NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
V
(e.)
Buildings
resting on rock ?
Some of the Bazaar houses and Europeans' houses are close upon rock.
(f.) How long
does water lie after
rain ?
There is no stagnation of water.
(g.) Surface drain-
age works ?
These are well laid out, and kept in fair order.
17. Removal of
foul water from
town.
No special measures have been adopted. The house drains generally
end in road-side channels, but much of the soiled water sinks into
the soil about the houses.
(a.) Average con-
sumption of water?
Could not be ascertained.
(b.) Drains, or
no drains ?
The Bazaar has side street-drains, but when I saw them in April
1870, after some months of dry, hot weather, they had no fluid in
them, and were partially choked up by drift sand, blown into them
by the prevailing high winds.
18. Surface drain-
age.
Good.
Extent of stag-
nant water.
None.
Does rain flow off
rapidly ?
Yes.
19. Cleansing of
locality.
Solid refuse is removed by carts, of which four are kept for the
cleaning of the bazaar and lines.
(a.) Condition as
to cleanliness.
The streets and Depot lines were kept exceedingly clean. Houses much
the same as all Native houses. Some very clean, some dirty.
(6.) Latrine ac-
commodation.
No latrines yet built for the bazaar. These are about to be put up.
The residents resort to open fields, or the rocky ground to the south-
east of the cantonment, which latter locality I found defiled with
excrement. Many of the Native houses have privies on the premises.
(c.) Court-yards
of dwelling houses.
The Sepoys' huts, the bazaar houses, and the residences of the European
Veterans have privies generally in their court-yards, from which the
excreta is daily removed. No cess-pits are existing.
(d.)
Streets,
roads, &c.
These are kept in excellent order ; the main road is overshadowed by
a fine avenue of Banyan trees.
(e.) Disposal of
excreta.
Night-soil is carted away to waste ground near the river and buried.
Street sweepings and ashes are removed to fields, where the culti-
vators turn them to account.
20. Water-supply.
(a.) Sources.
The drinking water of the cantonment is obtained entirely from wells.
These wells are either sunk down to rock level, or in some parts
sunk through the rock until the spring level is obtained. A few of
the wells near the European barracks are not used, the water, owing
probably to some local peculiarities of soil, being rather salt ; but
generally speaking, the well water, though rather hard, is bright
clear, and sparkling, and remarkably free of organic impurity. In
Native estimation Palaveram water is held in high repute.
(b.) Quality as
ascertained by Hi-
No detailed chemical analyses of the principal drinking waters of this
station have yet been made, but tested by the potassium permanga-
vii
25. Diseases of None ascertained.
cereal and other
plants before out-
breaks of Cholera.
26. Epizootics .... None.
27. Prevalence of
(a.) Fevers.
In the hot season, ardent remittent fever occurs amongst the European
population, due, it is thought, to solar exposure. There is very little
ague or dysentery.
(b).) Small-pox... Occasionally prevails. The European community is well vaccinated.
(c.) Guinea-worm. This parasite is unknown in Palaveram. All the cases seen at the Depot
were of people who have contracted the disease elsewhere.
(d.)
Parasitic
affections of skin or
intestines ?
Not prevalent. A large number of European children come under
observation, but the Medical Officer reports that worms are
infrequent, compared with their prevalence in Madras and many
other stations.
(e.) Other special
diseases.
Elephantiasis, which is extremely common in the town of Madras, is
not met with in this place. The Medical Officer has not seen it, and
I could not learn that any of the bazaar people were so affected.
28. Remarks ... In the Cholera Report for 1869 I remarked : " To the great advantages
of soil, water, and situation, the station of Palaveram would appear
to owe its powers of resisting epidemic influences. It has no abso-
lute immunity from cholera, but the accumulated experience of very
many years shows that cholera does not find a congenial home in the
locality."
The experience alluded to,as regards Native Troops, extends over a period
of forty-four years. During this period, of an aggregate annual strength
of 53,600 troops, there were forty-four admissions from cholera
and nineteen deaths, or in the ratio of 0.8 per mille of admissions,
and 0.3 per mille of deaths to strength ; the ratios in the whole
Native Army for the same period being—
Admissions
Deaths
...
...
...
...10.9
... 47
per mille.
do.
The European Veteran Company has occupied the station since 1848.
The cholera admissions and deaths amongst them up to the end of
1870 were as follows :—
Aggregate strength, 3,115, admissions, 14, deaths 10
Ratio of admission per mille
Do. of deaths
do.
...
...
...
...
4.5
3.2
In the European Army generally
Admissions to strength
Deaths to
do.
...
...
...
...
...
8.1
3.8
The liability to cholera it will be seen has been more marked amongst
the European than in the Native Troops. In connexion with this
circumstance I may note that the men reside on a lower level, as
regards the river bank, than the Native Troops and bazaar occupy.
The greater number of the Veterans are married men, who live in
detached cottages, all of which are kept extremely neat and clean.
Of the several attacks of cholera amongst these men, I have noted
that in six out of eight of the years in which cholera occurred, the
first cases were observed in persons who had recently visited Madras,
or some other cholera-stricken locality.
viii
The families of the European Veteran Company are mostly large, and
from 600 to 800 women and children reside in the station. In 1857,
and again in 1865, there were a few cases of cholera amongst the
families, due in both cases to importation. In 1869, when the
bazaar population was slightly affected, not one of the European
Soldiers, or of their families took cholera.
With regard to cholera-amongst the Native Troops, many of the older
reports are silent as to the antecedents of the men attacked. Of
recent years, the Medical Officer's reports show that the occasional
cases were all due to importation. There has been no case of cholera
either in the European or Native Force of the station since the
year 1866.
MADUKA.
1. Station
Town of Madura, North Lat. 9° 50," East Long. 78° 12."
2. Presumed po-
pulation.
Between 40,000 and 50,000. A new Census is to be taken in the course
of the present year.
3. Height above
sea level.
Sis hundred feet.
4. Height or de-
pression in regard
to
surrounding
country.
The town of Madura is built on the left bank of the Vigay river, the
principal stream of the district, and consequently occupies a low site
in the river valley. There are low ranges of hills to the west and
north. The town was formerly surrounded by a fortified wall and
deep ditch, but the wall has now been levelled, and the ditch filled
up.
5. How far from
(a.) The sea ...
(b.) River
About sixty miles from the Eastern Coast.
The town is built on the river bank. This river for most months
of the year is abroad bed of sand with but little water visible on the
surface, though an under-current is always flowing through the sand.
In the north-east monsoon it rises ten or twelve feet, and for a few
days is a broad and rapid stream.
(c.) Tank
(d.) Marshy land,
and in what direc-
tion do these lie with
reference to the loca-
lity.
No large tanks in the immediate neighbourhood.
The tract between Madura and the sea is mostly a level plain, with a
good many shallow tanks and wet cultivation.
6. Level of loca-
lity as regards water
level in adjacent
river.
The ordinary level of the town is not more than twelve or fifteen
feet above the sandy bed of the river.
7. Description of
surface of country
around the station.
The town lies in a river valley, which valley, especially on the right
bank of the river, is two or three miles in breadth, and composed of
a rich loamy soil of considerable depth. This soil is very fertile.
Trees grow to a great size in it. It is rather extensively planted with
cocoanut trees, and dry cereals. The left bank of the river, opposite
the town, has a thinner covering of soil, and gneiss rocks appear on
the surface not far from the river.
(a.) Flat
ix
(&.) Hilly
Low ranges of hills lie to the west and north, and the Pulney and
Travancore mountains to the west.
(c.) Mountainous
8. The effects of
configuration
on
movements of air
currents and on ven-
tilation ?
The climate of Madura is much affected by its vicinity to the Western
Ghauts. Owing to its nearness to the rain-belt of the south-west
monsoon, there are no hot winds. There are no hills near enough
to interfere with the circulation of air. The climate is hot and at the
same time, the air during the south-west monsoon season is humid.
9. Country open
or encumbered with
vegetation ?
Nature of vegeta-
tion, trees, scrub
jungle, and the like.
Generally open, though many plantations of cocoanut trees exist in and
round the town.
Fine trees abound in the town, chiefly palms and fig trees, The banyan
grows most luxuriantly in the rich soil of the Madura valley. No
low jungle ; all land cultivated about the town.
10, Geology
The valley is filled with rich chocolate alluvial deposit of considerable
depth.
Nature of under-
lying rock.
The under-lying rock is gneiss.
11. Nature of soil
and sub-soil and
depth.
Below the alluvial, the sub-soil appears to be rather sandy, and is per-
meable by water. Water is found in the town from ten to fifteen feet
below the surface.
(a.) Temperature.
(b.) Porosity.
(c.) Absorptive
properties.
(d.)
Chemical
constituents.
(e.) Air in sub-
soil.
No observations made in regard to these particulars.
12. Malarial dis-
eases when preva-
lent ?
Fevers prevail amongst the hill tracts, to the west and north, in
February, March, and April, and the people living on the banks of
the river suffer also from malarious fevers after the north-east
monsoon rains. A great epidemic of malarious fever visited the
district in 1810, continuing until 1812, and returning again in
1816.
Connexion of ma-
laria with Cholera ?
The town of Madura always suffers from cholera invasions when the
epidemic movement is southward. It suffered in 1818, and again
in the 1834 invasion, which, however, did not reach Madura until
1836. The disease broke out on this occasion three days after the
9th Kegiment N. I. had passed under its walls. On the 3rd July
a case of cholera occurred, and the disease soon spread over the
southern portion of the town. Upwards of 1,500 of the inhabitants
died on this occasion, but the Jail, which is usually a cholera locality,
remained free. In this year the fever admissions in the Jail were
below the average, so that there is no evidence to show a connexion
between malaria and cholera. It is noted in the Medical Board
records that the Regiment which brought cholera to Madura in
1836, contracted the disease at Mailoor, about thirty miles away from
the town, and " that its line of march to Palamcottah could be dis-
tinctly traced by the ravages the epidemic made in every village in
the vicinity of the encamping grounds."
X
13. Condition of
Agriculture.
The immediate neighbourhood of Madura is very well cultivated.
(a.) Nature of
produce.
Rice, millets, cocoanuts, &c.
(b.) Drainage ... The natural fall of the drainage is towards the river.
(c.) Irrigation... Irrigation is practised so far as the water-supply will admit.
(14.) River banks The town is built on the main river of the district.
(a.) Infiltration of
sub-soils.
The subsoil, owing to the vicinity of the river bed, is always moist.
(b.) Level of wa-
ter surface relative
to surface of town.
From eight to twelve feet below the average level of the soil.
15. Position of
inhabited
build-
ings in regard to
Higher ground... The town being built on a river bank, it follows that higher ground lies
behind it, and also on the, opposite bank.
16. Sub-soil
drainage.
Depth of water-
line below surface
in
None artificially.
(a.) Wet weather. Not ascertained.
(b.) Dry weather. At the new Jail, seven to eight feet.
(c.) When Cho-
lera prevails.
Cholera was prevailing in the town at the time of this observation.
(d.) Slope
of
ground ?
Slightly towards the river.
(e.) Buildings
resting on rock
No. On alluvium.
(f.) How long
does water lie after
rain ?
Rain-fall does not pass off so quickly here as in more sandy soils.
(g.) Surface drain-
age works ?
Masonry channels have been put down in some of the main streets, of
the town but the levels were badly taken. Some years ago the
drainage of the town fell into the Fort ditch, but since this has been
filled up, the out-fall has been unsatisfactory. Recently the Municipal
Commission have been laying down V shaped surface drains in the
minor streets and it is in contemplation to relay the principal sur-
face drains, so as to secure a proper outfall for the sewage.
17. Removal of
foul water from
town.
The removal is not satisfactory. Sewage stagnates in many drains, and
percolates into the soil.
(a.) Average con-
sumption of water ?
Not known.
(b.) Drains, or
no drains ?
Square open drains of cut stone, but in their present state they are not
of much use in keeping the town clean.
18. Extent of
stagnant water.
None.
Does rain flow off
rapidly ?
Tolerably well. The fall towards the river on the town side is not
very great.
19. Cleansing of
locality.
For several hundreds of years past, Madura has been a foul town, most
imperfectly cleansed. Twenty-five yearsago, the Medical Topographical
xii
MADURA WATERS.
The following results were obtained, as regards the readily putrifiable organic matter
in a few wells in the town tested by Angus Smith's solution of potassium permanganate :—
Grains of Oxygen
required per Gallon to
decompose the putrid matter
New Jail, Well No. 1
Do.
do. No. 2 in garden...
Pagoda Tank
No.
Specimens supplied by Native Surgeon
1. Well, Ondy Moottoo Maistry's Well...
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
North side of Pagoda ...
West of Pagoda
In market, east of town
East of town near Arab Stables
North Avenny Moola
Near Police Office
West of Pagoda
South Massay Videe Street
North
do.
do.
Civil Dispensary Well ...
Near Captain Guthrie's house ...
Flowerman's Street
Front of Pagoda
Fishmongers' Street
Oil Mongers' Street
River water from the Vigay
Mr. Campbell's Well
(The same after filtration)
Remarks.
0.0560—This water was considered unfit
for drinking, and is not used
by prisoners.
... 0.0165—Good water.
Water acid, re-action. Thickness
Antony.
... 0.0560
... 0.0560
... 0.0280
... 0.2940
... 0.0840
... 0.0420
... 0.0840
... 00980
... 0.0420
... 0.0420
... 0.0840
... 0.0840
... 0.0560
... 0.0560
... 0.1400
... 0.0840
... 0.0140
... 0.0420
... 0.0210
of peasoup. Full of animal
and vegetable life. Fœtid. So
full of vegetable growth and
putrid matter that no perma-
nent pink colour could be
obtained.
Alkaline reaction.
Water opaque, milky.
A very impure water.
Contaminated.
Contaminated.
Contaminated.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Very pure at the time of ex-
amination.
Fair drinking water.
(c.) Impure water
and Cholera.
From the foregoing it will be evident that the towns-people of Madura
do not, as a rule, enjoy the blessings of a pure water-supply, and in
times past, it is the fact, that cholera epidemics have fallen heavily
on the city. The river opposite the town would be an unobjection-
able source of supply but for two reasons : the fouling of the sandy
bed of the stream by persons who resort thither for natural pur-
poses, and its use as the washing ground of all the dirty clothing
of the town.
A scheme to bring water from the river, at a point a few miles above the
town, was begun many years ago, but has never been completed.
In connexion with this subject I may note that the prisoners in the
new Jail, built about two miles out of the town on the same kind of
soil, and nearly the same level as the town, had no cholera in 1870,
while the Civil debtors remaining in the old Jail, within the town, to
the number of 50 only, had 5 cases of cholera and 4 deaths. The
water of the new Jail is obtained from wells sunk in clean soil, and is
of nearly the same standard of purity as the water filtering through the
xiii
sandy bed of the river, while the water of the old Jail and neighbour-
hood shows evidence of soil contamination. There is one well in
the new Jail, the water from which is impure, and it is not used. The
old Jail, a building forming originally a portion of Trimula Naik's
Palace, has had a bad cholera repute, as the following figures will
testify :—
Cholera in old Jail, Madura, from 1855.
Years
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
Strength.
174
235
210
276
177
181
212
371
277
288
243
209
476
474
379 ... ...
50 ...
Jan.
A.
2
4
1
4
7
1
10
1
D.
2
2
1
3
4
1
5
1
Feb.
A.
3
1
8
2
10
5
1
4
D.
3
1
10
4
1
8
2
Mar.
A.
7
1
6
3
7
1
D.
4
4
3
1
Apl.
A.
4
1
1
D.
2
1
May.
A.
3
7
2
1
1
D.
4
1
June.
A.
2
1
1
1
D.
1
1
July.
A.
1
19
2
1
D.
11
1
Aug.
A.
2
1
2
D.
1
2
Sept.
A.
1
10 3
5
1
D.
1
10
2
2
1
Oct.
A.
1
1
D.
1
...
Nov.
A.
3
7
1
1
D.
3
1
Dec.
A.
1
1
18
5
2
3
16
3
7
2
D.
1
9
3
1
2
11
2
4
...
2
Total.
A.
7
6
51
38
...
9
8
24
7
44
30
21
4
5
1
5
D.
6
3
27
17
6
4
15
2
29
16
10
2
4
When Oholera
occurs does it spread
equally over the
whole area, or attack
certain localities ?
So far as I could ascertain the residents of the dirty back streets suffer
most. Some localities were pointed out to me where cholera deaths
had occurred in 1870, and the houses and surrounding conditions, in
a sanitary point of view, were most unsatisfactory.
21. Nature of
house accommoda-
tion
There are many fine upper-storied houses built of masonry in the town,
but the poor people live in mud houses of one storey only.
as to (a.) construc-
tion,
materials,
dimensions, &c.
(b.) Number of
floors.
(c.) Cleanliness.
(d.) Privy
ac-
commodation.
Everywhere deficient or defective.
(e.) Wells in re-
lation to privies.
Many wells in the town a great deal too near to privies.
(f.) Inhabitants
crowded or other-
wise.
Yes ; the old Fort wall was three miles in circumference, and upon the
area within, from 30,000 to 40,000 persons were congregated. Since
the demolition of the Fort wall, the town has spread out a little, but
not much. The population of the back streets is still very tightly
packed. The town contains about 10,000 houses.
22.
Inspected
houses.
23.
Age of
houses in relation
to Cholera.
The town is very old, but the age of houses it is very difficult to get at,
as most of the buildings have been rebuilt many times since the town
came into existence. The building used as a Jail is from 200 to 300
years old, and the cholera history of that building for the last fifteen
years is given above.
d
xiv
24. Food of the
people.
The people of this district, especially the weavers and agricultural
population, use dry grains chiefly, such as cumboo, raggy, and cholum.
In other respects their food is the ordinary food of the Natives of
India. The wealthy and high caste people all use rice instead of dry
grains.
25. Diseases of
cereal and other
plants before out-
break* of Cholera.
No evidence.
26. Epizootics... Cattle diseases are common in the district, in certain years. An erup-
tive disease, accompanied by diarrhoea, is the most common form.
27. Prevalence of
(a.) Fevers
Malarious fevers common after the N. E. monsoon rains.
(b.) Small-pox ... An epidemic has lately affected the town. The Municipality now
employ Vaccinators of their own.
(c.) Guinea-worm, Very common over the whole district in the dry hot months of the
year. It is said to be most frequent on the black soils.
(d.)
Parasitic
affections of skin
or intestines ?
No information.
(e.) Other special
diseases.
The " fungus disease" of the foot is more frequently met with in the
black soils of this district, than in any other part of the country.
During the last twenty years some hundreds-of cases have been
treated at the Civil Dispensary, where the diseased mass has generally
been removed by amputation.
28. Remarks ... If a polluted soil, high average level of sub-soil moisture, and impure
water have any effect in the localisation of cholera, then these condi-
tions are all present in the town of Madura. The occupation of the
new Jail outside the town, in the beginning of 1870, is so recent,
that it is hardly fair to draw any conclusions as to the effects of
improved sanitary conditions on the prisoners' health. Still I may
call attention to the fact, that in a year of new invasion, the
prisoners in the new Jail escaped cholera altogether, while the
fifty Civil debtors detained in the old Jail had no less than 5 cases
of cholera. The cholera deaths in the town during 1870 were
354.
SALEM.
1. Station
Salem, chief town of the Collectorate.
2. Presumed po-
pulation.
By the last Census 33,000 inhabitants and 6,311 houses. At the Census
taken in 1835 there were 19,021 inhabitants and 3,821 houses.
Both population and houses have nearly doubled in the last thirty-
five years, notwithstanding the ill-repute of the locality for health.
Between 1801 and 1835 the population had increased by 87 per cent.
This was due, in a measure, to the location of the East India Com-
pany's Weaving Establishment at Salem. Weaving is still the chief
trade of the town.
3. Height above
sea level.
1,090 feet.
xvi
10. Geology.
Nature of under-
lying roch.
The rocks are all metamorphic, chiefly hornblendic gneiss. There are
evidences of volcanic action close by the town, where trap has been
injected into the decomposing gniess, thereby converting the mag-
nesian base into a white mineral (magnesite). The gneiss in some
instances has an appearance of stratification, and the beds are appa-
rently displaced, tilted to an incline of 75°. In the neighbouring low
range of hills magnetic oxide of iron is found in large quantity, and
the Salem steel made from the local ores is of high repute. A conical
hill near the Railway Station is made up almost entirely of veins of
iron ore. Gneiss rock is exposed a good deal in the river bed, and gene-
rally is not far from the surface, in the area occupied by the town.
The soil on the uplands is rather thin and consists of a ferruginous loam,
but in the valley near the river it is darker in colour and more
clayey in texture. The soil of the town is somewhat calcareous,
and has the property of nitrifying organic matter.
Earthquakes are not uncommon in the Salem and Shervaroy Hill
districts.
11. Nature of soil
and sub-soil and
depth.
(a ) Tempera-
ture.
Not yet determined.
(b ) Porosity ...
Do.
(c.) Absorptive
properties.
Do.
(d ) Chemical con-
stituents.
Do.
(e.) Air in sub-
soil.
Do.
12. Malarial dis-
eases when preva-
lent ?
Intermittent fever is endemic in the valley, and mountain slopes. It
prevails mostly in the first quarter of the year, when easterly winds
and great diurnal changes of temperature prevail. New-comers to
the station are said to be particularly hable to it. The mountainous
parts of the district are thought to be specially malarious just before
the south-west monsoon has set in.
Connexion of Ma-
laria with Cholera ?
There is some coincidence in the seasons of cholera and fever, as both
appear most frequently in the cold weather months. Salem does not
usually suffer in the first year of a cholera invasion. As it is one
of the last districts to be attacked, it reproduces cholera for a longer
time than most other places.
13. Condition of
Agriculture.
Very satisfactory. The farming of the Salem valley is the best I have
seen in India, so far as dry cereals, cotton, &c., are concerned.
(a.) Nature of
produce.
Cereal grains, oil seeds, cotton, tobacco, &c.
(b.) Drainage... From the tilted condition of the strata of rocks it is difficult to keep water
in reservoirs in the valley. The tanks are dry early in the year, and
fill again with the south-west monsoon. The general drainage of the
valley is good.
(c.) Irrigation... Practised wherever water is obtainable.
14. River banks. The ordinary level of water in the river is considerably below the
bank levels.