NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON A METHOD OF VACCINA-
TION AGAINST RANIKHET DISEASE
BY
J. R. HADDOW
AND
J. A. IDNANI
Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar-Kumaun
(Received for publication on 17 May 1941)
O WING to the urgency of the problem of control the authors think fit to
publish the recent results of their work on vaccination against Ranikhet
disease. In order that, where conditions make it practicable, the knowledge
so far gained may then be applied by laboratories in a position to undertake
the preparation of the vaccine to the protection of flocks under the somewhat
restricted conditions which are at the moment possible.
The idea leading up to these experiments was developed from the reports
of success on similar lines with foot-and-mouth disease [Schmit et. al, 1936]
and from earlier unpublished work on rinderpest at this Institute.
The general principle involved is the adsorption of the virus on alumina
gels which are subsequently treated with dilute formalin to destroy the un¬
adsorbed virus. The adsorbed virus is then inoculated and it is presumed
that this is gradually released in minimal quantities into the bird's system.
The reaction is in practically every case symptomless and confers an im-
munity of sufficient degree to resist a test inoculation of 10-100 or more
M.L.D. of virus between the 8th and 21st day after vaccination.
The duration of immunity at longer intervals has not so far been tested
and, until this is done, it is considered advisable to enhance the primary im-
munity conferred by the vaccine by subsequent inoculation with fresh virus
within the time suggested above.
The preliminary experiments indicate that for any given temperature
the time limits within which the vaccine matures and within which it retains
its efficacy after maturation are remarkably precise, but unfortunately at
the present time the keeping power is of very short duration — approximately
24-48 hours — and the authors realise that this places serious difficulties
in the practical application of this method of vaccination except in favoured
localities.
METHODS
The alumina gel used in these experiments was prepared in every case
according to Sabin's [1932] modification of the method prescribed by
Willstätter and Kraut and, as it is absolutely essential that the details should
be carried out precisely, the procedure is quoted in full:—
" Preparation of aluminium hydroxide gel.—Alumina gel C was prepared
essentially according to the method of Willstätter and Kraut excepting that
113
J. K. HADDOW AND J. A.
IDNANI
115
No detailed experiments have yet been undertaken to ascertain the
quantity of virus adsorbed but it has been shown that practically all the virus
is in the centrifuged gel deposit. Probably, however, a portion of the virus
is attached to particles of spleen and is eventually killed by the formalin.
EXPERIMENTAL
The first experiment (30-5-1940) included the inoculation of 6 fowls in
groups of two with vaccine stored at room temperature (14°-16°C.) for 8
days. The final dilution of formalin varied in the three lots from 1/500-
1/2000.
TABLE 1
First vaccine experiment
Dose of
vaccine
0.5 c.c.
0.5 c.c.
0.5 c.c.
Concentration
of formalin
1/500
1/1000
1/2000
No. of fowls
2
2
2
Reaction to
vaccination
Nil
Nil
Nil
Reaction to test dose
virus (1 c.c. of
1× 10 -4 )
1 died tenth day after
test.
1 survived.
Both died 9th and 12th
day after test.
1 survived.
1 died 8th day after
test.
NOTE ;—(a) The test dose was administered 15 days after vaccination and the
controls (6) died from 3-8 days after the test inoculation.
(b) The virus used for test in the experiments, except where otherwise stated, was
a dilution of the original virus suspension from which the vaccine was prepared. This
virus was stored in the refrigerator until used.
In two groups one bird recovered after test and the deaths of the other
birds were delayed and were probably due to spirochaetosis ; this disease
was definitely diagnosed in two of the four birds which died. The outcome
of this experiment was considered encouraging and further preliminary
experiments to obtain some indication of the virus content and its viability
at different stages of the preparation of vaccine were undertaken. From these
it appeared inter alia that the stock virus mixture can be maintained in the
refrigerator for 21 days or longer without noticeable deterioration, the vaccine
D
116
Vaccination against Ranikhet Disease
mixture if placed in the refrigerator immediately after preparation can be
similarly stored for 12 days prior to the period of maturation at a higher
temperature; while at room or incubator temperatures the vaccine becomes
completely inert in 6 to 14 days or earlier, according to temperature and the
approximate period of maturation of the virus at room temperature was 8
days.
A further experiment (28-9-1940 to 3-10-1940) was then carried out in an
attempt to define approximately the time limits for maturation and a suitable
dose for practical vaccination.
TABLE II
Second vaccine experiment
Date
Dose of
vaccine
No. of fowls
Reaction to
vaccination
Result of test on
19-10-40 with
0.5 c.c. of 1×10 -6
dilution of stock
virus
Test of vaccine stored for 48 hours at 37°C.
28 Sept. 1940
0.5 c.c.
1 c.c.
2 c.c.
2
2
2
Nil
Nil
Nil
Both immune
Both immune
Both immune
Test of vaccine stored for four days at 37°C.
30 Sept. 1940
0.5 c.c.
1 c.c.
2 c.c.
2
2
2
Nil
Nil
Nil
Both immune
Both immune
Both immune
Test of vaccine stored for six days at 37°C.
2 Oct. 1940
0.5 c.c.
1.c.c.
2 c.c.
2
2
2
Nil
Nil
Nil
1 immune
l died†
1 died*
1 immune
1 died*
1 immune
*Positive for Ranikhet disease,
† Probably due to other causes.
Immune = No visible reaction.
J. R. HADDOW AND J. A.
IDNANI
117
Date
29 Sept. 1940
1 Oct. 1940
3 Oct. 1940
19 Oct. 1940
Dose of
vaccine
No. of fowls Reaction to
vaccination
Result of test on
19-10-40 with
0.5 c.c. of 1×10 -3
dilution of stock
virus
Test of vaccine stored for 5½ days at 14°-16°C.
0.5 c.c.
1 c.c.
2 c.c.
2
2
2
1 died*
1 Nil
Nil
1 died*
1 reacted
severely
1 immune
Both immune
1 immune
Test of vaccine stored for 7½ days at 14°-16°C.
0.5 c.c.
1c.c.
2 c.c.
2
2
2
Nil
Nil
Nil
1 died*
1 reacted and re-
covered.
1 died*
1 immune
Both immune
Test of vaccine stored for 9½ days at 14°-16°C.
0.5 c.c.
1 c.c.
2 c.c.
2
2
2
Nil
Nil
Nil
Both immune
Both immune
Both immune
Controls to test inoculation
..
6
..
All died*
*Positive for Ranikhet disease.
Immune = No visible reaction.
D2
118
Vaccination against Ranikhet Disease
The intention up to this time was to devote attention more particularly to
a vaccine prepared by the less energetic treatment by maturation at compara-
tively low temperatures. As, however, we had received an indication from
earlier small-scale experiments, which need not be detailed here, that the
alumina gel even without the addition of formalin had a distinct lethal action
on the virus at room temperature, and that, therefore, the efficacy of the
vaccine could not under the conditions of these experiments be preserved
for long, it became apparent that speed in preparation would be an important
factor if the vaccine was to be of any practical use in the treatment of outbreaks.
Rapid maturation in the incubator was therefore attempted. It will be seen
from the information given in Table II that after storage at 37°C.
the vaccine was efficacious from the 2nd to the 4th day of inoculation, while
with the material kept at room temperature (14°-16°C.) the results were
irregular those after 10 days staraga being in accord with our previous-
experience. Several events prevented the continuation of any but small-
scale experiments during the winter but another experiment on similar lines
to the one already reported was taken up (26-2-1941 to 28-2-1941) and the
results are given in Table III.
TABLE III
Third vaccine experiment
Date
26 Feb. 1941
27 Feb. 1941
28 Feb. 1941
28 March 1941
Dose of
vaccine
No. of fowls Reaction to
vaccination
Vaccine tested after 24 hours at 37°C.
0.5 c.c.
1 c.c.
4
4
Nil
Nil
Vaccine tested after 48 hours at 37°C.
0.5 c.c.
1c.c.
4
4
Nil
Nil
Vaccine tested after 3 days at 37°C.
0.5 c.c.
1 c.c.
4
4
Nil
Nil
Controls to test inoculation
..
4
..
Result of test with
0.5 c.c. of 1×10 -6
dilution of virus
All immune
All immune
All immune
All immune
All immune
2 died*
2 reacted and re-
covered.
All died*
*Positive for Ranikhet disease.
J. R. HADDOW AND J. A.
IDNANI
119
It will be observed from the results given in Table III that the main
objective approved to have been attained and that the period of four days
which had given good results before was apparently near the point at which
the vaccine loses its immunising value. To confirm this and to ascertain the
infectivity of birds undergoing vaccination and to estimate the degree of
immunity conferred a further batch of 35 fowls was inoculated with vaccine
(20-3-1941 to 21-3-1941). The results are shown in Table IV.
TABLE IV
Fourth vaccine experiment
Date
20 March
1941
21
April
1941
4 April 1941
Dose of
vaccine
No. of
fowls
Reaction to
vaccine
Test dose
Test of vaccine incubated 24 hours at 37°C.
1 c.c.
1 c.c.
1 c.c.
1.c.c.
10
1
10
4
1 died*
9 Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
0.5 c.c. of 1×10 -6
dilution
1.0 c.c. of 1×10 -6
dilution
0.5 c.c. of 1×10 -4
dilution
0.5 c.c. of 1 in 20
stock suspension
Test of vaccine incubated 18 hours at 37°C.
1 c.c.
1 c.c.
1 c.c.
..
..
..
4
4
2
Nil
Nil
Nil
0.5 c.c. of 1×10 -6
dilution
0.5 c.c. of 1 × 10 -4
dilution
0.5 c.c. of 1 in 20
stock suspension
Result
All imm
Died †
1 died †, re-
mainder im-
mune.
All immune
1 died†
3 immune
1 died †
3 immune
1 died †
1 immune
Controls to test inoculation
2
2
2
..
..
..
0.5 c.c. of 1×10 -6
dilution
0.5 c.c. of 1× 10 -4
dilution
0. c.c. of 1 in 20
stock suspension
Both died †
Both died†
Both died†
*Negative to Ranikhet disease.
†Died of Ranikhet disease.
120
Vaccination against Ranikhet Disease
It will be seen from this experiment that while the immunising value of
the vaccine was not 100 per cent effective at 24 hours as in the previous
experiment it still protects a very high proportion of birds. We are unable
at present to explain the comparatively low rate of satisfactory immunisa-
tions in the lot receiving vaccine matured for 48 hours in the incubator. It
will also be observed that the immunity produced is not always of such a
high degree as to enable birds to resist a heavy experimental infection. It
is probable, however, from a further experiment which will be reported in
detail later that vaccinated fowls would resist a natural contact infection.
In this experiment 19 vaccinated fowls were exposed in an infected pen,
along with 10 unvaccinated birds. The vaccinated fowls remained free while
four of the unvaccinated birds contracted the disease. All vaccinated birds
were given a test dose of 0.5 c.c. of 1×10
dilution of virus after 15 days
exposure in the pen, with the result that only one of the vaccinated fowls
died of Ranikhet disease, whereas five of the surviving 6 unvaccinated fowls
proved to be susceptible when used as virus reservoirs in later experiments
on similar lines.
With regard to the infectivity of birds undergoing vaccination, 6 healthy
fowls were placed individually in close contact with 6 vaccinated fowls. In
no case did the healthy birds develop symptoms ; further, mouth washings
were taken form several vaccinated birds selected at random on the 4th,
5th, 6th and 7th day after vaccination and inoculated into healthy fowls.
The disease was not transmitted.
We do not think it necessary at this preliminary stage to enter into a
discussion of the findings reported. While the results obtained by the use
of this form of vaccine are far superior to any other method tried in this
laboratory, the limitations of the method at the moment are self-evident
and further work will now be required to eliminate them or at least to define
them precisely. It is hoped, however, that other laboratories having the
necessary facilities will give the method a trial.
SUMMARY
The authors have described in detail the method of preparation of a
vaccine for Ranikhet disease. The method consists in the adsorption of
the virus from a spleen pulp suspension on an alumina gel. The mixture
is then matured at a suitable temperature.
The results of preliminary experiments with this vaccine are reported
and it is shown that the period for maturation is mainly controlled by the
temperature at which this is carried out—the higher the temperature the
quicker the maturation.
It has also been demonstrated that a fairly efficient vaccine may be
obtained after maturation from 8-10 days at room temperature (14°-16°C.),
or at 1 to 4 days in the incubator (37°C.). The shorter period of 24 hours
in the incubator has given the best results, a very high proportion of birds
receiving this vaccine develop a high degree of immunity. As far as can be
judged by preliminary work, birds undergoing vaccination are non-infective,
and, therefore, the use of this vaccine will not tend to spread the disease.
J. R. HADDOW AND J. A.
IDNANI
121
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors take pleasure in acknowledging the willing co-operation of
Dr S. N. Ray of the Animal Nutrition Section in supplying the alumina gels
for this work, and they would also like to record their thanks to Dr F. C.
Minett for his continued interest and encouragement.
REFERENCES
Sabin, A.B. (1932). J. Expt. Med. 56, 307
Schmit-Jensen, H. O., Schmidt, S. and Hansen, A. (1936). Rev. D'immunol 2, 359
SELECTED ARTICLES
COMMON DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES AND THEIR
CONTROL IN INDIA
BY
R. L. KAURA, B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.
Assistant Serologist, Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar
(Received for publication on 31 October 1940)
(With Plates X to XIII)
T HE cattle breeding and dairy industries annually suffer grave losses due
to disease in young calves. Sufficient recognition has not hitherto been
given in India to such losses, in which should be included not only fatalities
among young calves which would have otherwise become valuable cows
bulls or bullocks, but also the cost of looking after the diseased calves, inability
to replace animals that are cast from the herd each year, expenses involved in
purchasing fresh stock to keep up the strength of the herd and rearing of those
calves which would in other countries have been disposed of as unprofitable.
It is, therefore, of vital importance for the proper development of these in-
dustries in this country that losses on this account should be checked by
keeping the diseases of young calves under control and to this end stock owners
should take every opportunity to obtain the assistance of the Civil Veterinary
Department.
At the Government Cattle Farm, Hissar, Punjab, where about 7,000
head of cattle are kept, including a dairy herd, these diseases have been ob-
served to occur more frequently in the dairy calves than in those of the general
herds. The diseases commonly encountered are white scour, navel-ill, pneu-
monia and ringworm. These as well as congenital blindness, rickets, etc.,
which are due to vitamin or mineral deficiency in the diet, are also common in
Indian villages and certain dairy farms where calves are reared under less
favourable conditions.
Calves are very liable to contract heamorrhagic septicaemia (gulghotu
or ghotwa) and blackquarter (phatsari) through grazing over infected
areas, particularly during the rainy season, and it is therefore advisab'e that
they should be protected with vaccines against such diseases before they are
sent out to paddocks.
The diseases of young calves may be conveniently divided into bacterial,
nutritional and parasitic.
I.—BACTERIAL DISEASES
Bacterial diseases of young calves are mostly congenital, i.e., infection
occurs inside the uterus and the symptoms are manifested shortly after birth.
In such cases the same organisms which cause trouble in the young can usually
be isolated from the uterus of their dams. These infections may also take place
after birth from external sources, and the earlier they appear in life the less are
the chances of recovery.
122
Ind. J. Vet. Set. & Anim. Husb. Vol. XI, Part II ]
PLATE
X
FIG. 1. A typical case of calf pneumonia [After J. F. Shirlaw]
FIG. 2. The cut surface of a lung showing typical lesions of calf
pneumonia [After J. F. Shirlaw]
FIG. 3. A hill calf affected with navel-ill
FIG. 4. Diphtheritic ulceration on the (A) gums and lip, (B) larynx,
(C) tongue and (D) intestine
PLATE XI
[ Ind. J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. XI, Part II
FIG. 1. Heifer calf No. 13, born blind, with no apparent pathological lesions in the eyes, out of
cow No. 157 that was experimentally fed on vitamin A deficient diet at this Institute
FIG. 2. Typical appearance of advanced eye lesions as shown in a
calf due to vitamin A deficiency [After Hart and Guilbert]
FIG. 3. A hair ball with salt deposit
[After G. H. Wooldridge]
FIG. 4. A rickety calf showing emaciation, humping
of back, swelling of joints, knuckling of pasterns
R. L.
KAURA
129
organic matter in it. Absence or deficiency of vitamin D (antirachitic) which
controls the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus, deficiency of lime (cal-
cium) and unsuitable calcium-phosphorus ratio in the diet are the chief
aetiological factors, although under the same feeding conditions some may
suffer from this disease while others may escape due to certain individual
differences.
The affected animal shows stiffness of the limbs, disinclination to move and
a tendency to stand with the back humped. The long bones in the limbs
become supple and curved under the weight of the body. Their ends which
form the joints become swollen. This swelling is more commonly seen at the
hock and knee joints (Plate XI, fig. 4). The ends of the ribs also become en-
larged and may be easily palpated or seen. The affected animal loses appetite
for its normal food but licks the walls and earth, probably in order to get lime
salts in which its body is deficient. The disease runs a chronic course and
if an animal is left untreated it dies of exhaustion or of congestion of the
lungs due to its constantly lying down on one side.
The method of its control consists in providing plenty of well-balanced
diet, reasonable exercise in the open and hygienic care for the pregnant cows
and for the new-born calves. Sunshine is very essential in the preven-
tion of this disease because it converts ergosterol, a precursor of vitamin D
which is present in the skin, into vitamin D. Whole milk cannot be relied
upon to supply enough vitamin D for the needs of the calf and skimmed
milk is certainly deficient. Of the natural foods sun-cured hay is only
reliable source of vitamin D. The calf which is given this hay
liberally will not ordinarily have rickets. If at any time symptoms
of rickets develop, irradiated yeast or irradiated ergosterol or purified cod-
liver oil may be given in order to supply vitamin D along with bone-meal
which would supply both calcium and phosphorus in a suitable proportion and
plenty of nutritious diet. Light exercise, if possible, may be given in
the open where there is plenty of sunshine. The affected limbs may be
supported by means of splints but one should not attempt to reduce the
swelling of joints by applying pressure bandages which may result in sloughing.
With suitable treatment recovery may occur in a considerable number of cases,
provided they are in the early stages of the disease. A deformity in the
affected limbs or joints may remain even after the treatment which is useless
in advanced cases. On the whole, prevention is more satisfactory than the
treatment of affected individuals.
III.—PARASITIC DISEASES
A. Helminthic
Of the helminthic diseases, parasitic bronchopneumonia, parasitic gastri-
tis, intestinal infestation with the large round worm (Ascaris vitulorum) and
tape worm (Moniezia expansa) and infestation with the eye-worm (Thelazia
rhodesi) are of common occurrence in calves. The control of these diseases
may be largely effected by adopting the following general measures recommend-
ed for their prevention rather than waiting to treat the clinical cases when
Ind. J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. XI, Part II]
PLATE
XII
FIG. 1. Dictyocaulus viviparous (A) Female, (B) Male
FIG. 2. An embryonated
egg of Dictyocaulus
viviparous.
FIG. 3. Haemonchus contortus (A) Females, (B) Males
FIG. 4. Mecistocirrus digitatus (A) Females, (B) Males
FIG. 5. The condition produced by a heavy parasitic infestation of
the digestive tract in a calf [After D. W. Baker]
FIG. 6.
An egg of Haemonchus
contortus
FIG. 7.
An egg of Mecisto-
cirrus digitatus
FIG. 8. Ascaris vitulorum (female)
FIG. 9.
An egg of Ascaris
vitulorum
FIG. 10.
An egg of Moniezia
expansa
FIG. 11. Moniezia expansa (adult).
Note the head, neck and
segmented body
PLATE XIII
[ Ind. J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. XI, Part II
FIG. 1. Eimeria zurni (× 2,000)
[After C. M. Wenyon]
FIG. 2. A calf affected with, sarcoptic mange. Note the
thickened, wrinkled and scaly condition of the skin
[After Hutyra & Marek]
FIG. 3. Sarcoptes scabiei
FIG. 4. A calf affected with ringworm. Note the circular lesions
FIG. 5. Boophilus
australis
FIG. 6. Hyalomma
aegyptium
FIG. 7. Haematopinus
eurysternus
[After M. Imes]
FIG. 8.
Linognathus
vituli
[After M. Imes]
FIG. 9.
Trichodectes scalaris
[After M. Imes]
R. L.
KAURA
135
Wash the surface with soap and warm water, clean it, allow it to dry and then
apply the following dressing by means of a suitable brush :—
Sulphur 2 parts
Oil of tar 1 part
Potassium bicarb 1 part
Raw linseed oil 8 parts
(Gradually heat the ingredients together and stir till thoroughtly mixed.)
This dressing may be applied warm at a temperature that is slightly higher
than the body temperature (105°-110°F.), so that its consistency remains thin
and it may be applied more easily. The application should be left on for
about 10 days and the surface of the body should then be washed and a second
application given as before. Ordinarily two applications are sufficient to
effect a cure but in obstinate cases another application may be given. When
the number of animals to be treated is large they may be dipped in the fol-
lowing dipping solution, preferably at 105°-110°F. :—
Sulphur 24 lb.
Unslaked lime (ordinary) 10 lb.
Water (preferably soft) 100 gallons
In preparing this mixture, the lime should be slaked to form a thick
paste, the sulphur should then be added to it and thoroughly mixed. To this,
25 to 30 gallons of boiling water should be added and the mixture should
be boiled and stirred for two hours. Decant the fluid and add water to make
100 gallons. The capacity of a dipping vat can be easily determined by the
following formula :—
Average length in inches × average width in inches × depth in inches
231
=the capacity of the vat in gallons.
The animals should not be thirsty or hungry or overfed before dipping.
They may be rested, if they have travelled a long distance, prior to dipping.
The animals' bodies should be free from injuries and there should not be any
projecting nails or similar objects in the vat which may injure the animal's
body. The dipping solution may be stirred by means of a bucket or a plunger
before the dipping commences. The animals should be completely dipped for
2-3 minutes at least, ducking their heads once or twice, and dipping should be
repeated in 10-15 days. Immediately after the dipping the animals should
be protected from exposure to cold. Dipping may be avoided during very cold
weather. All the infected and exposed animals should be dipped. Following
each dipping the yards and sheds occupied by them should be cleaned and
disinfected and the animals then put in clean yards. The animals should be
looked after well and fed nicely.
(iii) Ringworm.—This is a contagious skin disease caused by a parasitic
fungus, known as Trichophyton tonsurans, and characterised by the forma-
tion of circular patches covered with scales, scabs and short and uneven hair
stumps. It occurs most frequently among calves, especially during the winter
months, and when they are kept undernourished and overcrowded in insani-
tary buildings. The vitality of the parasite is very great and it may live in
a dormant state for several months in damp stables and may be carried from
year to year, resulting in annual outbreaks of the disease. It spreads from one