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5. Miscellaneous Bulletins of the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research.
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No. 7
List of Publications on Indian Entomology (1930), By the
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. List of Publications on Indian Entomology, 1934. Com-
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GIPD—75 IC of AR—10-10-35—650.
ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
OBSERVATIONS ON STERILITY IN THE COW IN INDIA,
WITH RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ITS CONTROL
BY
R. L. KAURA, B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.,
Assistant Serologist,
Imperial Institute of Veterinary Research, Muktesar.
(With Plates XXVI-XXIX.)
(Received for publication on 27th August 1935.)
INTRODUCTION
Sterility in the female, i.e., the inability to bring forth living young, may be
due to the failure of a non-pregnant animal to show œstrum, ovulate, or conceive
when repeatedly mated at different œstral periods with a bull of known fertility,
or of the fertilized ovum to become implanted for its normal intra-uterine life.
This condition, which is due to a variety of causes, is responsible for a huge
economic loss in all countries where cattle breeding and dairying are important
industries, and with the increasing attempts which are being made to produce
cattle of a high milk strain in India, it is becoming one of the foremost problems
confronting cattle breeders and the veterinarians of this country.
Although it is not uncommon amongst ordinary Indian village cattle, sterility,
as defined above, is much more prevalent amongst dairy cows and it is possible
that intensive domestication and breeding for high milk production are at least
partially responsible for this. A dairy heifer is fed on a highly nutritious diet
and is well looked after and consequently comes into œstrum at an early age.
She is frequently bred while more or less immature and immediately after her
first calving is required to give an abnormal high yield of milk. She is rebred in
60 to 70 days and for 7 or 8 months carries the double load of pregnancy and milk
secretion. They are usually closely housed and get comparatively little exercise.
These artificial conditions rob the dairy cow of its vigour and vitality and thus
lessen its resistance to infection, and in addition close housing helps to spread
infection more easily. These conditions further tend to upset the equilibrium of
( 301 )
302 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [V, IV
hormone secretions and tend to induce a deviation from the normal physiological
activities of the female genitalia. Under such circumstances it is no wonder that
dairy cows have the worst record for sterility.
In this connection Orr and Darling [1932] in a brochure published by the
Imperial Bureau of Animal Genetics, state that it would appear that an optimum
state of domestication exists in relation to the fertility of animals, and that in the
case of the cow the demands made upon it by the factors associated with
domestication have outweighed the benefits.
Another important factor in relation to sterility is Bang's disease where it
exists. Losses to breeders are immense, not only through abortion but also through
resultant sterility and a high mortality rate among the young calves.
FACILITIES FOR MAKING OBSERVATIONS
The condition was mainly investigated and control measures tried at the
Government Cattle Farm, Hissar, Punjab, during the period, November 1929
to March 1935, when I had the privilege of working there. This farm maintains a
herd of about 7,000 head of one of the finest breeds of Indian cattle, besides sheep,
goats and equine stock, and some 5,000 of the cattle were females. Through the
ceaseless efforts of the present Superintendent of the Farm, a dairy herd has been
evolved from the general herd by careful selective breeding and proper manage-
ment and feeding of the stock in order to meet the growing demands of the public.
This special herd was of a particular importance in our work in sterility.
From the various sub-stations of the Farm, those cows and heifers which
were reported to be sterile were collected at the Farm hospital, where they were
kept under close observation and a careful examination of the genitalia made.
In every case the previous history of the animal was searched out from the office
records. Animals showing lesions responsible for sterility of a temporary (curable)
nature were suitably treated and restored to breeding usefulness, but those
showing lesions causing absolute or permanent sterility were either destroyed and
their genital organs carefully examined, or they were sold to butchers on the
condition that the diseased genitalia would be made over to the Farm for study
when the animals were slaughtered.
PHYSIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION
I think it would be well at this stage to describe briefly the physiology of
reproduction in the cow, as this would be of help in understanding and describing
its pathology.
When a heifer reaches sexual maturity, she ovulates and comes into œstrum.
This phenomenon is under the control of hormones. The anterior pituitary gland
—the so-called " starter " of the genital tract—secretes a complex substance
called " prolan " which activates the interstitial cells of the ovary to produce the
STERILITY IN THE COW IN INDIA AND ITS CONTROL
303
hormone known as œstrin. This is distributed through the circulation and sti-
mulates the genital system to manifest œstrum. The uterus becomes engorged,
the cervix dilates, the character of the vaginal secretion is altered and ovulation
occurs spontaneously a few hours subsequent to œstrum.
The ovum is formed from the germinal epithelium of the ovary within a
Graafian follicle and is liberated when the latter ruptures. Following the rupture
of an ovisac the cavity it occupied is quickly filled with a blood clot, and the lutein
cells commence to develop, replacing the clot and forming a structure known as
the corpus luteum or yellow body. The action of the corpus luteum is antagonistic
to that of the anterior pituitary gland. It inhibits œstrum and also presides
over the embedding of the ovum provided conception has taken place. It is then
physiologically re-absorbed after parturition or abortion. If the cow has not
conceived, the corpus luteum is re-absorbed within 21 days, which is the normal
interovulation period.
The perfectly functioning spermatozoa together with the secretions of the
vesicular seminales are injected into the vagina and the cervix of a healthy cow at
coitus. Then they migrate up the Fallopian tubes by the help of their tails, and
meet the perfectly functioning ovum in the pavilion, and if fertilisation occurs, the
fertilised ovum passes down the oviducts to the uterus in about 8—15 days. Its
downward passage is facilitated by the ciliated epithelium of the tubes. It has
already undergone segmentation and is at first an unattached body, depending
upon the nutrient fluids of the endometrium, and later becomes embedded in the
uterus. The placental membranes begin to form, first the amnion, then the
alantois and by the fusion of the two, in ruminants, the chorion is formed. These
membranes become vascular and the cotyledons develop. The latter dovetail
into the crypts on the uterine cotyledons and the two epithelial layers in close
juxtaposition constitute the placental filter, through which the foetus derives its
nourishment and discharges waste material. There is poured out into the
amnionic sac a fluid which acts as a buffer to the developing foetus during its
intra-uterine life. The uterus is thus meant for the reception, nutrition and
protection of the developing foetus and finally for its healthy expulsion into the
outside world at parturition.
Any abnormality interfering with the above physiological processes will cause
sterility.
CAUSES OF STERILITY
They may be conveniently divided as follows :—
I Structural
II. Functional
III. Infectious
... A. Congenital.
... B. Acquired.
... A. Endocrinal.
... B. Nutritional.
... A. Specific.
... B. Non-specific.
304 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [V, IV
I.—STRUCTURAL
A.—Congenital
(1) Neuter or free-martin.—In such cases the female embryo has been
subjected to the influence of the male sex hormone, which dominates in twin
pregnancy, with the result that the female calf is born with a varying degree of
congenital hypoplasia of the genital tract. The ovaries may be represented by
small undifferentiated glands, while two solid fibrous cords—the Mullerian ducts
of the embryo may represent the uterus and the vagina. There may be an attempt
at a higher degree of development when the apices of the uterine horns and the
body are partly formed. All such conditions represent cases of absolute or
permanent sterility and are beyond all hope of recovery.
(2) Hermaphrodites.—They are far more rare than free-martins. They do not
produce functioning gametes and in any case, impregnation and pregnancy are
mechanically impossible. They are absolutely sterile.
Plate XXVI shows the genital organs of a bovine hermaphrodite removed
at a postmortem examination at the Government Cattle Farm, Hissar. The
animal had worked for over 12 years as a good service bullock without showing
any signs of perverted sexual desire. The animal was transferred to the herd of
bullocks, at the age of 3 years, for training without castration or any other operation
having been performed upon its genitalia. The only external genital opening,
through which the animal micturated, measured about l½" in its longest diameter
and about ½" in its shorter, and was situated about a foot below the anus in between
the two hind legs just behind the udder; it resembled the vulva but was much
smaller and had a tuft of hair around it. The animal would lower its hind legs
while micturating, as is seen in cows. The udder was only slightly developed and
a dirty watery fluid could be extracted from the teats.
(3) Persistent hymen.—During the development of the genital tract, the hymen
which at one time was a complete membrane disappears completely. Sometimes
a few bands of the hymen persist, but these can be easily removed surgically and
the animal rendered useful for breeding. Occasionally the persistence of the
hymen is complete and this interferes with copulation and leads to the accumu-
lation of œstral and other normal secretions of the uterus and vagina. Surgical
interference in such cases is useless and the animals concerned are permanently
sterile.
This condition is also known as " white heifer disease " on account of the
frequency with which it is met with in white heifers of the shorthorn breed.
(4) Persistence of the median walls of the Mullerian ducts in the vagina.—A
perpendicular piece of tissue usually 2 or 3 inches long exists stretching from the
floor to the top of vagina across the cervix uteri. It is not serious, although
occasionally, limbs of the foetus may get entangled in it at parturition, but it can
be easily removed surgically.
Ind. Jour. Vety. Sci, & Anim. Husb. Vol. V, Pt. 4.
PLATE XXVI
Photograph showing the internal genital organs of a bovine hermaphrodite "bullock."
STERILITY IN THE COW IN INDIA AND ITS CONTROL
305
(5) Uterus unicornis.—In this condition only one horn of the uterus has
developed. It is exceedingly rare but is reported to have occurred in the cow
It is not important since such cows usually calve in a normal manner, provided
there is no other abnormality affecting the genitalia.
(6) Cervix duplex.—It is rarely seen and is not at all serious. Possibly only
one cervix dilates at the time of parturition. If necessary, the partition can be
removed surgically to convert the two openings into one.
These congenital arrests in the development and malformations of the
genital organs of a heifer are usually detected on examination at the age of sexual
maturity when the owner finds it difficult to breed from her.
B.—Acquired.
(1) Stenosis of the vagina.—It may result from cicatrisation of parturition
injuries or the use of strong disinfectants in treating vaginitis, thereby causing
sloughing and cicatrisation.
(2) Stenosis of the cervix.—This may be due to cicatrisation of parturition
injuries or chronic cervicitis.
(3) Curvature of the cervix.—It may be lateral, upwards or downwards. It
may be a congenital deformity or be due to cicatrisation of local injuries and
wounds.
(4) Recto-vaginal fistula.—In a case of dystokia an extremity of the foetus
may force its way through the roof of the vagina into the rectum.
(5) Uro-vagina.—This may result from dystokia when an extremity of the
foetus, directed downwards, forces its way through the floor of the vagina into the
urinary bladder.
(6) Balooned vagina.—This condition is usually met with in old cows and is
due to relaxation of the genital tract.
(7) Dilation of the Os uteri.—This occurs as a result of lack of muscular
tone along with that of the uterus. The cervical canal may get filled with tough
tenacious grey material and cause occlusion of the cervix, resulting in the retention
of the œstral debris and uterine secretions.
(8) Tumours.—They may be in or around the genital tract, e.g., teratomata,
cystadenomata and carcinomata of the ovary, leiomyomata and carcinomata of the
uterus, polypi and carcinomata of the cervix uteri, lipomata of the mesentery, etc.
(9) Fractures and exostosis on the pelvic bones.
The above conditions may cause mechanical interference in copulation,
conception, normal gestation and parturition. Tumours in the ovary or uterus
upset their normal functions.
B
306
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. [V, IV
(10) Retention cysts in Bartholin's glands.—These occur as a result of closure
of the ducts of these glands by means of inflammatory exudate, and are confined
to the lateral wall of the vestibule about 8 to 10 cm. from the vulvar lips.
(11) Pathological changes in Gaertner's ducts.—The lesions consist of several
small spherical enlargements, about the size of a pea, along the ventral aspect of
the vagina, resembling cysts or abscesses.
The last two conditions are usually of not much importance in the causation
of sterility, unless the swellings become so enlarged as to interfere with copulation
and cause retention of œstral secretions, etc. In such cases they may be incised),
the contents pressed out, the lining membrane freshened with a curette and
tincture of iodine applied.
II.—FUNCTIONAL.
A.—Endocrinal.—Co-ordination
and equilibrium amongst the various
hormones of the body, e.g., pituitary, ovarian, thymus, thyroids, adrenals, etc.,
is essential for the normal functioning of the cow's genitalia. One has to keep in
view that the connection between the various endocrine secretions of the body is
intricate and that one gland may exercise a control on more than one bodily
function and two secretions of the same gland may have quite antogonistic effects.
(1) Pituitary hormones. (i) Anterior Pituitary.—Variations in its secretions are
reflected by irregularity in the œstral cycle.
Its hormone " Prolan " is said to
have two parts :—
(a) Prolan A.—(Follicle ripening hormone). Lack of this prevents ovulation
and is given as a cause of degeneration of follicles. Its hyper-secretion leads to
excessive follicular growth and cyst formation, causing nymphomania.
(b) Prolan B.—(Luteinising
hormone). It is antagonistic to Prolan A.
Its hyper-secretion prolongs the luteal phase with a corresponding absence of
œstrum (anaphrodisia).
The anterior pituitary has also metabolism regulating, growth-promoting and
thyroid activating properties.
(ii) Posterior pituitary.—It produces two hormones, namely :—
(a) Pitressin (vasopressin).—This raises the blood pressure and stimulates
milk secretion in the udder.
(b) Pitocine.—This has no effect on blood pressure but stimulates contraction
of the muscles and is therefore useful at and after parturition.
(2) Ovarian hormones. (a) Alpha hormone.—(Oestrin or Theelin). This
influences the entire genital tract, udder, bones and ligaments especially of the
pelvic region, and hypophysis (pituitary) and is responsible for the female
characteristics of the body, face and voice. In cattle maturation of the follicles
can occur without this hormone, giving rise to " Silent heat " when no apparent
signs of œstrum are exhibited. Its hypersecretion can cause nymphomania
without ovarian cysts.
STERILITY IN THE COW IN INDIA AND ITS CONTROL
307
(b) Beta hormone (Progestin).—This inhibits oestrum and is connected with
the corpus luteum.
(3) Thymus exercises a restraining influence on the development of the
genitalia. Therefore its persistence will retard fertility.
(4) Abnormalities of the Thyroid and Adrenal secretions also reflect on the
generative system through derangements of the general metabolism.
(5) Placental tufts secrete a hormone (Emmenin) which stimulates the corpus
luteum and the udder and is antagonistic to the Graafian follicles and the anterior
pituitary. When the placental tufts get diseased, these functions are impaired.
B. Nutritional.—Under-nutrition or malnutrition due to imbalance of the
constituents of the diet, vitamins (especially vitamin A, the absence of which causes
the destruction of the germinal epithelium and the anti-sterility vitamin E),
proteins and minerals (especially phosphorus, iodine and calcium) may seriously
interfere with the normal functions of the reproducting organs. Nutritional
deficiencies or excesses reflect on the endocrinal system as well.
Quinlan [1929] has stated that under drought conditions œstrum is frequently
suppressed and that with a deficient diet even total inhibition of the generative
activity may occur.
In India many village cows, depending mainly upon poor grazing, remain
undernourished and their body reserves for minerals and other essentials are not
enough to enable them to bear a calf every year but only in alternate years or even
once in three years. This is a type of partial sterility and is probably a natural
means of protection against the drain on their health and mineral reserves. Theiler
[1933] has also described a similar condition in South Africa, and states that
Veldt (fields with deficient grazing) cows commonly become sterile in alternate
seasons.
Euler and others have described hunger sterility or Wendener disease, named
after the place in Germany where it was first observed, in which the affected
animals aborted or gave birth to weakly calves and did not conceive again. The
administration of cod-liver oil, improving the soil and liming, gave very good
results.
A similar condition, war sterility, has been described in Germany, which
occurred after the Great War on account of the poor grazing and feeding facilities
in certain localities.
Frei classifies the effects of starvation as follows :—
1. Atrophy and defective function of the ovaries ;
2. Inability of the uterus to nourish the foetus ;
3. Decrease in the resistance to disease of the genitalia.
308
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. [V, IV
On the other hand, overfeeding, as in show cattle, results in obesity which
may be responsible for sterility. It gives rise to irregular lumpy deposits of fat
and fatty degeneration and infiltration of the ovaries. Some consider obesity
to be the effect of sterility rather than vice versa. The cause may be defective
endocrine secretions, probably of the ovary itself or thyroids.
The so-called " no lesion " cases of sterility are usually due to a functional
cause which may be nutritional or endocrinal.
Various generalised infections of the body, especially those of a chronic
insidious nature like Johne's disease cause general debility with absence of œstrum.
III. BACTERIAL.
A. Specific.
(1) Bang's disease.—This condition, which has been briefly referred to in the
Introduction, does not cause sterility directly but prepares the ground for other
secondary invaders to cause lesions in the genital tract which may result in sterility.
Sterility becomes most prevalent after contagious abortion has been in existence
in a herd for a few years and the cows have acquired some degree of immunity.
The onset of contagious abortion in a herd is ushered in with early abortions at
3 or 4 months gestation. The uterus cleans up quickly and the cow shows œstrum
and readily conceives 6 to 12 weeks post-partum. When the females in a herd
acquire a degree of immunity to contagious abortion, the foetus is carried 7 or 8
months or even full time. The after birth is retained as a result of incarcerating
placentitis of abortion. Secondary invaders gain entrance to the uterine
mucosa through the portals kept open by puerperal metritis and this leads
to the development of lesions which result in sterility. This is a potent cause
of sterility met with in the field.
(2) Tuberculosis.—In generalised infection or where the peritoneum is
involved, the lesions of tuberculosis may be found in the genital tract affecting
ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, etc. Such cases are hopelessly sterile, and should
be eliminated from the herd when diagnosis is confirmed by a positive tuberculin
test.
(3) Infectious granular vaginitis.—Its relation to sterility has been disputed
by a number of well-known authorities, but it is commonly held, that when in an
acute form, which is usually associated with bad stall hygiene, carelessness in sex
hygiene and irrational treatment of vaginitis with strong disinfectants, it may
cause temporary sterility (delayed conception) and frequent returning to the bull,
especially in heifers. In older cows it is not of much importance.
B. Non-specific.
A variety of organisms may be responsible for this condition, especially
Bacillus pyogenes, B. coli, Staphylococci, and Streptococci particularly Strepto-
coccus viridans. These organisms may get into the genital tract at or after