NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
JOWAR (SORGHUM VULGARE) POISONING IN CATTLE
377
plant and named it Dhurrin. This glucoside under the effect of an enzyme usually
present in the plant is broken up into prussic acid, dextrose and parahydroxy¬
benzaldehyde. The enzyme may sometimes be supplied from another plant
mixed with the fodder. Bach [cited by Dunston and Henry, 1906] considered
that the production of hydrocyanic acid is a stage in the plant anabolism. The
nitrates present in the cell-sap are converted into a small amount of nitric acid by
oxalic and carbonic acids. The free nitric acid thus produced is continuously
reduced by formaldehyde, producing hydroxylamine, which immediately combines
with formaldehyde, forming formaldoxime. The latter is turned into formamide,
which under normal conditions is hydrolysed, yielding ammonium formate to
supply ammonia and formic acid to the plant. When there is scarcity of rain,
the formamide by simple dehydration gives rise to prussic acid and water. Ac-
cording to Willaman and West [1916] the production of any large amount of
prussic acid in sorghum, when the water supply is inadequate, results from a lack
of glucoside stimulation. The increased amount of hydrocyanic acid is thought
to be produced for the purpose of stimulating hormones.
The view most widely held at present, however, is that prussic acid is an in-
termediate product of protied synthesis ; hence plants will contain a larger amount
of the acid when protein metabolism is most active.
There are certain factors which influence the toxicity of sorghum. Thus an
animal may eat within twenty-four hours a certain quantity of the plant con-
taining prussic acid without any ill effects, whereas the same quantity if eaten
within six hours would cause death. Seddon and King [1930] found that fresh
and dry plants containing 0.02 and 0.05 per cent of hydrocyanic acid respectively
may be considered dangerous to sheep, but the toxicity varies with the amount
of glucoside and enzyme present in the plant. The younger and more succulant
plants produce lethal amounts of prussic acid, and after seven weeks they may
contain a little quantity, or, may be absolutely free from prussic acid. According
to Burtt-Davy [1912] and Couch [1932] a soil rich in nitrates increases the prussic
acid contents of the plant. Swanson [1921] made some experiments and found
that the toxicity of the plant when dried and stored is decreased, and when dried
in the shade contains none, or, only a trace of hydrocyanic acid. Acid feeds
facilitate the liberation of prussic acid from the glucoside by hydrolysis, whilst
alkaline food stuffs have the opposite effect.
ABSORPTION
Prussic acid diffuses through the cell membrane extremely rapidly. It is
absorbed by the blood vessels in the mouth, œsophagus, stomach and intestines.
Blake [cited by Heffter, 1923] found that hydrocyanic acid is not absorbed from
the stomach, when the portal vein is ligatured. Symptoms of poisoning, however
set in a minute after removal of the ligature.
378 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [V, IV
In the body a certain percentage of the prussic acid taken in is converted into
relativly non-toxic sulpho-cyanate and is eliminated by the kidneys and lungs.
It paralyses the oxidative enzymes, which are responsible for the gaseous exchange
between the red blood corpuscles and the tissues. The internal respiration is thus
interfered with, and a condition of internal asphyxia is produced. Prussic acid
is an active poison of the nervous system, causing first stimulation and later on
paralysis of the vasomotor and respiratory centres.
SYMPTOMS
A large amount of prussic acid causes death almost instantaneously with
spasms and respiratory paralysis, but smaller amounts produce the following
symptoms:—
Accelerated and deepened respiration ; pulse accelerated, weak and irregular ;
mucous membranes bright red, later turned purplish ; increased salivation and
frothing ; muscular twitching, shivering, staggering as if intoxicated; acute
tympanites ; dropping down ; anxious look ; dilatation of pupils ; convulsions ;
coma and death due to respiratory paralysis.
POST-MORTEM APPEARANCES
In peracute cases the venous blood is bright red, which is partly due to the
ineffective deoxidation of the arterial blood in the tissues. A smell of bitter
almonds is emitted from the body if it is opened shortly after death. The blood
flows freely from the cut blood vessels and its coagulation is retarded. The right
ventricle of the heart is distended. There is a marked hyperaemia and sometimes
œdema of the lungs. There may also be hæmorrhages in the serous membranes.
The rumen shows pronounced distention with gas.
DIAGNOSIS
Apart from the symptoms and post mortem appearances described above, the
history of the animal having been fed on stunted plants should be regarded as
strongly suggestive of hydrocyanic acid poisoning, but in all cases confirmation
of this should be obtained by a chemical test of the ingesta and the plant.
As prussic acid disappears from the carcass rapidly, about four ounces of the
stomach contents should be collected immediately after death and kept in a con-
tainer firmly closed to prevent the escape of gases and be sent to a chemical
laboratory for examination.
JOWAR (SORGHUM VULGARE) POISONING IN CATTLE
379
The following method which is known as the vest-pocket test, [Henrici, 1926]
is suitable for adoption under field conditions and may be found handy by
veterinary workers in this country :—
Take 5grm. sodium carbonate and 0.5 grm. picric acid in 100 c.c. of distilled
water. Wet ordinary filter paper with this, hang up to dry until only just per-
ceptibly moist and cut into convenient strips. The papers which are known as
picrate papers should be prepared fresh. The solution keeps well for months in a
stoppered bottle.
The actual test is carried out as follows :—
Place a few grammes of the moist shredded plant, or suspected ingesta in a
tube and add a few drops of chloroform to hasten autolysis. Insert a strip of
perceptibly moist picrate paper at the top, and cork tightly. Incubate in a vest-
pocket, examining at varying intervals. The presence of hydrocyanic acid in a
sample is indicated by reddening of the yellow picrate paper. If the amount is
large, the paper is turned red within a few minutes, but if only traces are present
the colour changes after twenty-four hours. If it remains lemon yellow, prussic
acid is absent.
PROGNOSIS
Prussic acid is a rapid and fatal poison, and the prognosis is extremely grave.
TREATMENT
Unless treatment is applied before the onset of serious symptoms, it will be of
little or no avail.
Chemical antidotes such as ferrous sulphate, sulphur, sodium thiosulphate or
potassium permanganate solution should be administered to retard or prevent
further absorption of the poison. Bleeding is also useful in removing a large
quantity of absorbed prussic acid, and this should be followed by an intravenous
injection of normal salt solution, or, preferably, calcium gluconate. The intra-
venous injection of methylene blue has also been recommended by some workers.
Hubert Bunyia [1935] reports having obtained very good results with a combined
treatment of sodium thiosulphate and sodium nitrite. He gave 10 c. c. of a 20%
sodium nitrite solution immediately followed by 30 c. c. of a 20 % sodium thio-
sulphate solution, intravenously in cattle. The dosage for sheep was 10 c. c. of a
10 % solution of sodium nitrite, followed by 20 c. c. of a 10 % solution of thiosul-
phate both administered intraperitoneally. An intravenous injection of glucose
may also be given with advantage, in as much as the higher the glycogen content
of the liver, the greater is its detoxicating capacity.
Ether, camphor oil, caffeine, strychnine, or atropine may be given as pharma-
cological antidotes. Lobeline is a valuable stimulant of the respiratory centre,
and artificial respirations are also of help. Tympanites, when acute, must be
relieved with trocar and canula.
380 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [V, IV
PREVENTION
Animals should not be fed on stunted sorghum plants especially when they
are green. Kesser [1930] found that rabbits fed on green food and ferrous chloride
showed a great resistance to cyanide poisoning. Steyn [1931] has shown, that
sulphur is an excellent preventive of prussic acid poisoning in sheep. It can be
mixed with licks at the rate of 5 to 7½%. When climatic conditions are
favourable for hydrocyanic acid poisoning, bovines should be dosed with two
table-spoonfuls of sulphur daily. Sheep and goats should be given one tea-spoon-
ful every fourth day, and should have free access to sulphur licks.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author is highly indebted to F. Ware, Esquire, F. R. C. V. S., I. V. S.,
Director, Imperial Institute of Veterinary Research, Muktesar, for his kind advice,
and the facilities for literature provided at the Institute. Thanks are also due to
Mr. S. K. Sen, and Mr. R. L. Kaura, Muktesar, for their friendly criticism.
REFERENCES
Burtt-Davy, J. (1912). Botanical Investigations into Geilsiekte. 2nd Rept. Dir.
Vet. Res. U. of South Africa, 181-221.
Couch, J. F. (1932). Poisoning of Live-Stock by Plants that produce Hydrocyanic
Acid. United States Dept. of Agric. Leaflet No. 88.
Dunston, W. R., and Henry, T. A. (1902). Cyanogenesis in Plants. Proc. Roy. Soc.
of London. 70, 153-154.
Dunston, W. R., and Henry, T. A. (1906). The Chemical Aspects of Cyanogenesis in
Plants. Rept. 76th meeting Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 138-144.
Heffter, A. (1923). Handbuch der Experimentellen Pharmakologie, Berlin.
Henrici, M. (1926). Preliminary Report upon the Occurrence of Hydrocyanic Acid in
the Grasses of Bechuanaland. 11th and 12th Repts. Dir., Vet. Educ. and Res.
U. of South Africa, 331-364.
Hubert Bunyia (1935). Jour. of Amer. Vety. Med. Assoc., Washington, U.S.A.
Kesser, F. (1930). Arch. Expt. Path. U. Pharm. 156 Bd., 340-345.
Seddon, H. R., and King, R. O. C. (1930). The fatal dose for Sheep of Cyanogenetic
Plants, containing Sambunigrin or Prunasin. Jour. Counc. Sci. and Ind. Res.
Australia. 3, 14-24.
Stcyn, D. G. (1931). Geilsiekte and its detection in the Field. Jour. S. African Vety.
Med. Assoc. 2, 23-26.
Stephen. (1896). Agr. Ledger 3, 24.
Swanson, C. O. (1921). Hydro cyanic Acid in Sudan grass and its effects on Cattle.
Jour. Amer. Soc. Agronomy 13, 1.
Willaman, J. G., and West, R.M. (1916). Hydrocyanic Acid in Sorghum. Jour. Agric
Res. 6, 261-272.
ANTHELMINTICS FOR THE WORMS OCCURRING IN THE
ALIMENTARY CANAL OF THE HORSE.
BY
G. D. BHALERAO, M.Sc.,
Helminthologist, Imperial Institute of Veterinary Research, Muktesar.
(Received for publication on 6th September 1935.)
In this country the horse is as essential an animal for military purposes as is
the bullock for agricultural operations. Enquiries are therefore often directed
to this Institute from the various military authorities and breeding establishments
in this country in regard to the treatment of verminous infections in horses. To
reply to such enquiries individually is often a difficult matter, and involves consi-
derable loss of time. It is therefore proposed to indicate in the following few
pages the lines of treatment that have been adopted in recent years for the control
of worms occurring in the digestive tract of the horse in the hope that it may prove
useful to all those who are in contact with this particular form of equine disability
in this country.
Strongyles are undoubtedly the most formidable scourge of the digestive tract
of horses, and in addition to these the stomach worms (Habronema spp.), Ascarids,
tape worms and pinworms (Oxyuris) require consideration and their treatment will
be appropriately dealt with here. The schistosomes will, however, be excluded from
this note.
I. Strongyles. Several drugs have from time to time been tried as remedies
for treating the strongyles of the horse. It is intended to consider here only a few
of the more important of them.
(1) Oil of chenopodium.—The earliest authoritative and successful work in
regard to this drug is that of Hall, Wilson and Wigdor [1918]. These authors state
that the remedy of choice for the removal of strongyles of the large intestine
of horses is oil of chenopodium, which displays an efficacy of 95 to 100% when
given in doses of 16—18 mils. to these animals after fasting for 36 hours. The
dose may be given singly or divided. It should be accompanied by a quart or a
litre of linseed oil, or followed, one or two hours later, by this amount of the oil.
Subsequently the premier author, viz., Hall [1930], in a paper read before the 11th
International Veterinary Congress, London, advocated the use of the same drug
for the large strongyles, Palisade worms, Red worms and also the Cylicostomes
(Trichonema spp.). The dose of 16-20 c. c. in capsules should be preceded by a
quart (1 litre) of linseed oil or followed with aloes or aloin ball. The contra-
indications in the administration of this drug are gastro-enteritis, and possibly
( 381 )
382 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. [V, IV
pregnancy. Chopra and Chandler [1923], quoting DeBlieck and Bandet, consider
this drug to be of great value in the treatment of the strongyles of horses. They
advise that hard capsules should not be used, since they are liable to be bitten by
the animals. Taylor [1930] also in a paper read before the 11th International
Veterinary Congress, London, considers oil of chenopodium to be the best drug
for the treatment of the strongyles of horses. He also testifies that the best results
are obtained after fasting the animals for 36 hours, but a preliminary fast of
24 hours is essential. Turner [1930] recommends this drug with castor oil. The
dose, he considers optimum, is 4 c. c. for 110 kgs. of body weight. Henry [1931]
also agrees with others in recommending this drug in a dose of 10-15 c. c. (Le Roux)
and 16-20 c. c. [Hall] in capsules followed either by linseed oil or castor oil (½ litre
for foals, ¾ litre for 2 year-olds and 1 litre for adults) or preceded by a litre of linseed
oil and followed by a ball of aloes. The most recent experience with this drug in
cases of non-blood-sucking strongyles of horses is that of Monnig and Marais
[1933] who advocate the administration of the drug either in capsules or by a
stomach tube, although according to these authors, oil of chenopodium can be
given as a drench mixed with raw linseed oil.
(2) Carbon tetrachloride.—This drug has also been recommended by many
against strongyles of horses, but not so strongly as the previous one. Chopra and
Chandler [1928] on the authority of DeBlieck and Bandet recommend this drug
in a dose of 20-50 grams for foals and 100-150 grams for adults. Hall [1930]
considers this drug useful for the strongyles of horses, but only as a second best
to oil of chenopodium. Turner [1930] is also of the same opinion and he uses a
dose of 50 grams for every 450 kgs. of body weight. Henry [1931] advocates
the use of this drug in a dose of 15-35 c. c. (Le Roux) and 25-30 c. c. (Schwartz)
in soft gelatin capsules. In the use of this drug no purgative is necessary. Quite
recently two authors have reported on the value of this drug against strongyles of
horses. Marotel [1933] considers that this drug is an excellent remedy in a dose of
50 c.c. with 100 c.c. of paraffin oil and 100 c. c. of castor oil. Monnig and Marais
[1933] advocate the use of this drug in a dose of 50-100 c. c. for 1,000 lb. of body
weight or more for blood-sucking strongyles.
(3) Tetrachlorethylene.—This drug has been recommended only by Marotel
[1933], but he states that in large doses (100 c. c.) this drug proves toxic and
causes alarming symptoms.
(4) Terebenthine.—Henry [1931] quotes that essence of terebenthine has
been tried with success by Le Roux and Hall in cases of strongyles of horses in a
dose of 50 c. c. (Le Roux) and 60 c. c. (Hall) in capsules or with 1 litre of linseed or
groundnut oil (Le Roux) or with a ball of aloes (Hall).
(5) Turpentine.—Hall, Wilson and Wigdor [1918] state that turpentine
appears to be the second choice of the remedies tested in the treatment of strongy¬
loidosis of horses.
ANTHELMINTICS FOR THE WORMS IN ALIMENTARY CANAL OF THE HORSE.
383
(6) Terebenthin-benzol (commercially known as " Vitan " and " Pyrethrine ")
has proved to be very unsatisfactory according to Marotel [1933].
(7) Thymol.—Chopra and Chandler [1928] consider this to be a good drug for
the treatment of strongylosis of young horses, but it is too expensive for veterinary
practice. Henry (1931) recommends it for Cylicostomes in a dose of 2-5 grm.
(Desaint). The experiments of Marotel [1933] gave varying results with this drug.
(8) Lagaillarele's vermifuge modified by Marotel (Terebenthine 100, chloro-
form 20, and aloes 20 c. c.). Marotel [1933] considers this to be the best vermifuge
for the strongyles of horses. Although diarrhoea appears for the first 2 or 3 days,
it does not involve any risk. Chavance [1934] modified the original prescription as
follows :—Chloroform 20-30 c. c., 01. Terebenthini 100 c. c., and 01. Ricini 375 c. c.
II. Ascarids. Only one species of Ascarid worm has been so far recorded
from horses, viz., Parascaris equorum, and so far only two drugs have been tried
for its eradication.
(1) Carbon disulphide.—Hall, Morgan, Smead and Charles [1920] state that
this drug has a dependable efficacy of approximately 100% against Ascarids and
Bots, the two common and important parasites in the anterior portion of the
digestive tract of the horse. Taylor [1930], quoting Hall, remarks that this drug
will remove 95-100% of Ascarids from the horse. A dose of 20-25 c. c. should be
administered in hard gelatin capsules after fasting for 12 hours. Hall [1930]
advocates this drug for Ascarids in horses in a dose of 25 c. c. in capsules. He
further remarks that, since it produces large inflamed areas in the stomach below
the oesophagus, it is contra-indicated in cases of gastritis. Quite recently Monnig
and Marais [1933] remarked, that the best anthelmintic for the Ascarid of horses is
carbon disulphide in a dose of 25 c. c. for 1,000 lb. body-weight or more, to be
administered either in capsules or by a stomach tube. These authors do not
agree with Roger, Jonveaux and Plateau in the administration of anthelmintics
to horses in bran. According to them this method is quite ineffective.
(2) Carbon tetrachloride.—Chopra and Chandler [1928] quoting DeBlieck and
Bandet recommend this drug for Ascarids in horses in a dose of 20-25 grms. for
foals and 100 to 150 grms. for adults. Hall [1930] recommends this drug as an
alternative to carbon disulphide in a dose of 25-50 c. c. in capsules. According
to him it is safer to administer it with salts. He remarks that damaged liver
and low blood calcium are contra-indications. Taylor [1930] recommends the dose
of 40-60 c. c. of this drug. Henry [1931] agrees with others in regard to the
efficacy of this drug against the Ascarid of horses.
(3) Tetrachlorethylene.—This drug has not been actually tried in cases of
Ascarid infection in horses, but Taylor [1930] remarks that it may prove even
more efficacious than carbon tetrachloride since it is less toxic.
III.—Pinworms. Only one species of this worm occurs in horses, viz.—
Oxyuris equi. Many authors, viz.,—Hall [1930], Henry [1931] and Monnig and
384 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. [V, IV
Marais [1933], are of the opinion that the same remedies that are useful in cases
of strongyles are also effective against oxyurids. The drug which has been re-
commended most for this worm is oil of chenopodium. Hall [1930] recommends
turpentine as an alternative in a dose of 60 c. c., the contra-indication in this
latter case being derangements of the kidney. Hutyra and Marek [1926] re-
commend repeated rectal injections of vinegar and soap water as the best treatment
for oxyuriasis of horses. According to Railliet, thymol (15 to 20 grams.) given
with mucilaginous water and followed by a laxative is the best. Koslowsky
recommends p—benzol-phenol-carbaminic acid ester in a dose of 0.2—0.5 grs.,
2 to 3 times a day, followed by a laxative.
IV.—Stomach worms (Habronema spp.). Hall [1930], Wright, Bozievich
and Underwood [1931], Diem and quite recently Monnig and Marais [1933] are
unanimous in declaring the efficacy of carbon-disulphide against the stomach
worms. These authors also consider that the efficacy of the drug is enhanced by a
preliminary washing of the stomach with an alkaline solution (2% sodium bi-
carbonate solution) which removes the mucus. Hall [1930] remarks that carbon
tetrachloride and tetrachlorethylene also prove efficacious in the case of stomach
worms, but the comparative efficacy of the drugs remains undetermined on account
of the fact that the worms after being killed are digested in the stomach. Ransom
and Hall consider Oleum chenopodium also useful. Martin remarks that the
stomach worms are very resistant to the usual anthelmintics, but large doses of
lysol are supposed to cause their discharge.
V.—Tapeworms.—(Anoplocephala spp.). Hutyra and Marek [1926] remark
that the expulsion of tapeworms can be accomplished fairly easily with laxatives
such as aloes (20-25 gm.) or tartar emetic. A more reliable drug is oil of turpentine
in a dose of 100 grm. with 500 gms. of castor oil.
Treatment for Nematode Worms in general
Hall [1930] in a paper read before the 11th International Veterinary Congress,
London, remarks that horses may be given treatment with carbon disulphide,
followed two weeks later by treatment with oil of chenopodium. An alternative
procedure is to give one treatment with carbon tetrachloride.
REFERENCES
Chavance, J. (1934). Strongylose equine. Rec. Med. Vet. 110, 202-205.
Chopra, R. N., & Chandler, Asa. C. (1928). Anthelmintics and their uses, London, pp.
xii, pp. 291.
Hall, M. C. (1931). A parasitological resume. Vet. J. 87, 301-311.
Hall, M. C., Morgan J., Smead. J,, & Charles, F. W. (1920). The anthelmintic and
insecticidal value of carbon bisulphide against gastro-intestinal parasites of the
horse. Vet. J. 76, 312-317.
ANTHELMINTICS FOR THE WORMS IN ALIMENTARY CANAL OF THE HORSE.
385
Hall M. C., Wilson, R. H., & Wigdor, M. (1918). The anthelmintic treatment of equine
intestinal strongylidosis. J. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc. 54, 47-55.
—(1918).
Some notes on the treatment of equine
Ascariasis and Oxyuriasis. Ibid. 54, 56-57.
Henry, A. (1931). Les nouvelles medications anthelminthiques. Rec. Med. Vet.
107, 730 -762.
Hutyra, F. & Marek, J. (1926). Special Pathology and Therapeutics of the diseases
of domestic animals. Vol. II, English Edition.
Marotel (1933). Les meilleurs vermifuges du gros intestine chez le cheval. Rev. Vet.
et. J. Med. Vet. 85, 65-73.
Monnig, H. O., & Marais, I. P. (1933). The administration of Anthelmintics to
Horses in Bran. Onderst. J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Ind. 1, 59-61.
Taylor, E. L. (1930). The Use of Drugs in the Treatment of Diseases caused by
Nematode and Trematode Worms. 11th Internet. Vet. Cong. London, 3, 273-287.
Turner, W. G. (1930). Strongylidae. Vet. Med. 25, 314, 316.
Wright, W. H. & Bozieevich, J. (1931). Critical Experiments with carbon-disulphide
in the treatment of habronemiasis. J. Roy. Army Vet. Corps, 2, 66-70.
M