NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
25
The Influence of a Dark Stable.—In reducing the num-
ber of all kinds of biting-flies which obtain access to the
horses is very marked. Most tonga stables are very open
structures and the flies freely enter ; much can be done to
greatly lessen the number of flies, without interfering with
the supply of fresh air, by producing the eaves as far down-
wards on all sides as the height of the ponies will admit. I
was not able to get the disease to spread in my controls
by the few flies which penetrated into the stable until they
were tied up immediately outside of the protection afforded
by the low roof. Only two or three Tabanus were seen biting
in our stable during the whole surra season, although they
were often seen just outside it.
In the Camel.—In addition to the principal method of
infection (biting-flies), it is possible that a few surra cases
may occur annually as a result of fighting amongst each
other when " masth." This, of course, occurs in the winter,
and infection would be from the " bitten " to the " biter ; "
serious wounds are often made with much hæmorrhage, and
the camel is seldom free from some wound or abrasion
about the mouth or nostril capable of admitting the
trypanosome.
Treatment of Surra in Camels was begun at Mohand,
but had to be stopped as we had not a sufficiently regular
supply of trypanosomes for our other work. Several facts
of value, however, were forthcoming, which are now being-
made use of in our work at Kharian.
A collection of biting-flies was made—and the identi-
fication work was put into the hands of Mr. Howlett, 2nd
Imperial Entomologist. It is likely that owing to the num-
ber of new species found, it will be a long time before the
full list will be forthcoming. He has, however, already
identified the anopheles as A. maculata, the Stegomyia as S.
alba (Theob.), and the Lyperosia as L. exigua.
Surra in the Camel, Bacha and Foal.—During
my
winter tours I was assured by many Punjabi camelmen that
camel bachas do not suffer from surra ; neither could I find
any cases.
Mortality in camel bachas is thought to be chiefly due
to alimentary troubles caused by irregularities in the
26
quantity and quality of the milk and occurring in the first 3
months of life. The only record that I can find bearing on
the subject is that of the Sergeants who found in Algeria a
6 months old camel whose blood contained trypanosomes
of El Debab, but which showed no clinical signs of the
disease.
These facts suggested that the young camel might have
enough resistance against the disease to recover from it, and
if so, of course, this could be turned to great practical
account. Therefore, the following observation was made to
check the camelmen's statements. The result shows that
the camel bacha at 6 months old (and this is about his age
when he passes through his first surra season in the plains)
is quite susceptible to surra and becomes infected by it under
natural circumstances.
On and after the 24th June (4 days before the break of
the rains), a male camel bacha, 5 months old, and suckled
by a dachi with chronic surra, was put to live and graze
in the Mohand Pass with some adult camels, some of
which had surra. Its blood was daily examined. On 10th
August trypanosomes appeared for the first time ; death
occurred after only 11 days of illness, during the whole
of which time trypanosomes were easily found in the
blood.
A white rat inoculated with a little of its blood subcu-
taneously on 15th August showed trypanosomes on the 3rd
day and died 8 days afterwards.
A foal 3 months old, placed in contact with surra ponies
at Mohand on the 11th July, contracted the disease,
trypanosomes first appearing on 17th August.
The disease was of the chronic type, and the foal was
destroyed on 23rd September, at which date it was in a
greatly emaciated condition.
Certain other Experiments in connection with surra
failed on account of practical obstacles, which could not be
overcome ; and the experiment recorded could not have been
carried out had it not been for the way in which the native
staff of the office, and especially Veterinary Assistant Ata
Mohamed, willingly performed tasks of all kinds not usually
included in the duties of their respective posts.
THE NORMAL AND ABNORMAL TEMPERA-
TURES OF THE CAMEL WITH A NOTE ON
NORMAL PULSE AND RESPIRATION.
BY
A. S. LEESE, I.C.V.D.,
Investigating Camel Diseases.
THE following notes are the result of observation on
baggage-camels of the one-humped variety in Northern
India:—
There has been much uncertainty about the normal
temperature of the camel, and this arises from the fact that
the question is rather complicated, especially under present
Indian conditions ; for not only does the camel's tempera-
ture vary greatly according to the hour on which the obser-
vation is made on the same day, but there are also certain
circumstances which cause abnormal temperatures in healthy
camels, and as it is only in recent years that Surra has been
recognised to be so widespread a disease in Indian camels
and to be so difficult in many cases to diagnose, no doubt,
many observations had been made on animals which were
supposed to be healthy, but were actually Surra-infected.
Thus Steel (Diseases of the Camel, 1890, p. 36) puts the
health limits at 98° to 101° F. Rayment (" Camels on Field
Service") says that " the normal temperature of a camel
rises to 102° F." Mason says " it is about 99° F." (Journal of
Comparative Pathology, vol. 19, p. 118) ; the great difference
between the morning and evening temperatures of the camel
has been noted by many.
In connection with some experiments on Surra I found it
necessary to make daily blood-examinations of several
apparently healthy adult camels for a long period to prove
28
them free from Surra, and I therefore took the opportunity
of making systematic observations on their temperatures
with a view to deciding what may be considered normal. The
camels which eventually proved to be healthy were three in
number, and the following tests were relied on for proof of
freedom from Surra :—
(a) Examination of blood with negative results—
For 192
For 178
For 198
consecutive days in the case of Camel
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
No.
No.
No.
1.
2.
3.
(b) Inoculation of susceptible animals with the camel's
blood at different times on four occasions for each camel with
negative results.
(c) In the case of Camel No. 2, on inoculation subse-
quently with surra blood, he became infected.
The temperature observations from which the results
were drawn were made per rectum on 86 consecutive days
in the spring and hot dry months during which the camels
grazed all day and were not worried by flies ; they are backed
up by many observations made before and since on camels in
general.
Under ordinary conditions, the healthy camel's tempera-
ture is low at dawn, from which time it rises uniformly until
about 7 P.M. in the evening, sinking again during the night.
The daily range of temperature as between morning and
night is very variable and is from 1° to 6° F.
In the early morning (5 to 6 A.M.) we found the tempera-
ture of the camels at rest to average about 97° F. The
extreme temperatures at this hour shown by the three
camels were as follows :—
Camel No. 1
Camel No. 2
Camel No. 3
Minimum.
... 95° F. or below it. *
... 95° F. or below it. *
... 95.4° F.
Maximum.
98.6° F.
99.6° F.
99.5° F.
Cleland (Bulletin No. 34, Department of Agriculture,
Western Australia,) has found that the morning temperatures
of some Surra camels sometimes sank to 94° F.
In the evening between 6 and 7 P.M., the average
temperature of the camels at rest was about 100.3° F. The
* Our thermometers did not register below 95° F.
29
extreme temperatures at this hour shown by the three
camels were as follows :—
Camel No. 1
Camel No. 2
Camel No. 3
Minimum.
... 99.3° F*
... 99.2° F.*
... 99.2° F.*
Maximum.
101.6° F.
101.4 F.
101.5° F.
I have noted temperatures of below 98° F. in the winter
at 6 to 7 P.M. ; these were in camels not proved to be
Surra free.
When for clinical purposes the camel's temperature is
" taken, " the hour in which the observation is made must
be noted, and then the thermometer is of great value
for practical purposes with the camel. In fever, the evening
temperature is of much greater value for diagnosis than the
morning one ; for in low fever the morning temperature is
very often only 98 and 99° F. which is not always abnormal ;
whereas the evening temperature rises over 102° F. and is
then abnormal.
Under ordinary circumstances a resting camel which
shows a temperature of more than 99.5° F. before 10 A.M., or
of more than 102.0° F. between 6 and 7 P.M., is in fever.
The highest abnormal temperature that I have a
record of so far is 107.3° F., observed by Cleland in a case of
Surra; as a rule, Surra paroxysms run between 102 and
106° F. in the evening.
In the morning, 102° F. is high fever.
Camels with Surra even in the intervals between the
" paroxysms" and with trypanosomes temporarily absent
from the blood often show a temperature of over 102° F.
between 6 and 7 P.M., and I always regard a camel which
does this with suspicion even when trypanosomes are not
found on the day. Cases of filariasis when the embryos
are in sufficient numbers in the blood to exercise a debil
itating effect on the camel will also sometimes cause this
slightly abnormal temperature, without other signs of
fever.
Weather has a decided influence on the camel's temper-
ature, more particularly if it is a sudden change from hot
* This was in the hot weather, but I have reason to think that it does not represent
the minimum evening temperature of camels in the cold weather.
30
to cold ; the influence of cold brings the temperature of the
camel down as I have often observed after heavy storms.
The normal morning temperatures are highest after the
stifling nights of June before the break of the rains.
When flies, especially biting-flies, are numerous, as in
some places in the rains, the temperature of the camel is of
little use in diagnosing disease since the irritation caused by
the attack of flies often causes it to rise to 103° and 104° F.
Musth (rutting) in the male camel does not influence
his temperature much, even when he is severely " upset"
by the condition.
The influence of watering in the camel's temperature
probably varies according to the practice in vogue in
different countries as regards frequency of watering, but it
only makes a difference of a fraction of a degree in the cold
weather.
A camel-bacha of six months old (healthy as regards
Surra, because it had not yet passed through a Surra season),
examined for four days consecutively, registered a tempera-
ture ranging from 99° F. to 100.8° F. at 6 A.M., and from
101° to 101.8° F. at 6 P.M. Its blood was examined daily for
trypanosomes, but none were present.
The Pulse of the camel can be felt when the animal is
in a sitting position. The artery which is most suitable for
the purpose is the posterior tibial artery at a point about
7 inches above the point of the hock and about 1 inch to
the inner side of the " tendon of Achilles." As far as I
am aware, the credit of finding a practicable situation for
examining the camel's pulse is due to Khuda Baksh, Veterin-
ary Daffadar, of 56th (Montgomery) Camel Corps.
It is, however, difficult to feel unless the camel is sitting
with his hind feet flat on the ground with his hocks raised ;
there is sometimes great difficulty in finding it if the camel
is sitting with heels and hocks on the ground, or in ascer-
taining the strength and fulness of the pulse satisfactorily
unless the camel is made to sit in the former position.
As to the frequency of the pulse in the healthy adult
camel at rest, in the early morning it varies from 32 to 44
per minute and in the evening from 36 to 50, averaging
about 44 at about 6 P.M. It is common to find an irregular,
31
and sometimes even an irregularly intermittent, pulse in
camels, temporarily, which show no sign of any heart
disease.
Respiration.—The normal frequency of respiration in
healthy camels at rest is very variable, from 5 to 12 per
minute. It is from 5 to 8 per minute in cold weather and
the increase up to 12 is found in the hottest part of the day.
There is generally something wrong if the respirations are
over 12 when it is cool; the influence of pain has a greater
effect on the frequency of the respirations than consolida-
tion or suppuration of large areas of the lungs.
The average frequency of respiration and pulse is only
slightly increased in rumination.
Camels which have had a nostril pierced for the lathi
or nose-peg will, when resting after work or after grazing,
sometimes sit with closed nostrils and pendulous lower lip,
breathing through the mouth and occasionally blowing out
their cheeks. A hanging lower lip in the camel is not neces-
sarily a sign of debility or unsoundness.
NOTE ON TAPEWORMS IN PUNJAB CAMELS.
BY
A. S. LEESE, M.R.C.V.S., C.V.D.,
Investigating Camel Diseases.
Two species of tapeworms have been found in the course
of post-mortem examinations made on camels suffering from
different diseases in the Punjab.
No. 1 is undoubtedly Tænia expansa. It was found in
one old camel on 28th September 1908 ; there were three or
four individual specimens in the duodenum. They were not
involved in any important degree in cause of death.
The worm was over 3 yards long, the older segments
being very thick and of a yellowish colour. The segments
were broader than they were long at every part. The head
was 0.8 mm. wide when lying slightly expanded on a glass
slide ; it was unarmed and the four suckers were oval and
had the slit-like opening of T. expansa. There was a short
neck and the young part of the worm is very attenuated.
The greatest breadth of mature segments was 13 mm. and
greatest length 2 mm.
Two genital pores in each segment.
No. 2 is apparently undescribed in text-books of Veterin-
ary Parasitology. It is a very delicate unarmed tapeworm,
length up to 3 feet. Head is about ½ mm. wide and the
width of the neck behind the head is ½ that of the head.
The segments are thin, easily torn, and always much broader
than long; the greatest length of mature segments was
0.3 mm. and the greatest breadth 2 to 3 mm.
The opaque double uterus of each segment being later-
ally situated, the worm is left transparent in the middle
line.
33
There is one genital pore in each segment, and it is
irregularly alternated. The worm is therefore near T.
globipunctata of the sheep, but differs from it in having a
very distinct neck; a specimen was sent to Professor Sir
John M. Fadyean, who kindly confirmed this point.
The worm is sometimes of pathogenic importance. I
have found it in the duodenum of several adult camels
suffering from coincident debilitating diseases, mainly due to
other causes, but never in very large numbers. In two
camel-bachas, however, six months old, suffering from " Gal
Sujh, " the duodenum contained very large numbers of the
tapeworms and in one case at least they acted to some
extent in preventing recovery from this disease, which is a
suppurative disease following severe cases of camel-pox.
As regards tænifuges for the camel, I have experi-
mented with Kamela, which is easily and cheaply obtained
in India and found that 7 to 8 oz. thoroughly purges an
adult camel.
CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF
HÆMORRHAGIC SEPTICÆMIA.
BY
S. H. GAIGER, M.R.C.V.S., I.C.V.D.,
From the Punjab Veterinary College Laboratory.
THIS disease has been known in India for about ten years,
but it is only within the last four or five that the study
of it, as it occurs in this country, has been seriously
taken up.
Only within the last few years, too, has it been realised
how great the losses are from it, and that many deaths which
ten years ago were returned as anthrax ought really to have
been returned as Hæmorrhagic Septicæmia.
I only intend to deal here with the disease as it occurs
in India, and most of the facts recorded are the results of my
own observations and study of the disease here.
The quantity of literature on the subject in India is
extremely small, and is as follows :—
The Annual Reports of the Civil Veterinary Depart-
ment in India.
The Annual Reports of the Imperial Bacteriologist.
Agricultural Ledger Series.
Journal of Tropical Veterinary Science, Vol. I, Part
III. Evans.
Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics,
June 1907. Webb.
An article by Baldrey in the Journal of Tropical Veter-
inary Science, Vol. II, does not deal with the Indian strain
of bacillus.
35
THE BACILLUS OF HÆMORRHAGIC SEPTICÆMIA.
I.—CULTURAL CHARACTERS.
The bacillus grows well on all of the common media
ærobically.
On glycerin peptone agar it grows as a transparent,
translucent, shiny, gummy growth which becomes more and
more opaque with age.
Young cultures look like clear drops of dew on the
surface of the medium.
Cultures over a week old are quite white and opaque.
In 24 hours a good growth is obtained.
Cultures 24 hours old are not so gummy and slimy to the
touch of the platinum needle as cultures three days old, and
the older the culture the more viscid it becomes and the
firmer it adheres to the surface of the agar. It grows
equally well at 30°C. as at 37°C. At 20°C. the growth is
somewhat slower.
HÆMORRHAGIC SEPTICÆMIA. THREE DAYS' GROWTH UPON AGAR.
In growing the bacillus, it is important to remember its
sensibility to dryness, and that unless there is constantly a
36
drop of water of condensation in the tube, the bacillus first
commences to lose its virulence and then dies altogether.
Inoculation on too old dry agar tubes will produce no
growth at all.
The bacillus can be kept alive for months and the same
pathogenicity maintained if it be grown at 30°C. and subcul¬
tured every time the water of condensation commences to
dry up, i.e., every 5th or 6th day. After two months it
should be passed through a rabbit to renew lease of
virulence.
In peptone bouillon the organism renders the medium
slowly turbid and there is a quantity of thick growth at the
bottom of the tube which rises up in clouds on shaking.
The bottom growth is easily broken up during the first few
days by shaking, but in older tubes it is almost impossible to
break up the stringy growth, so firmly is it glued together
by its mucoid substance. If the tube is incubated quite
unshaken for a few days, a thin scum forms on the surface
and climbs up the sides of the tube.
The bacillus will not grow at all anærobically. Tubes
of bouillon inoculated with the bacillus were put in Buch-
ner's tubes and incubated three days without result. The
tubes were then removed from Buchner's tubes and incu-
bated ærobically, and in 24 hours an abundant growth took
place.
II.—MORPHOLOGY.
The bacillus of Hæmorrhagic Septicæmia is, when
examined from the blood of an infected animal, a short and
thick bacillus averaging 2µ long and .4µ to .5µ broad. It
varies greatly in size and shape according to its environment.
Bacilli from the spleen often vary greatly in size, some
individuals being very much longer and thicker than those
seen in the blood.
In cultures the bacilli are sometimes very short indeed,
if they have been multiplying quickly, and they may even
be round. Rod-shaped forms are sometimes seen.
In recent cultures it is not uncommon to see three or
even more bacilli joined end to end, forming short chains
resembling streptococci.
37
This appearance is never seen in the blood-stream
where the bacilli are found singly or at most in pairs.
In the tissues of the body when seen in section the
bacilli are arranged in irregular clumps.
Each bacillus is surrounded by a mucoid cortex. In
old cultures, peculiar involution forms develop, oval,
club-shaped, spindle-shaped and spherical being common.
This change is especially well seen in dried-up agar
cultures.
The bacillus shows only very slight or no movement.
Staining reactions.
With all stains the bacillus stains better at the ends
than in the centre, thus coming under the Pasteurella class
of organism. It stains very easily with watery solutions
of the Aniline dyes.
Lœffler's alkaline Methylene Blue stains deeply in one
minute.
Aqueous Methylene Blue 1 per cent. stains faintly in
one minute.
Ziehl's carbol-fuchsin stains at once and the bipolar
staining is very well shown.
It does not stain by Gram's method or with Weigert's
modification.
By Claudius' method the result is very deep-staining,—
too deep to show the bipolar appearance, for the centre part
is also stained.
Leishman and Giemsa stains give good results—Bacilli
from cultures do not show the bipolar staining so well as
those from the body.
No staining methods have yet shown capsule or spore
formation.
III.—BIOLOGY.
Vitality.
The bacillus when outside the animal body has only
very feeble powers of resistance.
It is destroyed immediately by the ordinary strengths
of disinfectants.
38
Direct sunlight kills it within half an hour. Ten minutes
at a temperature of 70°C. destroys it. It is very easily
killed by drying.
The question of how the bacillus remains alive outside
the animal body between the outbreaks of the disease is an
important one.
It is just possible that the Hæmorrhagic Septicæmia
bacillus like the Plague bacillus has, under favourable condi-
tions, greater powers of resistance outside the animal body
than Laboratory experiments would lead one to expect.
Reaction of Nutrient Media.
Gelatine is not liquefied.
No gas is produced in growing.
A peculiar sour odour emanates from old cultures.
Alkaline media become acid from the growth of the
bacilli.
Milk is neither coagulated nor acidified.
Temperature.
The best temperature for growth is below the temper-
ature of the body, namely, 30°C.
Agglutination.
There is no relation between the agglutinating powers
of an animal's serum and its natural powers of resistance
against the disease.
NORMAL SERUM OF HILL BULL 9501. EMULSION FROM AN H. S.
AGAR
CULTURE.
Within 15 minutes ...
Pure
serum.
+ +
1/10.
+
1/100.
-
1/500.
-
1/1000.
-
NORMAL SERUM OF HILL BULL 9502. EMULSION FROM AN H. S.
AGAR CULTURE.
Within 15 minutes ...
Pure
serum.
+
1/10.
+
1/100.
-
1/500.
-
39
NORMAL SERUM OF HILL BULL 9474. EMULSION FROM AN H. S.
AGAR CULTURE.
Within 15 minutes ...
Pure
serum.
+
1/10.
+
1/100.
-
1/500.
-
NORMAL SERUM OF HILL BULLS. EMULSION OF H. S. AGAR CULTURE.
Within 15
minutes.
Within 15
minutes.
No. 9532.
Pure
serum.
-
1/10.
-
1/50.
-
No. 9538.
Pure
serum.
+
No. 9553.
Pure
serum.
-
1/10.
-
1/50.
-
1/10.
-
1/50.
-
No. 95-19.
Pure
scrum.
-
1/10
-
No. 9556
Pure
serum.
-
1/10.
-
1/50.
-
1/50.
-
No. 9550
Pure
serum.
-
1/10.
-
1/50.
No. 9436.
Pure
serum
-
1/10.
-
1/50.
-
NORMAL SERUM OF HORSE No. 1. EMULSION FROM AN H. S.
AGAR CULTURE.
Within 15 minutes ...
In ¾ hour ... ...
Pure
serum.
-
-
1/10.
-
-
1/50.
-
-
1/100.
-
-
NORMAL SERUM OF HORSE No. 2. EMULSION OF AN H. S.
AGAR CULTURE.
Within 15 minutes ...
In ¾ hour ... ...
Pure
serum.
-
+
1/10.
-
-
1/50.
-
-
1/100.
-
-
NORMAL SERUM OF SHEEP No. 1. EMULSION OF AN H. S.
AGAR CULTURE.
Within 15 minutes ..
In ¾ hour ... ...
Pure
serum.
-
+
1/10.
-
-
1/50.
-
-
1/100.
-
-
40
NORMAL SERUM OF SHEEP NO. 2. EMULSION OF AN H. S.
AGAR CULTURE.
Within 15 minutes ...
In ¾ hour ... ...
Pure
serum.
-
-
1/10.
-
-
1/50.
+
+
1/100.
-
-
NORMAL SERUM OF PIGEON. EMULSION OF AN H. S. AGAR
CULTURE.
Within 15 minutes ...
In ¾ hour ... ...
Pure
serum.
-
-
1 10.
-
-
1/50.
-
-
1/100.
-
-
NORMAL SERUM OF RABBITS Nos. 1 AND 2.
EMULSION OF
H. S. AGAR CULTURE.
Within 15 minutes ...
In ¾ hour ... ...
Pure
serum.
-
-
1/10.
-
-
1/50.
-
-
1/100.
-
-
The agglutinating power of an animal's serum increases
during immunisation against H. S.
SERUM FROM A HILL BULL IN PROCESS OF IMMUNISATION.
EMULSION OF AN H. S. AGAR CULTURE.
Within 15 minutes ...
Pure
serum.
+ +
1/10.
4
1/100.
+
1/500.
-
SERUM FROM A HILL BULL IMMUNISED AGAINST H. S.
EMULSION OF AN H. S. CULTURE.
Within 15 minutes ...
Pure
serum.
+ +
1/10.
+ +
1/100.
+ +
1/500.
+
1/700.
-
Although the agglutinins in an animal's serum increase
with the immunising process, the immunising properties of
the serum are not dependent on these agglutinins, e.g.,—
An anti-H. S. serum from a protected hill bull agglu-
tinated strongly at 1/100 dilution.