NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
A. J.
MACDONALD
229
TABLE XVIII
Average weights in ounces for each breed
Breed
Group
Sex
Day old
3 weeks
6
„
7
„
8
„
10
„
12
„
14
„
16
„
18
„
20
„
22
„
24 „
White Leghorn
7
Male
1.41
5.9
13.5
16.4
20.3
Female
1.34
5.2
12.5
15.4
18.7
22.5
29.2
37.7
40.7
45.7
47.7
51.0
55.5
8
Male
1.35
5.3
13.0
14.8
18.0
Female
1.39
5.3
11.7
13.8
16.0
18.0
23.0
28.5
33.5
37.3
41.7
43.0
47.5
Rhode Island Red
7
Male
1.60
5.8
14.4
17.4
21.3
Female
1.54
5.8
13.3
16.2
19.5
24.4
30.3
37.5
45.1
52.9
57.8
63.5
70.2
8
Male
1.54
6.2
15.9
18.9
20.8
Female
1.60
5.9
13.5
16.7
19.2
21.1
26.2
34.4
39.1
45.5
51.3
53.3
59.1
Desi
7
Male
0.99
3.9
9.3
11.7
14.5
Female
0.96
3.4
7.0
8.7
11.2
14.3
19.3
24.4
29.3
32.8
36.8
38.9
41.5
8
Male
0.95
3.8
9.2
11.2
13.5
Female
0.98
3.6
7.5
9.2
11.7
13.1
17.3
20.9
24.7
27.4
31.6
33.2
35.8
230
Nutritional Experiments with Chickens
During the period 0-6 weeks, which may be looked upon as pre-experi-
mental, both groups when fed on the basal ration plus separated milk made
very similar gains in weights during each period of 3-weeks. At 6 weeks,
when the experiment proper started, the weights of the males and females
for each breed in Group 7 agreed very closely with the weights of the corres-
ponding birds in Group 8. From 6 weeks onwards the birds in Group 7, fed
on separated milk and water, made better gains in weight than the birds
receiving the soya bean meal plus salt. At 12 weeks and at all subsequent
weighings the pullets of all the three breeds in Group 7 were significantly
heavier than the corresponding birds in Group 8. At 24 weeks the weights of
the pullets in Group 7 were White Leghorns 55.5 oz., Rhode Island Reds
70.2 oz. and desis 41 . 5 oz. The corresponding weights of the White Leghorns,
Rhode Island Reds and desis in Group 8 were 47.5, 59.1 and 35.8 oz.
respectively.
Food consumption.—Table XIX gives the average food consumption and
food utilization per bird for each group during the pre-experimental period 1
(0-6 weeks), experimental period 2 (6-8 weeks) and for each subsequent
period of four weeks.
TABLE XIX
Food consumption
Period
1. 0-6 weeks
2. 6-8 „
3.8-12 „
4. 12-16 „
5. 16-20 „
6. 20-24 „
Average food consump-
tion per bird (lb.)
Group 7
2.28
1.19
2.75
3.82
4.87
4.68
Group 8
2.26
1.26
2.46
3.03
4.69
3.76
Food consumed in lb.
per pound live weight
gain
Group 7
3.86
3.81
4.62
5.01
8.25
9.74
Group 8
3.84
4.77
6.18
5.27
8.41
10.56
The food consumptions by both groups during the pre-experimental
period were very similar. The efficiency of food utilization was also practi-
cally identical in both groups during period 1. Group 7, except in period 2,
consumed slightly more food per bird in each of the subsequent periods. Dur-
ing periods 2 and 3, Group 7 consumed appreciably less food per pound of live
weight gain than Group 8 but in the other periods there were no significant
differences in the efficiency of food utilization.
A. J.
MACDONALD
231
Protein consumption.—Table XX gives details of the total protein per-
centages consumed during the different periods of the experiment.
TABLE XX
Protein consumption
Period
1.
0-4 weeks
2A.4-6
„
2B.6-8
„
3.
8-12 „
4. 12-16 „
5. 16-20 „
6. 20-24 „
Percentage of protein
Group 7
14.2
15.9
15.4
13.6
14.0
14.2
14.5
Group 8
14. 1
16.3
14.5
13.7
13.0
12.7
12.3
During the pre-experimental periods 1 and 2A, the percentages of protein
consumed by the two groups were very similar. Group 7 consumed a higher
percentage of protein during period 2B than Group 8 but the figures recorded
were similar in period 3. The percentages of protein consumed by Group 7
during periods 4, 5 and 6 were higher than those consumed in the correspond-
ing periods by Group 8.
Mortality.—The mortality in the pre-experimental period was 7.6 per
cent in Group 7 and 9.7 per cent in Group 8. During the experiment proper,
from 6-24 weeks, there were no deaths in Group 7 and 3 deaths, representing
3.6 per cent, in Group 8. The general health of the birds in both groups was
satisfactory but throughout the experiment the birds on the milk ration hand-
led better and had a more alert and better bred appearance than those on the
soya bean ration.
Egg production.—Owing to lack of trapnesting facilities, it was not possi-
ble to keep separate egg production records of the different breeds in the two
groups. The first eggs from Groups 7 and 8 were obtained at 140 and
159 days respectively.
Conclusions.—(1) The basal ration plus separated milk to drink, as in
former experiments, gave satisfactory results from 0-6 weeks.
(2) From 6 weeks onwards the basal ration supplemented by milk and
water to drink gave better results than the basal ration supplemented by soya
bean meal and salt.
232
Nutritional Experiments with Chickens
Experiment 5
The results obtained with ground soya beans in Experiments 3 and 4,
though not so satisfactory as those obtained with separated milk, were consi-
dered sufficiently good to warrant a further experiment along similar lines to
those adopted in Experiment 4. In order to give the birds a good start, all
those used in Experiment 5 were fed on cereals plus milk from 0-6 weeks.
The birds were all weighed individually at six weeks and divided into two
comparable groups. From 6-20 weeks one group was fed on the cereal ration
plus separated milk and water in separate containers and the other group on
the cereals plus ground soya beans plus salt.
Stock.—A total of 145 six-week old chicks, hatched in April, 1939 were
divided up into two comparable groups in regard to weight and sex as fol-
lows :—
Breed
White Leghorn
Rhode Island Red
Desi
Total
Number of chicks
Group 9
23
9
42
74
Group 10
23
8
40
71
Feeding.—The methods of feeding and management were identical with
those used in Experiment 4. Group 9 was fed on the standard diet plus sepa-
rated milk and water in separate containers and Group 10 received the stand-
ard ration plus 18 per cent soya bean meal and 0.5 per cent salt in the mash.
The cockerels were removed at 10 weeks and the experiment terminated at
20 weeks owing to lack of accommodation.
Growth results.—Table XXI gives details of the average weights of the
birds of each breed at intervals of 2 weeks from 6-20 weeks.
The average weights of the milk-fed birds became progressively greater
at each weighing than the corresponding birds on the soya bean ration. At 10
weeks and at each subsequent weighing, the birds of all the three breeds on the
milk ration were significantly heavier than the corresponding birds on the
soya bean ration. At 20 weeks, the average weights of the pullets in Group 9
were White Leghorns 47.7 oz., Rhode Island Reds 53.6 oz. and desis 39.6
oz. The corresponding weights of the White Leghorns, Rhode Island Reds
and desis in Group 10 were 33.5, 41.0 and 29.4 oz. respectively.
Food consumption.—Table XXII gives the average food consumption
and food utilization per bird for each group during period 2 (6-8 weeks) and
each subsequent period of 4 weeks.
A. J.
MACDONALD
233
TABLE XXI
Average weights in ounces for each breed
Breed
Group No.
Sex
6 weeks
8
„
10
„
12
„
14
„
16
„
18
„
20
„
White Leghorn
9
Male
11.8
16.9
24.3
Female
10.3
14.8
20.1
24.7
31.4
36.7
41.2
47.7
10
Male
11.7
15.0
20.0
Female
10.1
12.6
15.0
18.1
23.2
27.5
29.5
33.5
Rhode Island Red
9
Male
12.3
20.2
27.2
Female
8.7
13.3
18.5
23.5
30.5
38.3
44.3
53.6
10
Male
12.3
16.4
21.0
Female
9.0
12.2
16.0
20.3
26.4
32.3
36.3
41.0
Desi
9
Male
7.9
12.7
17.5
Female
7.2
11.2
15.2
19.6
25.6
30.6
34.6
39.6
10
Male
7.7
10.2
12.5
Female
7.2
10.1
12.6
15.4
19.8
22.5
25.7
29.4
234
Nutritional Experiments with Chickens
TABLE XXII
Food consumption
Period
2. 6-8 weeks
3. 8-12 „
4. 12-16 „
5. 16-20 „
Average food consump-
tion per bird (lb.)
Group 9
1.37
3.48
3.89
4.11
Group 10
1.12
2.59
3.60
3.05
Food consumption in lb.
per pound live weight
gain
Group 9
4.55
5.54
5.76
6.03
Group 10
5.85
7.32
6.33
7.55
The average food consumption figures per bird in Group 9 for each period
were greater than those in the corresponding periods in Group 10. During
each period Group 9 made better utilization of the food consumed than Group
10.
Protein consumption.—Table XXIII gives details of the total protein
percentages consumed during the pre-experimental and experimental periods.
TABLE XXIII
Protein consumption
Period
1.0-6 weeks
2. 6-8 „
3. 8-12 „
4. 12-16 „
5. 16-20 „
Percentage of protein
Group 9
16.2
14.6
14.8
14. 1
14.5
Group 10
16.2
14.6
14.2
13.2
12.1
During the pre-experimental period, when all the birds were run in one
group, the total percentage protein in the food consumed was 16.2. During
periods 2 and 3, both groups consumed fairly similar percentages of protein
but, in periods 4 and 5. Group 9 consumed appreciably higher percentages of
protein than Group 10.
Mortality.—The mortality in the pre-experimental period (0-6 weeks)
was 8.2 per cent. During the experiment proper there were no deaths in
Groups 9, and 2, representing 3.0 per cent, in Group 10. As in the previous
experiments the general health of the birds, as judged by feathering, handling
and general alertness, was slightly superior in the milk-fed group.
A. J.
MACDONALD
235
Conclusions.—(1) The basal ration plus separated milk to drink from
0-6 weeks and separated milk and water from 6-20 weeks gave satisfactory
results.
(2) From 6 weeks onwards the basal ration supplemented by milk and
water to drink gave better results than the basal ration plus soya bean meal
and salt.
GENERAL DISCUSSION
A ration consisting of cereals supplemented by adequate amounts of green
food and calcium proved very unsatisfactory for rearing chickens from day-
old onward. Birds on this diet grew very slowly, were unthrifty in appear-
ance, suffered an excessively high mortality and made poor utilization of the
food consumed. Whilst fed on this diet, the birds had depraved appetite.
The birds on post mortem examination were very much emaciated and the
gizzards had lesions suggesting that the diet was deficient in the gizzard-
promoting factor. Almquist and Stockstad [1937] report that the best practi-
cal sources of the gizzard factor are green food and wheat bran ; but under the
conditions of this experiment both these foods, though fed in liberal amounts,
failed to prevent the occurrence of the typical lesions produced by feeding a
ration deficient in the gizzard factor. However, the conditions of the experi-
ment were different from those of Almquist, who obtained average growth on
the diet, which was normal except for a deficiency in the gizzard factor. Milk
appears to be a good source of this factor, for two birds from the water group
which were subsequently fed on milk for a period of 14 days had normal giz-
zards at post mortem.
In all the five experiments, satisfactory results were obtained with the
basal diet supplemented with separated milk only to drink during the early
stages of growth and milk and water in the later stages. In Experiment 1,
milk only to drink was given for the first 10 weeks but in the later experiments
milk and water was fed from 6 weeks onwards.
It is obviously impossible to compare the growth results obtained in
experiments carried out at different periods of the year, for climatic variations
are known to influence the rate of growth [Kempster and Parker, 1936 ;
Upp and Thompson, 1927]. The influence of climate can be seen in the falling
off in the growth rate as the weather grew hotter, for at 6 weeks of age the birds
hatched in January were considerably heavier than corresponding birds,
hatched in April, reared on the same diet.
Though no conclusions can be drawn in regard to the optimum time to
feed milk only to drink, the results with milk only to drink from 0-6 weeks
and milk and water from 6 weeks onwards, are quite satisfactory, for the weights
of the Leghorns and the Rhode Island Reds at all stages compare very favour-
ably with published standards [Card and Kirkpatrick, 1918 ; Charles and
Knandel, 1928; Kempster and Parker, 1936]. The feeding of milk and
water instead of milk from 6 weeks onwards can also be recommended, for the
birds fed in this way consumed large quantities of water with a corresponding
saving in milk. The mortality from day-old onward, among the birds given
milk only to drink during the initial stages, which ranged from 4 . 8 per cen
238
Nutritional Experiments with Chickens
might have been obtained with higher protein levels, the results obtained as
regards rate of growth, food utilization, general health and mortality were
satisfactory. The data collected suggest that the protein requirements for
growth, when milk is used as the protein supplement, are considerably lower
than the accepted standards.
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
(1) The feeding of chicks on a mixed cereal diet, although supplemented
with liberal amounts of green food and calcium, results in very poor growth,
excessive mortality and poor food utilization.
(2) A ration containing liberal amounts of wheat bran and green food
failed to prevent the occurrence of gizzard lesions, which appeared typical
of those produced by diets deficient in the gizzard factor.
(3) During the early stages of growth (up to 6 weeks), a ration of cereals
supplemented by liberal amounts of green food and calcium along with separat-
ed milk to drink proved adequate.
(4) During the early stages of growth the feeding of milk and water in
separate containers gave substantially poorer results than when milk alone
was provided as a drink.
(5) From 6 weeks onwards, the feeding of milk and water in separate
containers gave satisfactory results as regards growth etc. and resulted in a
considerable saving in cost.
(6) The nutritive value of cereal rations is greatly improved by a supple-
ment of soya bean meal plus salt.
(7) Soya bean meal plus salt proved inferior to milk as a supplementary
feed for chicks up to 6 weeks of age and to milk and water from 6 weeks on-
wards.
(8) The feeding of cereals plus separated milk to drink from 0-6 weeks
and cereals plus soya bean meal and salt from 6 weeks onwards gives better
results than cereals plus soya bean meal and salt from day-old onward. If no
milk is available for chicks less than 6 weeks old, soya bean meal and salt can
be used with fair success.
(9) The protein requirements for young chicks during early life are con-
siderably lower than the accepted standard of 20 per cent when the protein
supplement is provided in the form of milk.
REFERENCES
Almquist, H. J. and Stockstad, E. L. R. (1937). J. Nutr. 13, 339
Card, L. E. and Kirkpatrick, W. F. (1918). Storrs. Agri. Exp. Sta. Bull. 96
Card, L. E. (1926). Poult. Sci. 5, 199
Charles, T. B. and Knandel, H. C. (1928). Pa. Agri. Exp. Sta. Bull. 218
Hammond, J. C., Hendricks, W. A. and Titus, H. W. (1938). J. Agri. Res. 56, 791
Hayward, H. J., Haplin, J. G., Holmes, C. E., Bukstedt, G. and Hart, E. B. (1937).
Poult. Sci. 16, 3
Heuser, G. F. and Norris, F. C. (1930). Fourth World's Poult. Cong. Rept. Proc., 307.
Kempster, H. L. and Parker, J. E. (1936). Missouri Agri. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. 247
Lippincott, W. A. (1936). Poultry Production 5th Edn. 411
Macdonald, A. J. Unpublished data. Rowett Research Institute, Aberdeen.
Swift, R. W., Black, A. and Voris, L. (1931). Poult. Sci. 10, 288
Upp, C. W. and Thompson R. B. (1927). Oklahoma Agri. Exp. Sta. Bull. 167
OBSERVATIONS ON BABESIA FOLIATA N. SP. FROM
A SHEEP*
BY
H. N. RAY, M.Sc., PH.D. (LOND.)
AND
K. RAGHAVACHARI, G.M.V.C.
Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar
(Received for publication on 3 March 1941)
(With Plate XVIII)
P IROPLASMOSIS is a very wide-spread disease of sheep and goats from
which India is by no means free. Wenyon [1926] recognises three species
of Babesia infecting sheep and goats, of which two, viz. Babesia sergenti and
Babesia motasi, are the only ones recorded in this country. Babesia sergenti
was encountered for the first time in India in the blood of a goat under rinder-
pest experiment at the Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar
[1932], while Achar and Srikantiah [1934] have, under similar experimental con-
ditions, observed the occurrence of Babesia motasi in the blood of sheep in
Mysore. Sarwar [1935] described Piroplasma taylori from a goat in the
Punjab. This organism was originally considered by Bhatia [1936] to belong to
the genus Theileria but subsequently, after having examined the preparations
of Sarwar, he [Bhatia, 1938] concluded it to belong to the genus Babesia.
During the course of routine examination of blood smears of animals of this
Institute the writers found a species of Babesia in the erythrocytes of a sheep
which was being used in an experimental test with blackquarter vaccine. When
compared with other ovine species of Babesia, this parasite was found to
differ from them in many respects. In this article, therefore, it is described
as Babesia foliata n. sp., the specific name being suggested by its general
appearance, which is similar to that of a leaf.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE MORPHOLOGY OF BABESIA FOLIATA N. SP.
The parasite, as mentioned above, has a leaf-shaped outline. The broad
pole is rounded and is the widest part of the parasite. The same breadth is
maintained for about two-thirds of the length while the superior third gradually
tapers into a fine point (Plate XVIII, figs. 1 and 12). The majority of the para-
sites occur in pairs, there being a cytoplasmic connection between the pairs
at the narrow pole, and usually they occupy the centre of the erythrocyte.
Out of a small count of a hundred and twenty parasitised corpuscles, it
was found that the organism was placed centrally in 82.5 per cent and
*Paper presented to the 26th session of the Indian Science Congress held at Lahore
1939.
239
240
Observations on Babesia foliata n. sp. from a Sheep
peripherally in 17 . 5 per cent of the infected cells. The distribution of the
angle between the pairs is indicated in Table I.
TABLE I
Angle
180°
Obtuse
90°
Acute
Parallel
Position of the parasite in
the erythrocyte
Central
per cent
31
25
29
9
6
Peripheral
per cent
10
40
30
20
Nil
In cases where the parasites were found to be situated parallel to each other,
no cytoplasmic connection between the pairs could be seen at the narrow pole.
Occasionally, when forming an obtuse angle the parasites were so far away
from each other that this cytoplasmic connection was very faint. Cells con
taining a single parasite were rarely seen in our preparations. Such rare forms
were chiefly amoeboid in shape and showed signs of nuclear division. The
stages of division of this parasite did not appear to differ in any way from those
of B. bigemina described by Nuttall and Graham-Smith [1908], for which reason
it has been considered unnecessary to describe them here. In amoeboid forms,
as well as in the paired individuals, a vacuole was often seen occupying a cent
ral position. The size of the parasite varied from 2 . 065-4. 13μ in length and
0.5-1.5μ in breadth. No hypertrophy was ever noticed in the infected cor
puscles. The nuclear chromatin, as revealed by Feulgen's reaction, was found
to be arranged in granules just below the stained nuclear membrane and to
occupy the narrow pole of the organism. The central karyosome also gave a
positive reaction with Feulgen's test (Plate XVIII, fig. 11). In Giemsa
preparations a granule giving a deeply staining reaction similar to that of the
nucleus was frequently seen at the broad pole of the organism, but, when put
to Feulgen's test for thymonucleic acid, it was completely hydrolysed,
suggesting that it has no relation with the nucleus of the parasite. On
counterstaining with Heidenhain's iron-alum haematoxylin after Feulgen,
however, this deeply staining granule, as mentioned above, reappeared at
the broad pole of the parasite (Plate XVIII, fig. 12).
This parasite when compared with Babesia motasi Wenyon [1926] differed
in its measurement, in the angle between the pairs and in the absence of hyper
trophy of the parasitised erythrocyte. When compared with Babesia ovis
Ind. J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. XI, Part III ]
PLATE
XVIII
Babesia foliata n. sp.
[ All figures are camera lucida drawings of smears preparations stained with Giemsa
( unless otherwise stated ). × 2300 ]
FIGS. 1-3. Pairs showing typical leaf-like outline of the parasite.
FIGS. 4-7. One individual in the pair presenting an edge-on view.
FIG. 8. Individuals of a pair situated at an angle of 180°.
FIG. 9. A single parasite which appears to have just entered a corpuscle.
FIG. 10. Parasites about to leave the corpuscles.
FIG. 11. From wet smear fixed in Bouin and Duboscq fluid and stained with Feulgen and counter-
stained with light-green. Note the arrangement of chromatin in the nucleus at the
narrow pole and the hydrolysed vacuolated area at the broad pole of the parasite.
FIG. 12. Fixed as above and stained with Feulgen and counterstained with Heidenhain's iron-
alum-haematoxylin. Note the hydrolysed area which has taken a deep haematoxylin stain.
N.B.—The arrangement of nuclear chromatin in figures 11 and 12 can be well seen with the
aid of a magnifying glass.
H. N.
RAY
241
Starcovici [1893], this parasite differed by occurring almost always in pairs,
producing a heavier infection, and also in its location in the majority of cases
in the centre of the cell. The parasite also differs from B. taylori Sarwar
[1935] in the absence of extra-cellular multiplication, its ovoid and rounded
body, the hypertrophy of the infected corpuscle, and multiple infection of the
cell. There would appear to be no similarity between this parasite and
Babesia sergenti Wenyon [1926], as the latter is rounded or bacillary in form
and is non-pathogenic. Moreover, according to Thomson and Hall [1933],
B. sergenti is placed under the genus Theileria. The accompanying table
compares the species of Babesia recorded from sheep and goats in respect of
their shape and size, the angle between the pairs, their position in the corpuscle
and the effect on the parasitised erythrocyte.
TABLE II
Comparisons of the species of Babesia from sheep and goats
Characters
Shape . .
Size in microns .
Angle between
the pairs
Position in the
red blood cor-
puscles
Effect on the
parasitised cor-
puscle
Host
B. motasi
Wenyon (1926)
Pear-shaped,
singles,
and
pairs
2.5-4.5×1.2-
3.0
Acute
Centre
Hypertrophy
Sheep and goats
B. ovis
Starcovici (1893)
Pear-shaped
forms rarely
seen. Singles
majority round
Never exceeds
2.0
Obtuse
Margin
No change
Goats
B. sergenti
Wenyon (1926)
Round and bacil-
lary
?
?
Centre (?) .
No change (?) .
Sheep and goats
B. taylori
Sarwar (1935)
Mostly ovoid and
round;
pear-
shaped
forms
rarely seen.
1
to 16 parasites
seen in one cell
2.0×1.0
?
When
singles,
central
Hypertrophy
Goats.
B. foliata
n. sp.
Flattened,
leaf-
shaped in out-
line.
Mostly in
pairs.
Rarely
more than one
pair seen in one
cell
2.065-4.13×0.1
-1.5
Majority obtuse
Majority centre
No change
Sheep
SYMPTOMS OBSERVED IN THE HOST
The infection in the sheep referred to above was heavy and was accom-
panied by a rise of the temperature ranging between 102.4-104.4°F. The
general condition deteriorated daily. No haemoglobinuria was detected by
applying the Benzidine test to the urine. Microscopically, there were con-
siderable anaemic changes, which consisted of marked anisocytesis, slight
polychromatia and marked increase in the punctate basophils. The red
blood corpuscles towards the latter part of the disease showed an increase in
the central halo and ultimately only the margins of the corpuscles were stained.