NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
224
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. [V, III
Excluding the effect of shearing there has been a steady increase with most
of the animals during each period. No.7 has done best throughout. Nos. 3, 4
and 8 have not done well. All the data of No. 3 are vitiated by the fact that
this animal was ill for some time.
The first period gave the best and the middle period the worst increase. The
effect of shearing must be noticed. The loss of weight after the second shearing
was only trifling and accounts roughly for the wool and dirt removed. By con-
trast, the sharp fall after the first and third shearing is serious. We believe this
is due partly to actual loss of flesh, because these shearings were done during
cold weather and the shorn animals undoubtedly suffered from the cold. On the
other hand, the second shearing was done during mild weather, when the
animals would not suffer from exposure. The sequence of weekly average live
weights, given in the appendix, makes these points still more clear.
The total effect of the ration has been gauged from the initial and final week-
ly average live weights. A subsidiary statement, Table VIII, makes clear the
nutritional state of the animals at the end of each period.
Subsidiary information relating to condition of animals.
The nitrogen balance was determined eleven times in all, at approximately
regular intervals. There were considerable variations and the record is only
partial; still the average may be considered to have significance.
Another figure, the urine volume, determined at the same time as the nitrogen
balance, seems to reflect the animal's state of health. These data are shown in
Table IX.
TABLE IX.
Average nitrogen balance and average urination.
(Nitrogen balance in grms. per day. Urine volume in litres per head per day.)
Sheep No.
*Live weight increase (lbs.)
Nitrogen balance . . .
Urine volume . . .
Urine volume per 100 lbs.
L.W.
1
1.41
0.55
4.68
6. 60
2
1.00
0.57
1.38
2.50
3
0.00
0.56
4.06
8.80
4
-0.62
0.01
7.74
9.90
5
1.40
0.70
1.31
2.60
6
2.00
0.66
2.27
3.60
7
2.40
0.66
1.51
2.70
8
0.00
0.10
5.74
9.40
* For comparison, the live weight increase in 100 days is also given.
A FEEDING EXPERIMENT WITH SHEEP.
225
No. 3 was sick for part of the time, when probably the nitrogen balance
would be negative, though it was not determined then. The nitrogen balance
of the two other bad doers, 4 and 8, is not satisfactory. It will be noticed
that the three bad doers have urinated most profusely.
Live weight in relation to food consumption.
The fluctuations of food and live weight of individuals is given in
Table X. No. 3 having been ill, the figures for this animal are of little
significance. With Nos. 1 and 2 an appreciable fall in live weight during the
second period coincides with a serious fall in food consumption. In the third
period a small recovery in consumption has produced good recovery of weight.
No. 5 on the other hand maintained its weight during the second period in
spite of a fall in consumption. Nos. 6 and 7 maintained their consump-
tion and made the best live weight increase. Thus there is a relationship
between consumption and live weight but it is not very close.
In Table XI (consumption per 100 lbs. live weight) in which individuals
can be compared with one another, it appears that, although live weight is
not an accurate measure, the animals varied very much in efficiency of food
utilisation. With No. 3 which was sick for part of the time, it is evident
that there has been waste of food. The animal has given very little return for
the food consumed.
With Nos. 3, 4 and 8 excessive urination suggests some metabolic error
leading to waste. With 1, 2, 5, 6 and 7 there is a rough parallelism between
food consumed and live weight increase.
4. Wool yield.
Table XII gives the data relating to wool yield.
The first period actually extended over 180 days. The yields for this period
have been calculated to 160 days to make them comparable with the figures for the
two succeeding periods of 160 days each. The table gives the yields of wool
of each animal for three periods and also the live weight excess over the initial
live weight which the animals attained at the end of each period. This figure
is an index of the live weight statics or condition arrived at during the period.
On the average, there has been a fall in wool yield during the second, period and
a marked increase during the third period.
C
226
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. [V, III
TABLE X.
Live weight in relation to food consumption.
Periodic consumption per head and live weight changes.
Sheep No.
1
Food
consump-
tion.
grms.
834
744
761
Gain
in
L. W.
lbs.
6
3
7
2
Food
consump-
tion.
grms.
666
612
644
Gain
in
L. W.
lbs.
6
3
5
3
Food
consump-
tion.
grms.
654
537
601
Gain
in
L. W.
lbs.
—2
—2
0
4
Food
consump-
tion.
grms.
...
728
838
Gain
in
L. W.
lbs.
...
—3
—2
5
Food
consump-
tion.
grms.
867
757
784
Gain
in
L. W.
lbs.
7
6
7
6
Food
consump-
tion.
grms.
734
724
772
Gain
in
L. W
lbs.
8
8
10
7
Food
consump-
tion,
grms.
669
706
745
Gain
in
L. W.
lbs.
7
11
12
8
Food
consump-
tion.
grms.
...
809
852
| Gain
L. W.
lbs.
...
—1
0
TABLE XI.
Periodic consumption per 100 lbs. live weight and average live weight increase per 100 days.
—
First period
Second period
Third period
Average live weight increase per 100
days.
Sheep No.
1
1174
1048
1072
1.40
2
1211
1113
1171
1.00
3
1476
1220
1366
0.0
4
...
921
1061
—0.6
5
1275
1113
1153
1.40
6
1189
1168
1245
2.00
7
1239
1307
1387
2.40
8
...
1305
1374
0.0
A FEEDING EXPERIMENT WITH SHEEP.
227
TABLE XII.
Wool production in relation to live weight excess over initial live weight.
—
First period
....
Second period...
Third period....
Sheep No.
1
*L. W.
Ex.
6
3
7
Wool
grms.
338
280
350
2
L.W.
Ex.
6
3
6
Wool
grms.
289
235
320
L. W.
Ex.
—2
—2
0
Wool
grms.
258
250
314
L.W.
Ex.
...
—3
—2
Wool
grms.
...
375
460
5
L. W.
Ex.
6
7
Wool
grms.
249
235
320
6
L.W.
Ex.
8
8
10
Wool
grms.
280
290
350
7
L.W.
Ex.
7
11
12
Wool
grms.
404
445
520
8
L.W.
Ex.
...
—1
0
Wool
grms.
...
345
355
* Live weight excess lbs.
C 2
228
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. [V, III
There is a definite relationship between condition and wool production. The
fall in yield during the second period coincides with the fall in live weight already
noted. Further, the individual wool yields go up and down with the individual
live weights. For example, animals 1 and 2 lost most live weight in the second
period and also decreased most in wool yield. No. 5 lost only 1 lb. in live weight
and its wool yield is only slightly depressed. Nos. 2 and 6 did not lose live weight
and their wool yield remained nearly constant. No. 7 increased in live weight and
also in wool yield. The marked increase of wool yield in the third period is
reflected all along the line by an improvement in the live weight.
The ration provided, though not excessive, was intended to set up the ani-
mals. The evident improvement finally obtained and due to the rationing, might
have shown itself earlier perhaps, had not the accident of shearing during cold
weather caused a set back.
Although the wool yields of these sheep are insignificant, the experiment
shows clearly that yield is profoundly influenced by the nutritional state of the
animal.
SUMMARY.
A long period feeding test has been carried out with sheep, the food consump-
tion, live weight and wool production being studied. Digestion trials were also
carried out.
It was found that the live weights fluctuated somewhat roughly in accor-
dance with food consumption and that the individual animals differed consider-
ably in their efficiency for utilisation of food.
Digestion experiments indicated that the food varied somewhat in quality
and that consumption increased when the quality improved. The extent of
such increased consumption was considerable.
With regard to wool yields, the important observation was made that the
yields fluctuated according to the nutritional state of the animals.
REFERENCE.
Warth, F. J. and Krishnan, T. S. 1935. Ind. Jour. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb. 5.
A FEEDING EXPERIMENT WITH SHEEP.
229
APPENDIX.
Record of weekly average live weights of sheep (in lbs.).
Date
(Week ending)
22.VII.1933
29-VIT.1933
5-VIII-1933
12-VIII-1933
19-VIII-1933
26-VIII-1933
2-IX-1933
9-IX-1933
16-IX-1933
23-IX-1933
30-IX-1933
7-X-1933
14-X-1933
21-X-1933
28-X-1933
4-XI-1933
11-XI-1933
18-XI-1933
25-XI-1933
2-XII-1933
9-XII-1933
16-XII-1933
23-XII-1933
Sheep No.
1
67
67
69
70
71
70
71
70
70
69
70
70
..
..
70
70
69
70
70
71.
71
71
73
2
52
52
52
54
55
54
53
54
53
54
..
53
..
..
55
55
55
55
56
56
56
57
55
3
47
46
47
48
48
48
47
47
49
8
47
48
..
..
45
..
..
..
41
42
42
44
44
4
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
5
63
63
65
66
68
68
67
68
68
67
67
68
..
..
67
69
68
69
68
69
70
70
68
6
55
56
56
58
57
58
58
59
58
57
58
60
..
..
60
59
59
61
60
62
61
61
62
7
47
49
50
52
52
51
50
49
49
49
51
52
..
..
52
51
51
53
54
55
54
55
54
8
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
Date of shearing.
All sheep were shorn and
experiment started.
230
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. [V, III
Date
(Week ending)
30-XII-1933
6-I-1934 .
13-I-1934 .
20-I-1934 .
27-I-1934 .
3-II-1934
10-II-1934 .
17-II-1934 .
24-II-1934 .
3-III-1934
10-III-1934
17-III-1934
24-III-1934
31-III-1934
7-IV-1934
14-IV-1934
21-IV-1934
28-IV-1934
5-V-1934 .
12-V-1934 .
19-V-1934 .
26-V-1934
2-VI-1934
9-VI-1934
16-VI-1934
Sheep No
1
72
72
73
68
68
68
69
70
70
70
70
..
72
71
72
72
..
72
70
70
..
72
72
71
..
2
55
57
58
54
53
53
53
53
55
54
54
..
54
54
54
55
..
56
54
54
..
53
55
55
..
3
45
..
45
42
41
41
41
42
43
42
42
..
42
42
43
43
..
44
44
43
..
44
44
44
..
4
..
..
.. ..
..
81
81
78
78
80
80
..
79
79
80
80
..
80
80
79
..
78
78
78
..
5
70
71
70
66
67
67
68
..
67
68
67
..
67
67
69
70
..
69
68
67
..
68
66
67
..
6
62
62
63
60
61
61
59
60
61
62
62
..
62
62
63
65
..
65
64
63
..
64
64
64
..
7
53
53
54
51
52
52
53
54
55
55
55
..
53
55
56
55
..
58
57
56
..
57
58
58
..
8
..
..
..
..
..
62
63
63
64
64
64
..
63
64
65
65
..
64
62
61
..
62
62
61
..
Date of shearing
All sheep shorn on 15th
January 1934.
A FEEDING EXPERIMENT WITH SHEEP
231
Date
(Week ending)
23-VI-1934 .
30-VI-1934 .
7-VII-1934 .
14-VII-1934 .
21-VII-1934 .
28-VII-1934 .
4-VIII-1934 .
11-VIII-1934 .
18-VIII-1934 .
25-VIII-1934 .
l-IX-1934 .
8-IX-1934 .
15-IX-1934 .
22-IX-1934 .
29-IX-1934 .
6-X-1934 .
13-X-1934 .
20-X-1934 .
27-X-1934 .
3-XI-1934 .
10-XI-1934 .
17-XI-1934 .
24-XI-1934 .
l-XII-1934 .
8-XII-1934 .
Sheep No.
1
70
70
70
71
71
72
..
71
..
71
71
71
72
..
73
72
..
74
..
73
72
73
..
75
71
2
55
54
54
56
56
57
..
57
..
56
57
57
57
..
56
56
..
57
...
56
56
57
..
57
55
3
45
44
43
44
44
44
..
44
...
45
44
44
45
..
44
46
..
46
..
45
45
47
..
47
44
4
78
76
77
78
79
80
..
79
..
79
79
80
80
..
79
79
..
79
..
77
78
79
..
79
77
5
69
67
68
67
69
69
..
69
..
68
68
66
69
..
70
70
..
70
..
70
70
70
..
70
66
6
63
61
65
66
65
65
..
65
..
66
65
65
66
..
66
67
..
65
..
63
63
65
..
65
64
7
58
56
57
58
59
58
..
58
..
58
59
58
58
..
58
59
..
58
..
58
57
59
..
59
56
8
61
60
61
62
63
63
..
62
..
62
63
62
62
..
62
61
..
61
..
59
60
62
..
62
61
Date of shearing.
All sheep shorn on 23rd
June 1934.
All sheep shorn on 30th
November 1934.
PYOSEPTICAEMIA OF CALVES
BY
J. F. SHIRLAW, M.R.C.V.S.,
Professor of Pathology and Bacteriology, Punjab Veterinary College, Lahore.
With Plates XVII-XXII and six text-figs.
(Received for publication on the 5th July 1935.)
INTRODUCTION.
Calf septicaemia is a generic term that embraces a variety of pathological
conditions of an etiology so confused, that the disease defies any precise description
either on clinical or pathological grounds. A considerable amount of research has
been devoted to the problem, much of it of value, but still more of it a repetition
of conjecture and surmise which, gaining a degree of credence through repetition,
has been tacitly accepted.
The subject is a difficult one, chiefly on account of the variation in etiology
and the obscure metabolic factors which complicate it. No exact infection
produces an exact disease syndrome in calves of a few days old, and when we
consider that the type and degree of infection in such calves is largely indeterminate,
it is little wonder that the clinician defines the disease in terms which bear
little scientific interpretation.
Calf septicaemia includes a variety of disease conditions which are easily
disposed of in text-book descriptions ; e.g., " white scour of calves ", "joint ill ",
" Infectious Broncho-pneumonia ", " Paratyphoid " and " omphalophlebitis ".
The precise definition of septicaemia is the presence of pathogenic micro-
organisms in the circulating blood usually accompanied by toxins elaborated by
those organisms. In many cases of septicaemia in, calves, it is rarely, if ever,
possible to determine the actuality of blood infection. Such cases are frequently
peracute, cases which one would naturally be led to look upon, on clinical grounds,
as instances of extreme invasion of the blood stream by organisms of a high degree
of virulence. They frequently represent, however, an entirely localised infection
with a moderate degree of toxaemia in which there is a complete and sudden
breakdown of metabolic function.
The first few days in the life of the calf are treacherous and critical days.
The slightest interference with, or upset of normality of function is sufficient, in
( 232 )
PYOSEPTICAEMIA OF CALVES.
233
many weakly animals, to precipitate a crisis leading to a rapid dissolution. In-
fection may produce the end result, but to incriminate micro-organisms isolated
from the tissues as of etiological significance in such cases is an evasive
method of solving the etiology.
The factors inducing such a breakdown are little understood. They may be
described as non-hygienic—a confession of ignorance when one reflects upon the
strange incidence of calf septicaemia in those herds in which the most scrupulous
measures of hygiene are taken to exclude it. To incriminate micro-organisms as
the direct cause of calf septicaemia is a false concept. The disease may be
induced by feeding new born calves on boiled milk. Where, therein, lies the
infection ? It may be argued that such irrational feeding may, by creating a
suitable intestinal pabulum, stimulate certain latent infections of the gastro-
intestinal tract, or by debilitating the alimentary mucosa, enable these infections
to gain an ascendancy along with an enhanced virulence.
As in all diseases, infection is predetermined by the degree of tissue resistance
in relation to the virulence of the attacking organism and its degree of concentra-
tion. The equilibrium which exists between the natural resistance of the ali-
mentary mucosa and those latent infections is so delicately adjusted that break-
down may be almost spontaneous.
In calves, at birth, the bacterial flora of the gastro-intestinal tract is fairly
uniform. A concentration of potentially dangerous organisms may occur in the
fourth stomach, while the lower part of the small intestine is usually free of such
infection. The function of the peptic stomach is easily deranged. Haemorrhages
in the mucosa may be so constant as to appear physiological. These haemorr-
hages act, however, as atria of infection and through factors which are little
understood, relatively non-pathogenic strains of organisms may assume a degree
of concentration and enhanced virulence which constitute an acute infection, with
extension into the duodenum and lower part of the intestine. The mere over-
loading of the stomach with colostrum may precipitate a gastric crisis, and when
infection is superadded, the end result is inevitable.
Special types of infection may remain latent in certain herds, and a fairly
constant degree of virulence may be maintained so that the infection in such
herds may be truly termed enzootic.
The sources of these infections are probably inconstant, even in individual
herds of cows giving birth to calves that develop the disease. The probability is
that, in the majority of instances, infection is derived from the alimentary tract
of the dam, where it maintains a low degree of virulence and concentration with-
out, or only rarely, producing any symptom of the disease. It is not inconceivable
that, under the strain of the later phases of gestation and the metabolic upsets
liable to occur at this time, the dam itself may experience a sudden recrudescence
of latent infection which, entering the blood stream in minimal degree, may be
D
234
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. [V, III
translated to the calf in utero. It is also conceivable that, under the strain of
parturition, minor infections of the udder, either latent, or recently incurred
through subacute bacillaemia of the dam, may constitute the means of
transmission. The udder may appear perfectly normal. The ease with which the
mammary tissue excretes pathogenic micro-organisms without, in itself, becoming
infected, is a point to be considered. In the early stages of lactation it may be
impossible, and frequently is, to differentiate between a physiological hyperaemia
and one that is actively pathological and transient to a degree.
Infection in utero is not improbable. It is estimated, from abattoir exami-
nations, that nearly one half of the uteri of pregnant cows contain organisms that
are potentially dangerous. Many organisms are capable of passing the placental
filter. These, gaining entrance to the amniotic fluid, are swallowed by the foetus,
and when such an invasion is accompanied by the absorption of the toxic products
of inflammation affecting the placenta the results may be serious. The foetus
may develop septicaemia and die in utero or the calf, if it survives infection in
utero, may be born in a dying condition.
It is a fashion to believe that calf septicaemia has, as its common origin, an
infection of the omphalic veins. There seems little evidence in support of this
view. Omphalophlibitis is neither a constant nor a common lesion in outbreaks
of calf septicaemia. Naturally, after birth, there is always some oedematous
swelling of the umbilical area but the evidence that an exact infection exists
extending into the internal organs with a consequent pyosepticaemia seems in-
conclusive. If omphalitis were present, one would expect to find septic infarction
of the liver as an almost constant lesion. This is a lesion, however, which is rarely
encountered. Most authorities agree that calf septicaemia is the ultimate expres-
sion of an intestinal infection. In support of this belief, little effective control of
the disease has resulted from disinfection and ligation of the cord at birth. The
main argument levelled against the opinion that the intestinal route of infection
is improbable is that it is usually difficult and frequently impossible to experimental-
ly induce the disease in supposedly susceptible calves by the oral administration of
large quantities of freshly isolated cultures of these organisms which are considered
to be of etiological significance.
A point that has been lost sight of, and one that is of fundamental importance,
is that, apart from the introduction of infection into the gastro-intestinal tract,
there are certain factors which determine disease incidence. To isolate an organism
from the diseased tissues and to reproduce the exact disease syndrome or even to
reproduce the exact pathological change in the same tissues of the same species
cannot ordinarily be done, and in the disease under review, one little expects to
be able to reproduce the disease without the ability to produce those metabolic
PYOSEPTICAEMIA OF CALVES.
235
factors, to an extent parallel to that occurring in natural cases. On the other hand,
other workers claim that young calves may be infected with practical certainty
by the feeding of recently isolated cultures.
Those contrary expressions of experimental pathogenesis excite a partisanship
and wealth of conflicting evidence which leaves a decision upon experimental
results very much sub-judice.
The types of infections vary widely. Out of 251 cases examined by Jensen,
118 showed B. coli, with septicaemia, 53 B. coli without septicaemia, 16 B. paracoli,
3 cases B. coli and B. paracoli mixed, 18 cases of micrococci, 11 cases B. proteus,
1 case B. abortus, while in 31 cases no cause could be determined. The observations
of Christiansen record that, in 222 cases examined, 16 occurred between 1 and 8
days, 57 between 6 and 14 days, 84 between 2 and 4 weeks, 61 between 1 and 6
months and 4 at about 6 months. According to these observations, the disease
is most common in calves from 3 to 4 weeks old. The most common types of
infection were found to be S. Gaertner and S. Schotrmulleri. A septicaemic
disease of calves, due to organisms of the Salmonella group was first described
in 1897 by Thomassen and has since been described at length by numerous
writers in Germany and the United States, where Mohler described these infec-
tions as chiefly affecting adult animals and Mayer as a cause of specific infectious
diarrhœa of calves.
HISTORY OF THE DISEASE IN THE PUNJAB.
That calf septicaemia exists in the Punjab and may be a serious source of
loss, is an opinion that has been, within recent years, confirmed by work carried
out upon this problem. Unfortunately, one has to depend to an unwonted extent
upon hearsay evidence, or evidence that is difficult to corroborate in the
investigation of animal diseases. It is only in herds maintained under proper
supervision that one can hope to obtain accurate information concerning the
prevalence and type of this disease of young calves.
It is probably safe to argue that the disease problems affecting the controlled
farms are present, in an exaggerated degree, in the districts. During the last six
years, outbreaks of calf disease in which investigation has been undertaken, have
frequently been reported, and on several of these farms, the death of calves is
accepted as a yearly occurrence which is normal and unavoidable. In some farms
the disease incidence varies from year to year. In one year, only a few cases may be
recorded—a number insufficient to arouse any apprehension in the mind of the
owner. During the following year, however, a veritable epizootic may startle
the owner into the necessity for a disease investigation. The following figures
D 2