NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
POISONING OF CATTLE BY ARTIFICIAL MANURES
BY
M. CRAWFORD, M. R. C. V. S.
Deputy Director (Animal Husbandry) and Government Veterinary Surgeon
Ceylon
(Reprinted from The Tropical Agriculturist, Vol. XCVI, No. 6, 1941)
A LTHOUGH artificial manures are used largely on estates in Ceylon, cases
of poisoning of cattle by such manures have been of very rare occurrence
in the past. Some years ago a number of ' tavalam ' bulls on an upcountry
estate which had been transporting bags of a manure mixture died. The
mixture in this case contained among other things calcium cyanamide and
potassium nitrate. The bulls had been observed to lick the manure bags
with relish apparently liking the salty taste of the mixture. The symptoms
shown were suggestive of hydrocyanic acid poisoning and experiments in the
laboratory showed that goats died with classical symptoms of hydrocyanic
acid poisoning when drenched with a suspension in water of this mixture.
In a case recently reported sixteen head of cattle died a short time after
being allowed to graze on a portion of a rubber estate which had been dressed
the previous day with nitrate of soda.
All sixteen cattle died within a few hours. The symptoms as described
by the keepers were bloating, distress shown by the cattle running about wildly,
severe purging with, in some cases, eversion of the rectum and bleeding.
On post-mortem examination by the Assistant Veterinary Surgeon,
severe inflammation of the stomachs and small intestines was observed. Irri-
tant poisoning was suspected and the Assistant Veterinary Surgeon collected
about a cigarette-tin-full of what he described as ' a white powder which
had been spread on the land ' and sent it for examination. He also sent
samples of stomach contents from the dead cattle. These were examined by
the Agricultural Chemist who reported—
(a) That' the white powder ' was nitrate of soda in the granular form
which is less hygroscopic than the amorphous form.
(b) That the stomach contents were negative for arsenic and other heavy
metals and for hydrocyanic acid, but gave a marked reaction to
the test for nitrates.
A guinea pig which was drenched with approximately 2 gm. of the
white powder in solution in the evening was found dead on the following
morning and on post-mortem examination showed inflammation of the small
intestines.
The Assistant Veterinary Surgeon reported that a search of the area over
which the cattle had been grazing failed to disclose any known poisonous
plants.
On this evidence there can be little doubt that' the white powder ' namely
granular nitrate of soda had been responsible for the death of the cattle.
Several interesting points arise from this incident.
( 373 )
374
Poisoning of Cattle by Artificial Manures
In the first place nitrate of soda is commonly used as a manure in Ceylon
yet no cases of poisoning by it have been reported in the past. A search
of the literature available was made but no records of poisoning by nitrate
of soda could be found.
Cases of poisoning of cattle by nitrate of potash are recorded in the
literature, such cases having occurred where nitrate of potash has been given
as a purgative in mistake for Epsom salts. In these cases the dose of nitrate
of potash had been from ½ to 1 lb. in solution in water.
As a rule the sodium salts are less toxic than the corresponding potassium
salts which would lead one to assume that the fatal dose of nitrate of soda
would probably be round about½ a pound. If that assumption be correct,
the affected cattle must have consumed considerable quantity of the manure.
This is quite possible as nitrate of soda has not unpleasant slightly salty,
' cool ' flavour. It is well-known that cattle often show a marked craving for
salt and will lick salt with avidity if occasion offers. It is quite possible that
this is the explanation of this unusual occurrence.
Another point is that had the amorphous and very hygroscopic form of
nitrate of soda been used it is most probable that all or most of it would have
gone into solution and been absorbed into the soil in the interval between the
application of the manure to the soil and the cattle being allowed to graze over
the land.
The unusual features of this incident are that the substance incriminated
is one very commonly used as a manure and one which is not poisonous unless
taken in comparatively large quantities.
The combination of circumstances which brought about this accident
are dry weather, the fact that a very short time elapsed between the manure
being applied and the cattle being allowed to graze over the land, and one
must assume that the cattle in this case had a definite craving for salt which
led them to seek out and lick up this substance on account of its salty taste.
It is obvious that such accidents can be prevented by the very simple
precaution of not allowing cattle to graze over land which has been dressed
with nitrate of soda until an interval of some days has elapsed especially in dry
weather.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To Dr Joachim and Dr Koch for analysis and to Mr W. Chandrasena,
G. B. V. C. for an account of the clinical symptoms and post-mortem findings.
THE USE OF ANTHRAX VACCINES PREPARED FROM
AVIRULENT (UNCAPSULATED) VARIANTS
OF BACILLUS ANTHRACIS
BY
MAX STERNE
Section of Bacteriology, Onderstepoort
(Reprinted from the Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Industry,
Vol. 13, No. 2, October 1939)
A TECHNIQUE has been described [Sterne, 1937a, 1937b] for consistently
obtaining avirulent, immunogenic variants from virulent anthrax
strains. The results of field and laboratory tests with vaccines prepared from
such variants will be described in this paper.
EXPERIMENTS
To find out how long suspensions of avirulent variants retained their
immunizing power
Avirulent variants 22A 2 , 33B 2 , 34A 2 , and 34F 2 were grown on nutrient
agar until fully sporulated. The spores were suspended in 50 per cent gly-
cerine-saline. Their concentration was approximately 300,000 per c.c, which
is roughly, that in vaccine prepared here ordinarily. Sheep were inoculated,
subcutaneously, with 1.0 c.c. Table I gives the results of these laboratory
tests.
TABLE I
Avirulent
Variant
22A 2
33B 2
34A 2
34F 2
Isolated
from
Virulent
Strain on
5-2-36
27-7-36
7-8-36
10-8-36
Vaccine
prepared
from
Avirulent
Variant on
13-7-36
13-8-36
13-8-36
10-6-38
Sheep
Immunized
with
Vaccine on
31-7-36
22-9-36
14-8-36
7-8-37
14-8-36
7-8-37
14-6-38
12-6-39
Result of Test with
Virulent Spores on
Immunized
Sheep
6/6
6/6
5/6
5/6
5/6
6/6
6/8
6/6
Normal
Controls
0/4
0/4
0/4
0/4
0/4
0/4
0/2
0/2
5/6 is equal to 5 sheep out of 6 lived.
( 375 )
F 2
376
Use of Anthrax Vaccines
The vaccine prepared from strain 22A 2 was potent after nearly two
months, and that prepared from strains 33B 2 , 34A 2 , and 34F 2 after a year. It
should also be noted that the vaccine from 34F 2 was prepared two years
after the isolation of this variant.
TABLE II
Duration of immunity produced in guinea-pigs by an avirulent variant
Guinea pigs
3
5
3
3
Immunized
with 34F 2
on
29-3-39
25-11-38
25-11-38
25-11-38
Tested
with 100
M. L. D.
Vaccine
Strain on
5-6-39
13-12-38
19-12-38
5-6-39
Result of Test on
Immunized
Guinea-pigs
3/3
5/5
3/3
3/3
Normal
Controls
0/4
0/12
0/6
0/4
The results showed that guinea-pigs were solidly immune six months
after vaccination.
Immunity tests with vaccines prepared from avirulent variants 22A 2 and 34F 2
All batches of avirulent vaccine, except the first, were prepared from
strain 34F 2 . This was isolated from a virulent strain on 10th August 1936.
Preparation of vaccine.—The strain was grown on buffered nutrient agar,
pH 7.4, at 37°C. Sporulation was always complete after three days. The
spores were washed off with saline and this suspension added to twice its
weight of glycerine. The growth should not be washed off later than the
third day, because it then adheres tenaciously to the medium. The stock
glycerine-saline suspension was diluted 1: 50 to 1 : 25 with 50 per cent glycerine-
saline for issue to the field. The dose for cattle, 1.0 c.c., contained 600,000
to 1,200,000 spores per c.c. After the middle of 1938, avirulent vaccine issued
to the field was suspended in 0.5 per cent saponin in 50 per cent glycerine-saline.
This improved the immunizing power of the vaccine [Sterne, Robinson and
Nicol, 1939]. No saponin was added for the laboratory tests.
Table III
summarizes the results of the laboratory titrations on sheep. Guinea-pigs
could always be immunized solidly against 1 to 500 M. L. D. of a Pasteur II
vaccine. These titrations are omitted for the sake of brevity.
Thus, under laboratory conditions, batches prepared from variant 34F 2
consistently elicited a sound immunity in sheep.
MAX STERNE 377
TABLE III
Strain
22A 2
34F 2
34F 2
34F 2
34F 2
34F 2
34F 2
34F 2
34F 2
34F 2
34F 2
34F 2
Totals .
Batch
No.
4
14
19
21
24
25
39
50
51
52
53
54
No. of
Doses
Prepared
80,000
300,000
300,000
250,000
500,000
500,000
300,000
500,000
700,000
900,000
700,000
700,000
5,730,000
Prepared
on
13-7-36
11-3-37
18-5-37
7-6-37
6-9-37
20-9-37
10-6-38
21-2-39
4-4-39
21-4-39
9-5-39
22-5-39
..
Sheep
Immuni-
zed on
31-7-36
..
18-5-37
8-6-37
7-9-37
21-9-37
14-6-38
23-2-39
4-4-39
24-4-39
9-5-39
22-5-39
..
Result of Test with
Virulent Spores on
Immuni
zed
Sheep
6/6
..
10/10
7/8
10/10
10/10
10/12
10/12
10/10
9/20
8/10
7/10
97/108
Normal
Controls
0/4
..
0/2
0/2
0/2
0/2
0/2
0/2
0/2
0/2
1/2*
0/2
1/24
* During the three years covered in Table III 63 further normal sheep were used as
controls for other batches of ordinary vaccine. All died. The one control that lived
(Batch 53) showed no reaction at all, and also no reaction to a second inoculation of a
large virulent test dose. It is possible that a sheep immunized previously was used here
as a control.
FIELD TESTS WITH VACCINES PREPARED FROM AVIRULENT VARIANTS
These were started in 1936, and the amount of vaccine issued was increased
as experience was gained of its use. To date, June 1939, about 2,700,000
doses have been used.
Batch 4.—In 1936, 1,350 doses were issued for cattle. Reactions were
inconsiderable, and a severe outbreak of anthrax was stopped.
Batch 14.—In May and June 1937, about 300,000 doses were used for
cattle. There was an absence of severe reactions, even in highly-bred stock.
Four animals were reported to have died, but it is doubtful whether the vaccine
was responsible for the deaths.
Batch 19.—Only a few doses used.
Batches 21, 24, 25.—These were issued (1,250,000 doses) up to April
1938. By this time the avirulent vaccines had shown themselves safer than
the ordinary vaccine and were being used, as a routine, for dairy cattle and
highly-bred stock.
378
Use of Anthrax Vaccines
Batches 39, 50, 51.—Issued (1,100,000 doses) suspended in saponin, from
April 1938 to date (June 1939). No complaints have been received.
It is difficult to produce statistically sound evidence of a vaccine's
efficacy in the field. The avirulent vaccine has been tested on a large scale
and its innocuousness established. The only complaints (4) of deficiency in
immunizing power concerned Batch 14. Complaints ceased when the con-
centration of spores was increased. The avirulent vaccine was used largely
in those areas from which most of the complaints about the ordinary vaccine
had come ; that is in districts with a large proportion of dairy farmers. The
complaints ceased when the new vaccine was introduced.
A questionnaire was sent to the farmers of one of these districts. Replies
were received from 216 farmers who owned 49,000 cattle. The replies were
classified as follows :—
1. No or negligible reactions.—200 farmers owning 46,100 cattle.
2. Mild reactions.—8 farmers owning 1,600 cattle. Transient drop in
milk yield ; 14 head reported lame.
3. Severe reactions.—8 farmers owning 1,300 cattle. More serious drop
in milk yield ; 12 animals were badly swollen ; one animal
died.
Questionnaires are of dubious value. Replies are usually obtained from
those that are very pleased and those highly displeased. The deleterious
results were certainly not all due to the vaccine, although possibly due to the
inoculation procedure. There were no complaints of lack of immunity.
Comparative field test of avirulent spore vaccine (without saponin) and
ordinary saponin spore vaccine
Every year, in May and June 1,700,000 cattle, the entire cattle population
of the Transkei Territories, are inoculated against anthrax. In 1938 all the
cattle (271,500) in one area of the Transkei were inoculated with avirulent
vaccine. The cattle (1,288,030) of the rest of the Transkei were inoculated
with ordinary saponin spore vaccine. Table IV gives the result of these and
for comparison, the previous year's inoculations.
TABLE IV
Comparison of avirulent vaccine with ordinary saponin spore vaccine in
Transkeian Territories
Area Inoculated
Butterworth
Rest of Trans-
kei
Period
May-
June
1937
1938
1937
1938
No. of
Cattle
Inoculated
273,730
271,500
1,276,240
1,288,030
Type of Vaccine
Used
Spore Vaccine
Avirulent Vaccine
Spore Vaccine
Saponin Vaccine
Deaths
from
Anthrax
in Year
following-
Inoculation
17
5
60
25
Percen-
tage
Deaths
from
Anthrax
0.0062
0.0018
0.0047
0.0019
MAX STERNE 379
Thus the avirulent vaccine was as effective as the ordinary saponin spore
vaccine. A few years ago thousands of cattle died annually from anthrax
in the Transkei. The reduction in mortality shown in Table IV is the conti-
nuation of a trend that commenced in 1928, when systematic immunization
was started in the Transkei. A detailed discussion of this anti-anthrax
campaign will be given in another publication.
Use of avirulent vaccine on animals other than bovines.
Sheep.—Has been used on a considerable scale; results entirely satis-
factory.
Horses.—Used on a large scale in 1939 ; results entirely satisfactory.
Camels.—A few were inoculated and these showed no reactions.
Goats.—Under laboratory (stabled) conditions very large doses were
harmless. Under field conditions, far smaller doses provoked swellings. Of
about 400 goats done in the field four died. Avirulent vaccines are not, there-
fore, being issued as a routine, for goats. None of the goats that died showed
anthrax septicaemia.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am indebted to Mr W. G. Barnard, Government Veterinary Officer, for
preparing and sending out questionnaires, and for supervising inoculations in
his area.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
(1) During the last three years (1936-1939) several batches of anthrax
vaccine were made from avirulent (uncapsulated) variants. These batches,
as judged by laboratory tests on guinea-pigs and sheep, were uniformly good.
(2) The avirulent strains sporulated rapidly, completely and regularly.
(3) Vaccine prepared from avirulent variants retained its immunizing
power for at least a year.
(4) Field tests were carried out on 2½ million cattle and several thousand
horses and sheep. The vaccine was safer and produced slighter reactions than
ordinary saponin spore vaccine. Highly-bred animals tolerated inoculation
very well ; horses and sheep could be safely inoculated with cattle vaccine.
(5) Preliminary field tests on goats indicated that these might be more
affected by the uncapsulated strains than other domestic animals.
REFERENCES
Sterne, M. (1937a). Variation in Bacillus anthracis. Onderstepoort Jn. Veter. Sc. and
Anim Ind., Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 271-349.
Sterne, M. (1937b). Effects of different carbon dioxide concentrations on the growth of
virulent anthrax strains. Onderstepoort Jn. Veter Sc. and Anim. Ind., Vol. 9, No. 1,
pp. 49-67.
Sterne, M., Robinson, E. M., and Nicol, J. (1939). The use of saponin spore vaccine
for inoculation against anthrax in South Africa. Onderstepoort Jn. Veter. Sc. and
Anim. Ind., Vol. 12, No. 2, p. 11.
386 ABSTRACTS
respiratory tuberculosis, but this clause was probably untended primarily to guard against
direct infection of the milk. Nielsen and Plum of the State Veterinary Serum Labora-
tory of Copenhagen have now recorded instances of infection of cattle by tuberculous
persons employed on farms in Denmark. Farms which had been free from tuberculin
reactors revealed without warning a surprising number of positive reactors, suggesting
the sudden appearance of an unexpected focus of infection in their midst. To give one
instance, a herd which had been free from tuberculosis since 1932 suddenly yielded 19 posi-
tive reactors out of 29 cattle. On investigation a farm hand was discovered who had been
previously vigorous and apparently healthy, but who was later admitted to hospital
and subsequently transferred to a sanatorium. The records in the other farms quoted
in the paper are similar. There were 17 farms in all, and in 13 of these, a worker suffer-
ing from tuberculosis was found from whom the bovine strain of the tubercle bacillus
was isolated. In one instance a human-type strain was obtained from a worker, in two
other the strain had not been typed, and in the remaining case the strain though bovine
might conceivably have reached the herd during transport. Reid has also recorded
an instance in this country of a heifer infected with the human type of bacillus and cites
two more from the literature published by A. S. Griffith in 1913. In only one of these
three, however, was contact with a phthisical person established—one of Griffith's cases.
Griffith has discussed the question of cattle contracts from the point of view of direct
transmission of bovine tubercle bacilli from cattle to man by contact. This possibility
having now been well established there seems no inherent reason why the reverse process
should not occasionally take place.
REVIEW
The Principles and Practice of Feeding Farm Animals. E. T. HALNAN and
F. H. GARNER. (Longmans Green & Co., London, 1940, p. 359 15s.)
T HIS publication is a welcome addition to the existing literature on animal
nutrition. The authors state that they have tried to meet the demand
for information of both the scientific worker and the practical farmer ' by
explaining in simple terms the principles of nutrition and the application of
these principles to the feeding of live-stock. In so doing they have further
endeavoured to maintain a proper balance between the natural enthusiasm
of science and the practical points of good husbandry ; none too easy a task,
since it is generally admitted that the scientist and the husbandman have
always proved uneasy bed fellows '.
The book is well written. It is divided into two sections, in the first of
which theoretical considerations such as the chemical composition of the
feeding stuffs and animals, the fate of food in the animal, biological values of
feeding-stuffs and feeding standards are discussed. In the second section,
various topics such as the feeding of different types of farm animals, the com-
mon feeding stuffs of the British Isles and their utilization, etc. are discussed
from the practical point of view. An interesting chapter in this section
deals with the feeding practices in war time. The first section thus deals
with general scientific principles and follows the usual practice in other well
known text books, while the second section will appeal more to the farmer
engaged in animal husbandry work in the British Isles.
[K. C. S.].
( 387 )
GIPD—S1—354 I. C. of A. R.—8-1-42—600
INDEX TO AUTHORS
A
ANDERSON, W. S., " Fertile Mare Mules "
.
.
.
.
.
.
ANTHONY, DAVID J., " Diseases of the Pig and its Husbandry "
(Review) . . . . . . . . . .
B
BARTLETT, J. W. (see JOHNSON, L. A.). . . . . .
BERRY, J. C. and LUSH, J. L., " High Records Contrasted with Un-
selected Records and with Average Records as a basis for Selecting
Cows" . . . . . . . . . .
BERTRAM, D. S. and GORDON, R. M., " An Insectarium with Constant
Temperature and Humidity Control, together with a Description
of a simplified Technique for the Rearing of Anopheles maculipennis
var. atroparvus " (Abstract) . . . . . . . . . .
BOTTOMLEY, A. C, FOLLEY, S. J. and WATSON, HELEN M. SCOTT, " Ex-
periments on the Use of Chronic Gonadotrophin (pregnancy urine
extract) for the Treatment of Sterility in Dairy Cattle " (Abst-
ract) . . . . . . . . . .
BOUCHER, R. V. (see OTT, W. H.) . . . . . . .
BOWLING, G. A., PUTHAM, D. N. and ROSS, R. H., " Age as a Factor
influencing Breeding Efficiency in a Dairy Herd " (Abstract) .
BRUEN, E. J., KHOT, S. S. AND DESHPANDE, A. K., " Study of Wool
Quality as the Basis of Individual Selection in Breeding of Deccan
Sheep " . . . . . . . . . .
BRYANT, D. M., " A Note on the Inheritance of Kemp in Black-face
Sheep " (Abstract) . . . . . . . . . .
BURNS, R. H., JOHNSTON, A. AND CHEN, W. C, " The Improvement
of Chinese and other Carpet Wools " (Abstract) .
.
.
.
BUSHNELL, RALPH J., " Color Genes in Holstein-Friesian by Brown
Swiss Crosses " (Abstract) . . . . . . . . . .
C
CHEN, W. C. (see BURNS, R. H.) . . . . . . .
COPELAND, LYNN (see JOHNSON, L. A.) . . . . . .
CORNELL, R. L. and OONYWONGSE, RATANA, " Observations on Rinder-
pest Immunisation with Goat Virus ".
.
.
.
.
.
CRAWFORD, M., " Poisoning of Cattle by Artificial Manures " . .
CUNNINGHAM, A. AND SMITH, A. M., " Microbiology of Silage made by
the Addition of Mineral Acids to Crops rich in Protein, II. The
Microflora" (Abstract) . . . . . . . . . .
PAGE
62
71
177
272
285
385
286
380
181
64
64
68
64
177
1
373
173
ii
THE
INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETETINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
D
DASTUR, N. N. (see SMITH, J. A. B.) . . . . . .
DESHPANDE, A. K. (see BRUEN, E. J.) . . . . . .
DHANDA,.M.R. (see MINETT, F. C.) . . . . . . .
DOBSON, N. (see IYER, S. GANAPATHY) . . . . . .
DUNKLE, P. B. (see WARWICK, B. L.) . . . . . .
F
Farbrother, E. S., " Smuggling Opium and Charas in the Stomachs of
Camels " . . . . . . . . . .
FINCHER, M. G. and HAYDEN, C. E., " The Anterior Pituitary Lobe
Hormones in the Treatment of Ketosis in the Dairy Cow " (Abst-
ract) . . . . . . . . . .
FOLLEY, S. J. (see BOTTOMLEY, A. C.) . . . . . .
Garner, F. H. (see Halnan, E. T.) . . . . . . .
GILLAM, A. E. AND KON, S. K., " Passage of Carotenoids from Food to
Milk in the Cow. The Fate of Lycopene " (Abstract) . .
GORDON, HUGH, MC. L., " The Efficiency of Copper Sulphate and Carbon
Tetrachloride against Haemonclms confortus in Adult Sheep ". . .
GORDON, R. M. (see BERTRAM, D. S.) . . . . . .
GUPTA, B. DAS, (see MOOKERJEE, H. K.) . . . . . .
GURBAX SINGH, (see NANDA, P. N.) . . . . . . .
H
Haddow, J. R. and Idnani, J. A., " A Preliminary Report on a Me-
thod of Vaccination against Ranikhet Disease " . . . .
HALNAN, E. T. and GARNER, F. H., " The Principles and Practice of
Feeding Farm Animals ". (Review) .
.
.
.
.
.
HAYDEN, C. E. (see FINCHER, M. G.) . . . . . .
HEADLEY, F. B., " Purebred and Crossbred Pigs. Comparison of Rate
of Growth and Economy of Gains" (Abstract) . . .
HILDITCH, T. P. AND MURTI, K. S., " Component Acids and Glycerides
of some Indian Ox Depot Fats " (Abstract)
.
.
.
.
HILL, A. B. (see LOYELL, R.) . . . . . . . .
I
Idnani, J. A. (see Haddow, J. R.) . . . . . . .
IYER, S. GANAPATHY AND DOBSON, N., " A Successful method of Immu-
nisation against New Castle Disease of Fowls " (Abstract) . .
PAGE
175
181
308
178
381
105
285
385
387
174
55
285
250, 334
16
113
387
285
176
175
173
113
178