NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
ACUTE AMPHISTOMIASIS OF CATTLE
367
In both the outbreaks investigated by the writer, bovines of all ages were
found affected, but in calves the disease was found to take a more acute form.
Calves as young as three months old have been found dead after an illness of
three days, where a clinical and postmortem examination did not reveal any
evidence of coccidiosis, but a considerable degree of enteritis was found associated
with the presence of what appeared to be the post-developmental stage of cercariae
in the necrotic mucoid discharge of the duodenum and the ileum. The rate of
mortality has been known to vary in different periods of the outbreak, the heaviest
being in the months of November and December.
In certain villages where an extensive investigation was carried out, and
where other ruminants besides cattle were reported to die, the position can be
summarised in the following Table.
TABLE I
Showing the rate of mortality amongst cattle, goats and buffaloes in different
periods of the outbreak in Kamrup district
Locality
Barnigaon
Deharkuria
Honaidi
Tapabari
Bihdia
Kinds of
ruminants
Cattle . .
Goats . .
Buffaloes. .
Cattle . .
Goats . .
Buffaloes . .
Cattle . .
Goats . .
Buffaloes . .
Cattle . .
Goats . .
Buffaloes . .
Cattle . .
Goats . .
Buffaloes . .
Total
number
of
animals
600
56
10
325
30
10
550
35
16
400
50
20
900
45
20
Number
that
died
200
10
1
100
6
1
200
8
Period of
outbreak
October, Novem-
ber and Decem-
ber.
October . .
October . .
October, Novem-
ber and Decem-
ber.
October . .
October . .
October, Novem-
ber and Decem-
ber.
October . .
2 October . .
100
10
4
350
12
4
October, Novem-
ber and Decem-
ber.
October . .
October . .
October, Novem-
ber and Decem-
ber.
October . .
October . .
Percentage
mortality
33
17.8
10
30.7
20
10
36.3
22.8
12.5
25
20
20
38.8
26.6
20
368 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [V, IV
From the above table it appears that while the disease in cattle continued
from October to December, in goats and buffaloes it showed no tendency to
continue further than October. In the Cachar outbreak the investigation was
made in the early part of February at the tea estates of Dewan, Bartoll and Lollong.
No goats or buffaloes were kept in these tea estates ; hence no information upon
the disease in these classes of ruminants is available. The position of the Cachar
outbreak is reviewed in Table II.
TABLE II
Showing the rate of mortality amongst cattle of three Tea Estates in Cachar
district in different periods of the outbreak
Locality and the total number
of cattle
Dewan—1,000
.
.
.
Bartoll—600
.
.
.
Lollong—300
.
.
.
Period of
outbreak
October . .
November .
December .
January .
February .
October .
November .
December .
January .
February .
October .
November .
December .
January .
February .
Number of
dead cattle
100
125
99
39
11
40
70
53
40
13
16
20
14
10
4
Percentage
mortality
37.4
36
21
ACUTE AMPHISTOMIASIS OF
CATTLE
369
The above figures were obtained from the medical officers of these estates,
where they kept a regular cattle register, and the number of deaths in cattle due
to this disease was duly recorded. It appears from the table that the rate of
mortality tends to decline as the close of winter approaches, and in the month of
February only a few clinical cases could be collected for examination.
During the investigation the grazing grounds were fully surveyed in both
the outbreaks and some very interesting evidence thus accumulated points to
the source of infection and the probable agent of transmission of the disease. In
the monsoon of 1934 the affected areas in Kamrup district were subjected to
severe flood and practically all the grazing grounds were under water. In normal
times the waysides of the paddy fields, the Pathars at river banks, and certain
embankments provide grazing grounds for the cattle in these areas. When the
rains are not abnormally severe, the bhils and other waste lands provide pasturage.
For the whole month of August and part of September 1934, these grazing grounds
were completely inundated, and the general health of cattle was much below
the average due to lack of fodder. The practice universally adopted in these
areas during the time of flood for obtaining a supply of green fodder is to collect
a long grass (locally called Nal) that grows in the shallow water of the Brahama¬
putra on its banks. These grasses grow in knee deep water of the river, and
are collected thrice a week for the feeding of the stock. When the flood receded
in the month of September 1934 there was a general lack of vegetation on the
opened uplands, and the practice, therefore, continued late into September.
In addition, however, cattle were allowed free access to the paddy fields where
grass could be procured for grazing.
In Cachar district, though there had been an unusually high rainfall, no
information has been received that there was any flood in the localities where
investigation was made. The tea estates are usually situated on a higher level
than the general ground surface which mainly consists of bhils and paddy fields.
These bhils, though they contained rain water, afforded a good pasturage for
the cattle throughout the monsoon period, and in the month of September
when the harvesting was over the cattle were put on paddy stubbles. In the
month of February 1935, when the investigation in these tea estates had been under
progress for some time, the grazings were found very poor in the paddy fields,
but the bhils carried a fair growth of grass on which cattle were frequently grazed.
The total area of available bhils would not exceed 100 acres in any of the
tea estates, and it would appear, therefore, that over-stocking of these each year
was an inevitable factor. A survey of the molluscan fauna of the affected localities
in Kamrup district has revealed the existence of five types of water snails out
of which three were found infected with amphistomal cercariae. In the Cachar
district only one type of snail with amphistomal cercariae was seen in the bhil
around the affected tea estates.
K
370 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [V, IV
TABLE III
Showing the rate of infection of snails with cercariae in Kamrup and Cachar
outbreaks
Locality
Kamrup
district.
Cachar
district.
Source of
Snail
Brahamaputra
Bhils
of
Dewan, Bar¬
toll and De.
wan
Tea
Estates.
Types of
snail
Viviparus
bengalensis.
Viviparus
dissimilis.
Limnoea acumi-
nata.
Melanidae sp.
Viviparus
bengalensis.
Types of
cercariae
Amphistomal cercariae
Non.amphistomal cer-
cariae.
Amphistomal cercariae
Amphistomal cercariae
Non-amphistomal cer-
cariae.
Non.amphistomal cer-
cariae.
Amphistomal cercariae.
Non-amphistomal cer-
cariae.
Percentage
of snails
found
infected
30
20
50
3
35
15
10
2
It appears from the table that the infection in the Viviparus type of snail
with amphistomal cercariae was fairly high in the Kamrup district in November
and December, and the rate of infection in the same genus of snail was consi-
derably reduced in February in the Cachar outbreak. These amphistomal
cercariae were characterised by the presence of a ventral sucker situated anterior
ACUTE AMPHISTOMIASIS OF CATTLE
371
to the root of the tail. They had a comparatively small oral sucker at the anterior
end. The oesophagus behind the mouth bifurcated into two intestinal caeca.
A pair of conical eyes could be seen situated externo-laterally behind the oral
sucker. The cercariae encountered in this outbreak were similar to those studied
by Rao and Ayyar [1932], obtained from Planorbis exustus (Deshayes), and Limnea
luteola (Lamark) in Madras. On feeding their cercariae to a calf these authors
have succeeded in recovering mature forms of Paramphistomum cervi. Experi-
mental feeding with the object of recovering the mature stage of the parasites
concerned in this outbreak was not possible in field investigation, but there are
reasons to believe that the immature forms of several amphistomes are likely
to be involved in this outbreak. Some of the immature forms of the parasites
recovered from the lesions were submitted to the Director, Imperial Institute
of Veterinary Research, Muktesar, who reported that the parasites belonged to
the genus Paramphistomum.
POSTMORTEM FINDINGS
The record of postmortem findings submitted below relates to about fifty
cases examined in the field. The changes have been found fairly uniformly, and
a general consideration of these, therefore, is indicated. The subcutaneous
tissue was found infiltrated with gelatinous exudate in the intermandibular space,
and also in the prepuce of bulls. Muscles were found atrophied and anaemic in
appearance. The subcutaneous fat was found soft and gelatinised. The super-
ficial lymphatic glands were found enlarged and oedematous in appearance. Im-
portant changes were noticed in the organs contained in the abdominal cavity.
The visceral and the parietal layers of the peritoneum presented a normal
appearance, but the cavity contained about a gallon of clear serous fluid. The
mesenteric veins were very prominent, and the veins running over the serous coat,
dilated. Changes in the liver were characterized by the engorgement of its blood
vessels, and the absence of Fasciola gigantica in the bile ducts was observed.
Maceration of small pieces of the organ in a porcelain basin did not reveal the
presence of any immature forms of the parasite, but in the Cachar outbreak a
few immature forms of Fasciola were discovered in the sediment after macera-
tion. No important changes were noticed in the kidney except that the peri-
renal fat was reduced in amount and rendered soft and gelatinous, and the
glomeruli were markedly prominent. No marked changes were, however, dis-
covered in spleen. The pancreatic ducts inside the pancreas were found packed
with Eurytrema pancreaticum. This parasite was, however, not noticed in the
pancreas of animals examined in the Cachar outbreak. In the Kamrup outbreak
the rumen and reticulum did not contain any mature amphistomes, but an average
of 200 parasites was observed in the rumen and the reticulum of cattle examined
in the Cachar outbreak. Important changes were observed in the abomasum
372 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [V, IV
the entire length of duodenum, and ileum, but further back the changes were
less conspicuous. The intestinal changes have been considered as pathognomonic.
and are therefore described in a greater detail.
In the fourth stomach of some carcasses Mecistocirrus digitatus was found in
numbers varying from two to four hundred, but in almost every carcass examined
in the Kamrup outbreak, the fluid content was found to contain numerous imma-
ture amphistomes. The pyloric end of the stomach showed considerable thicken-
ing, and evidence of oedematous infiltration in its submucous coat. Patches of
congestion associated with mucoid discharge were noticed on the mucous coat.
Numerous minute petechiae were also observed with the help of a hand lens.
Further away from the pyloric orifice, immature amphistomes were observed
embedded in the mucous coat, and setting up a varying degree of inflammation
around them. When detached with a pair of forceps, distinct petechiae were
observed at the sites of their attachment.
The duodenum and the ileum showed lesion of acute catarrhal enteritis
associated with the presence of immature amphistomes embedded in the mucous
coat. The lumen contained a dirty, whitish mucous of inflammatory origin, and
the duodenal wall particularly presented a thickened and an oedematous
appearance. After scraping away the mucoid discharge, bands of congestion
were noticed on the mucous coat of the duodenum. No marked thickening of
the iliac wall was noticed, but similar inflammatory changes were observed on its
mucous coat. The immature amphistomes were few and far between in this part
of the alimentary canal. The associated lymphatic glands were markedly con-
gested in the medullary region. The caecum, colon and rectum presented no
abnormalities. No changes were noticed in the organs contained in the thoracic
cavity.
PATHOGENESIS
In discussing the pathogenesis of the characteristic lesions, certain facts
relating to the life-history of the causative parasite cannot be overlooked, since
the life-history has a direct bearing on the pathogenesis of the disease. The
encysted meta-cercariae are ingested by the animals probably in the month of
September. A large number of them are likely to be ingested by cattle when
they are put on marshy lands, and drink water from bhils. Since an enormous
number of immature amphistomes were found in the fourth stomach, and rela-
tively few were noticed as mature parasites in their normal habitats in the early
part of October, one is inclined to suppose that after ingestion the meta-cercariae
find their way direct in the fourth stomach. Here they undergo development
after disintegration of their resistant covering. The average time taken to reach
this stage of development varies from two to three weeks. These developing
forms are from time to time forced down the alimentary canal with the current
ACUTE AMPHISTOMIASIS OF CATTLE
373
of drinking water, and later on become attached to the mucosa of the duodenum,
ileum and probably colon. It has been observed that the pyloric orifice, duo-
denum and ileum are the most favourable situations for the development of these
forms. Those meta-cercariae which remain inside the colon and the caecum
do not develop to any extent, and only very few of them are to be found attached
to the mucous coats. Since the amphistomes are normally found in the rumen
and the reticulum of cattle, they reach their destination by migration which
continues from October to February. In the month of October when the out-
break in the Kamrup district was investigated, no mature amphistomes were
seen inside the rumen or the reticulum, but a large number of immature forms
was seen in the abomasum, duodenum and the ileum. Since the disease was
reported to have started in the month of October, the cercariae were ingested
probably in the month of September, and now upon the evidence that no mature
parasites were discovered in the rumen in November, it is concluded that
it took more than two months for the ingested cercariae to attain maturity and
complete migration. The prevalance of the disease for about five months is due
to continued ingestion of the cercariae in November and December, since in
these two months also the snails were found infected with amphistomal cercariae.
When the liberated meta-cercariae become attached to the gastric and intes-
tinal mucosa, considerable irritation is set up resulting in acute congestion of the
blood vessels of the mucous coats. The immature amphistomes also penetrate
into the gastric and the intestinal mucosa, and become lodged in the submucous
coats producing a varying degree of hyperaemia of the blood vessels there.
The loose alveolar tissue of the submucosa becomes considerably filled up with
inflammatory exudate, and this gives an oedematous and thickened appearance
to the gastric and the intestinal wall. As a result of hyperaemia of the mucous
and the submucous coats, there is an extensive exudative infiltration of the fluid
in the intestinal lumen which renders the faeces fluid. The bands of congestion
noticed on the mucosa are due to diffuse hyperaemic congestion of the minute
capillaries of gastric and intestinal mucosae. Simultaneously with the above
changes, marked proliferation, and consequent destruction of mucous cells take
place producing a lesion characteristic of catarrhal enteritis. Sometimes the
proliferation of the mucous cells is so extensive that the embedded young am-
phistomes become completely dislodged from the mucosa and could be detected
in the mucous discharge. No marked fibrosis has been observed as the disease
runs an acute course. The parasite around the site of its attachment evokes a
pronounced degree of leucocytic infiltration, and numbers of eosinophiles are
seen in the zone of congestion as noted before.
DISCUSSION
The clinical and epizootiological evidence together with the postmortem
findings in the outbreak strongly suggest that the amphistomes, formerly believed
374 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [V, IV
to be innocuous, are definitely associated with a disease in their immature stage.
It will be remembered that many forms of helminthic parasites were simultane-
ously encountered in carcasses from both the outbreaks, and, therefore, a discus-
sion regarding the pathogenic effects of these is indicated with the idea of ascer-
taining how far they were concerned in this outbreak. In this connection there
are three forms to be considered, viz.:—Fasciola gigantica, Mecistocirrus digitatus,
and lastly the Schistosomes. The last named parasites were, however, not en-
countered in the mesenteric veins of animals examined postmortem. No macros-
copic nodules of schistosome origin were detected on the intestinal mucosa, but
a report of the histo-pathological examination of morbid tissue from the Muktesar
laboratory is to the effect that a few schistosoma ova were seen together with the
presence of large numbers of immature amphistomes. Since all the trematode
fauna which pass a part of their life-cycle in snails were still in the meta-cercarial
or immature stage at the time of investigation, the occasional presence of the
ova of schistosomes is probably due to a year-old infection with the parasites
which, in order to produce ova, would have attained sexual maturity long before
October, and therefore their presence in the intestinal tissue has no significance
in the present outbreak.
The Fasciola gigantica in the bile ducts of the liver were found in com-
paratively few numbers producing a degree of cirrhosis in aged animals
only, whereas in calves such forms were entirely absent. In the Cachar
outbreak maceration of the liver revealed a few immature flukes, but
their presence in the bile ducts of the liver could never induce any degree
of enteritis and diarrhoea. Cases of acute fascioliasis are known amongst sheep
in England [Stewart, 1934] where the liver becomes extensively damaged and
inflamed, and minute punctures denoting points of entry of the cercariae are
detected. Death in such cases is due to liver haemorrhage, the blood finding
an exit into the intestine via the bile duct. Such are not the features of the condi-
tion outlined in the preceding pages, and therefore a few immature Fasciola in
the bile ducts are not likely to have any significance in this outbreak.
Mecistocirrus digitatus, the common stomach worm of cattle in Assam, has
for the last few years been suspected of causing death amongst cattle. Such
an opinion has been based on finding the parasite in varying numbers in the
abomasum during autopsy. On postmortem examination of animals in the pre-
sent outbreak, the writer has found these worms floating in the fluid contents
of the stomach in which lesions which could be attributed to them were not
observed. It should also be noted that the abomasum is the normal habitat
of Mecistocirrus digitatus, which is found in small numbers in the majority of
healthy animals. In view of these observations, therefore, it is held that these
parasites, although sometimes found in considerable numbers in the abomasum,
were not concerned in the present outbreak.
ACUTE
AMPHISTOMIASIS
OF
CATTLE
375
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
1. An outbreak of disease amongst cattle, which prevailed in Assam from
October, 1934 to February, 1935, was investigated and found to be an acute
amphistomiasis. No literature is available to show that the disease in cattle
has been recognised in India during past years.
2. The disease starts immediately after the rains, and is said to alternate
with rinderpest in its occurrence.
3. Emaciation and diarrhoea constitute the main clinical features of the
disease, the rate of mortality varying from 30 to 40 per cent.
4. The snails Viviparus bengalensis and Limnaea acuminata are the possible
intermediate hosts of the parasites of acute amphistomiasis.
5. The essential lesion is that of catarrhal enteritis, the immature amphis¬
tomes being intimately connected with the lesion.
6. The immature amphistomes recovered from the lesion have been classi-
fied as belonging to the genus Paramphistomum, which take more than two
months to attain maturity, and reach their normal habitats by migration.
7. There is no evidence to suspect that other helminthic parasites recovered
from the carcasses of affected animals were in any way connected with the disease.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am greatly indebted to the Director, Imperial Institute of Veterinary
Research, Muktesar, for furnishing me with a report regarding the identity of the
parasite, and the histology of the involved tissues ; and to Col. A. Olver, C.B.,
C.M.G., F.R.C.V.S., Animal Husbandry Expert to the Imperial Council of Agri-
cultural Research, for showing much interest in this investigation, and giving
encouragement in publishing this report.
REFERENCES
Assam (1928). Annual Report, Civil Veterinary Department.
Rao, A., and Ayyar, L. S. (1932). Ind. J. Vet. Sci. and Anim. Husb. 2, 402-405.
Stewart, W. L. (1934). Vet. J. 90, 403.
JOWAR (SORGHUM VULGARE) POISONING IN CATTLE
BY
G.K.SHARMA,G.P.V.C.,
Clinical Assistant, Punjab Veterinary College, Lahore.
(Received for publication on 30th August 1935.)
INTRODUCTION
The subject of plant poisoning in animals has received very little attention in
India, which is mainly due to the difficulty in its diagnosis from the clinical
symptoms alone, and the fact that the majority of field veterinarians are unable
to secure the collaboration of a chemist for analysis of the suspected sample of
fodder or ingesta.
The paper deals with sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) poisoning, which is by far the
most common form of plant poisoning in India. As will be seen from what is
stated later, this plant, although normally forming a wholesome fodder for animals,
is liable, under certain conditions, to acquire highly toxic properties with the pro-
duction of hydrocyanic acid. A simple chemical test, suitable for adoption under
field conditions, is described for the detection of this acid both in the ingesta and
the plant itself.
In India our knowledge of poisonous plants, their active principles, phar-
macological actions and their antidotes is incomplete, and there is a large field
awaiting exploration in this direction.
It would, therefore, be a valuable addition to veterinary toxicology if veteri-
narians in India would record any cases of plant poisoning with which they deal,
along with the result of their chemical test, or, the report from a chemical examiner.
TOXICITY
Sorghum vulgare is a tall plant extensively cultivated throughout India for
fodder and grain. It is sown in the hot weather before the commencement of the
rainy season, and if rains do not set in early the plant gets wilted and stunted and
acquires poisonous properties. It is popularly held by cultivators that the
poisonous effect of sorghum is not due to the plant itself but to certain species of
insects which may attack it.
Stephen [1896] analysed the plant and found that it contained 75 per cent of
potassium nitrate per ounce of plant, and he attributed the poisonous symptoms to
this. Dunston and Henry [1902] isolated a cyanogenetic glucoside from the
( 376 )