tests in animal husbandry practice could be correctly assessed. It is all the more
essential that such tests are carried out on normal bulls, as any effects due to treat-
ments may not be masked by the different stages of inhibition present in the experi-
mental animals. This is unavoidable if bulls suffering from loss of sex-drive are
used for the experiment. The points under test being of a special nature, a special
experimental design was found necessary, so that variation due to individuality of
bulls, or order of their use, may be properly taken care of. The 'switch-back'
design used by certain workers in finding short-term effects of feeds on milk or semen
production [Cochran, Autrey and Cannon, 1941; Branton, Bratton and Salisbury,
1947] appeared on consideration to serve best the purpose in view. Accordingly,
this design of experimentation was adopted in all the experiments planned and
executed under these studies.
March, 1954] S. S. PRABHU AND P. BHATTACHARYA 37
PHYSIOLOGICAL STATE OF THE 'TEASER' COW
Ordinarily bulls will take notice only of cows 'on heat', such cows alone will
'stand' to the bull. According to Sarthou-Montengou [1950], the motivating
factor arousing the sex desire in the bull that leads him to the cow 'on heat' is
the smell of oestrogenic substances present in the secretions thrown out by the
cow ' on heat'. When a cow is trained to stand to the bull and the bull trained to
mount a cow which is not in heat, as in artificial insemination collection practice, a
condition foreign to both the cow and the bull is introduced; the probable effect
of which on the continued sex-drive and semen production of the bull remaining
unknown. Results obtained with collections taken on teaser cows 'on heat' appear
to suggest that the sex-urge of the bull is heightened by the physiological condition
of the teaser cow. For example, in a series of exhaustion tests conducted on ten
buffalo bulls there was a prima facie case for drawing such a conclusion. The results
are discussed in some detail in Table I as these are the first data of the kind in buffa-
loes.
TABLE I
Results of exhaustion tests conducted on buffalo bulls
Serial number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
No. of bull
16
19
20
22
23
24
25
26
28
31
Total number of ejaculates
taken in the five tests
1
8
8
7
6
39
8
11
4
12
34
2
7
4
10
4
36
6
6
3
23
24
3
7
6
3
2
5
4
11
5
23
30
4
7
6
6
5
3
4
3
1
10
15
5
9
4
4
..
12
5
..
1
9
15
Average reaction time
in seconds
1
62
13
63
24
71
56
197
65
73
51
2
70
29
152
108
70
49
45
81
40
83
3
14
172
166
52
214
52
90
51
92
83
4
10
20
102
194
147
132
31
78
73
56
5
11
25
84
..
94
124
..
381
63
19
40
SEMEN PRODUCTION OF BUFFALOES
[Vol. XXIV, Part I,
RESULTS
Experimental series I. Overall averages of each of the various items studied
in the two experiments under a given treatment are brought out in Table II.
An examination of the various figures in the table, shows that with the exception
of reaction time, the figures are uniformly low in respect of all items studied as
compared to the like figures obtained by Prabhu and Bhattacharya [1951]. This
was probably due to the collections being taken with a higher frequency (four
times a week instead of the usual twice a week) and spread over a short period
(two weeks). This should not interfere with the experiment planned as only
differences in semen characteristics and reaction time due to the two treatments
are subject matter for study. A look at the last column in the table where the
differences between treatments are brought out show that in case of all items
studied the differences are small, and considering the large bull to bull and
within bull, ejaculate to ejaculate variations, they are probably not statistically
significant. To study the significance of the differences statistically analysis of
variance technique appropriate to the 'switch-back' design was employed. The
analysis was carried out separately for the two experiments and for each of the
two ejaculates in each. Since there were six periods, i.e. change-over from one
treatment to another, the values of ζ coefficients for n 1 —1 (5 in this case) were
used for the analysis. The method of calculating these coefficients is given by
Fisher and Yates [1943]. The coefficients were used for working out sums of pro
ducts for individual animal in respect of each item. These were then analysed
into 'between groups' (with 1 degree of freedom) corresponding to between treat
ments, and compared with mean squares 'within groups' for 4 degrees of freedom
to test significance of 'between-treament' differences. The summary of the
the analysis of variance is brought out in Table III.
TABLE II
Average reaction time and semen characteristics observed under the two treatments in
experimental series I (a) and (b)
Serial
number
1
2
3
Details of item studied
Volume (c.c.)
Initial motility
Sperm concentration (millions per
c.c.)
Ejaculate
First
Second
First
Second
First
Second
With
'on heat'
cow
1.88
1.85
2.28
2.75
464
713
With 'not
on heat'
cow
1.81
1.79
2.54
2.54
560
684
Diffe
rence
(x-y)
+0.07
+0.06
—0.26
+0.21
—96
+27
March, 1954] S. S. PRABHU AND P. BHATTACHARYA 41
TABLE II—(contd.)
Average reaction time and semen characteristics observed under the two treatments in
experimental series I (a) and (b)
Serial
number
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Details of item studied
Percentage of abnormal sperms
Total sperm in the ejaculate
(millions)
Initial pH
Percentage of dead sperm (opal-
blue-eosin method)
Percentage of non-motile sperm
Percentage of weakly motile sperm
Percentage of progressively motile
sperm
Percentage of motile sperm
Reaction time (seconds)
Ejaculate
First
Second
First
Second
First
Second
First
Second
First
Second
First
Second
First
Second
First
Second
First
Second
With
'on heat'
cow
13.33
11.69
774
1330
6.76
6.77
78.69
74.37
32.25
27.75
5.30
5.75
16.10
19.20
21.40
25.63
24.67
28.25
With 'not
on heat'
cow
14.00
11.75
1048
1293
6.78
6.76
70.61
68.00
27.00
26.07
6.18
5.85
23.53
27.52
29.70
32.25
26.81
26.81
Diffe-
rence
(x-y)
—0.67
—0.06
—274
+37
—0.02
+0.01
+8.08
+6.37
+5.25
+ 1.68
—0.88
—0.10
—7.43
—8.32
—8.30
—6.62
—2.14
+ 1.44
TABLE III
The analysis of variance of data collected under experimental series I
(proportional quantities)
Variation
Treatment
Error
Treatment
Error
(i) Volume
D.F.
1
4
1
4
M.S.
0 .01
0.91
59.53
223.21
(ii) Motility
D.F.
M.S.
A
(a) First ejaculate
1
4
10.67
200.04
(b) Second ejaculate
1
4
6.00
777.70
(iii) Sperm
concentration
D.F.
1
4
1
4
M.S.
5510416
23584183
260417
1282866
(iv) Percentage
abnormal sperm
D.F.
1
4
1
4
M.S.
600.00
6752.83
2053.00
12859.00
42
SEMEN PRODUCTION OF BUFFALOES
[ Vol. XXIV, Part I,
TABLE III—(contd.)
The analysis of variance of data collected under experimental series I
(proportional quantities)
Variation
Treatment
Error
Treatment
Error
Variation
Treatment
Error
Treatment
Error
Treatment
Error
Treatment
Error
(i) Volume
D.F.
1
4
1
4
M.S.
6.41
168.65
0.02
2.22
(v) Total sperm
in
ejaculate
D.F.
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
M.S.
254358726
94686488
84017
4714800
93346592
189438800
12129660
76785518
(ii) Motility
D.F.
M.S.
B
(a) First ejaculate
1
4
222.04
83.66
(b) Second ejaculate
1
4
54.00
26.11
(vi) Initial pH
D.F.
M.S.
A
(a) First ejaculate
1
4
12.91
2.98
(b) Second ejaculate
1
4
1.04
1.98
B
(a) First ejaculate
1
4
6.41
1.46
(b) Second ejaculate
1
4
0.00
2.11
(iii) Sperm
concentration
D.F.
1
4
1
4
M.S.
241667
13966466
3969067
6905166
(vii) Percentage
dead sperm
D.F.
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
M.S.
202904.23
136488.72
682067.94
147618.75
258632.24
95654.58
14035.04
118171.48
(iv) Percentage
non-motile
sperm
D.F.
1
4
1
4
M.S.
5828.00
3345.00
816.67
3907.25
(viii) Percentage
non.motile
sperm
D.F.
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
M.S.
4040.42
5112.76
34957.61
29710.44
254232.98
64137.32
583.41
105669.21
March, 1954] S. S. PRABHU AND P. BHATTAOHARYA 43
TABLE III—(conld.)
The analysis of variance of data collected under experimental series I
(proportional quantities)
Variation
Treatment
Error
Treatment
Error
Treatment
Error
Treatment
Error
(ix) Percentage
weekly motile
sperm
D.F.
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
M.S.
3702.65
19714.66
35683.42
44267.96
699.62
2277.43
2.04
8471.96
(x) Percentage
progressively
motile sperm
D.F.
M.S.
A
(a) First ejaculate
1
4
66667.60
47327.45
(b) Second ejaculate
1
4
483373.84
35688.13
B
(a) First ejaculate
1
4
265171.50
91204.34
(b) Second ejaculate
1
4
18292.17
73917.08
(xi) Percentage
total motile
sperm
D.F.
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
M.S.
101766.93
115436.74
682067.94
147234.67
293244.93
80494.63
18792.49
124433.58
(xii) Reaction
time
D.F.
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
1
M.S.
486.00
46047.00
142604.55
25549.00
18481.00
21931.00
305101.00
1178044.00
It will be seen from Table III that with the exception of percentage of progres-
sively motile sperm in the second ejaculate of experiment (a), none of the other
items studied in the two ejaculates of the two experiments approached the level
for statistical significance. The significant difference in the case of progressively
motile sperm was in favour of the ' non-heat' groups and in view of the lack of
corroboratory evidence from like ejaculate in the second experiment, and in the
first ejaculates of both experiments, the observed significance could only be accidental.
This is also seen from lack of supporting evidence from other items having an in-
direct bearing on the item studied, such as percentage of total live sperm. Besides,
it is unlikely that a change in the physiological state of the teaser cow would effect
the percentage of a certain type of sperm in an ejaculate.
Experimental series II. Overall averages of the different items studied in like
treatments are presented in Table IV.
8 AR/53
7