NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
50
Scientific Memoirs by
weak venom. The explanation of these variations was first suggested by an old
and very experienced keeper who accounted for their occurrence as the result
of the fact that during the course of the cold season the snakes become very
torpid and entirely cease to feed for many weeks at a time, whilst during the
rest of the year they are feeding freely and therefore frequently discharging
their venom. Careful observations were made in regard to this point on the
Daboias in captivity in the Calcutta Zoological Garden during the course of the
past year, and there could be no question of the fact that their venom became
more potent shortly after they had ceased to feed in the early part of winter,
and deteriorated in quality again in spring after they had again begun to feed
freely. There can be no question in regard to the coincidence of the pheno-
mena, and the fact that the seasonal variations are more constant in captive
than in free snakes seems to indicate that there really is a causal connection
between frequency of discharge and quality of venom. Captive snakes are
certain of obtaining their food regularly, whilst those which are at large may
frequently be unable to secure any prey for considerable periods, and, if they be
captured towards the close of any such period, the venom which they will then
yield represents the product of a continued period offasting. The phenomena
are, to a certain extent, parallel to those attending the bites of fresh and
exhausted snakes ; only in the latter case variations in quantity as well as quality
of venom probably come into play, whereas in the case of the seasonal variations
the differences are dependent on variations in quality only, and would appear to
indicate that the fluid, after secretion and whilst still retained within the glands,
undergoes certain maturative changes in the course of which its lethal properties
undergo an increase.
The results of detailed comparison of the phenomena presented by cases
of intoxication by the venom of the Cobra and Daboia appear to warrant the
following conclusions :—
1. The lethal properties of Cobra-venom are dependent on the presence in
it of a single toxin of the nature of a ferment, which acts by inducing such
changes in the blood as to render it unfit to meet the respiratory demands of
the system.
2. The lethal properties of Daboia-venom are dependent on the presence
of two distinct toxins, one of which is entirely devoid of any ferment-property
and acts as a direct nervous irritant leading to excessive stimulation and sub-
sequent exhaustion of the nervous apparatus, whilst the other is a material in-
ducing septic alterations in the blood.
It now remains to be considered how far the differences in the properties
of the venom of these two species of snakes may be taken as indices to
the existence of corresponding differences in the properties of the venom of
Colubrine and Viperine snakes generally. Unfortunately the data in regard
Medical Officers of the Army of India.
51
to this point are not of a very complete character, as opportunities of such full
comparative investigation of the qualities of the venom of any other species
have not presented themselves, and, indeed, it is only with the venom of one or
two other species that any experiments at all have been conducted in connec-
tion with the present investigation. Some experiments have, however, been
tried in regard to the action of the venom of two colubrine snakes, Bungarus
cœruleus and B. fasciatus, and of one viperine one, Echis crinata.
Specimens of Bungarus cœruleus are not easy to obtain in Calcutta, and,
when they are obtained, are too valuable to be subjected to the ordinary handling
which has to be employed in taking venom, so that the only experiment which
has been as yet tried in the Laboratory of the Zoological Garden there, was one
in which an exceptionally large snake was caused to bite a fowl. The details of
the results of it are given below.
Experiment LXX. 11-40 A . M . — A f o w l w a s b i t t e n i n t h e t h i g h b y a l a r g e
Bungarus cœruleus.
The bird sat down at once, making frequent swallo wing movements and
closing its eyes. These symptoms were, however, evidently purely emotional
as they presently disappeared and the bird stood up and began to peck about
unconcernedly at objects on the floor of the cage.
11-49 A.M. It sat down again. Swallowing movements were conspicuous and the
respirations deep, inspiration being occasionally accompanied by
mandibular gaping. The head gradually drooped more and more
forward until the tip of the beak rested on the floor of the cage.
12-5 Noon. Symptoms profound; lying quite flat with the neck extended and the
head on one side; comb and wattles becoming livid.
12-15 Noon. General convulsions set in and were repeated at brief intervals.
12-27 Noon. Dead. The blood was very dark coloured and only very slowly
brightened on exposure to air. It coagulated rapidly and firmly.
The symptoms throughout were practically identical with those present in
acute cases of intoxication by cobra-venom. The relatively protracted dura-
tion of life subsequent to the infliction of the bite may possibly indicate that
the venom of this species is not quite so potent as that of the cobra, but no
definite conclusion in regard to this question can be arrived at until it has been
possible to try a series of accurate experiments with ascertained weights of
dried venom.
The information regarding the lethal properties of the venom of Bungarus
fasciatus is, fortunately, somewhat more complete as the following experimental
data will serve to show. The dried venom which was employed was collected
from several distinct specimens of the species and in outward appearance only
differed from normal specimens of dried cobra-venom in being of a somewhat
paler colour than they are. The quantity which can be obtained from fresh
snakes of fair average dimensions on any one occasion is normally very much
G 2
52
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less than that yielded by cobras of corresponding size, the average weight of
dried venom obtainable on each occasion being only 0.0498 gramme, whilst the
average for cobras is 0.245 gramme.
Experiment LXXI.—11-42 A.M. A fowl received a subcutaneous injec-
tion of 0.001 gramme of dried venom in 1 c.c. of distilled water.
It appeared to be rather dull for some time, but no other symptoms of any
kind presented themselves.
Experiment LXXII.—11-40 A.M. A fowl received an injection of 0.003
gramme of dried venom in 3 c.c. of distilled water.
No symptoms, save a certain degree of drowsiness, ensued.
Experiment LXXIII. —10-53 A.M. A fowl received a subcutaneous injec-
tion of 0.005 gramme of dried venom in 5 c.c. of distilled water.
No appreciable symptoms indicative of any specific action occurred.
Experiment LXXIV.—11-12 A.M. A fowl received a subcutaneous injec-
tion of 0.01 gramme of dried venom in 1 c.c. of distilled water.
11-50 A.M. Apparently slightly drowsy and occasionally making conspicious swal-
lowing movements.
11-55 A.M. Inspiratory mandibular gaping beginning to appear.
12 Noon. The head beginning to droop forward so that presently, during the inter-
vals between each inspiration, the tip of the beak rested on the floor
of the cage.
12-20 Noon. The characteristic specific symptoms of intoxication by cobra-venom
well developed. The eyes occasionally closing; respirations deep
and laboured, with elevation of the head and mandibular gaping at
each inspiration.
1 P.M. Symptoms gradually becoming more profound. The eyes permanently
closed and the tip of the beak resting on the floor of the cage.
7-45 P.M. Death occurred.
Experiment LXXV—10-41 A.M. A fowl received a subcutaneous injection
of 0.1 gramme of dried venom in 1 c.c. of distilled water.
1 1 - 1 A . M .
P r o f o u n d l y a f f e c t e d . T h e t i p o f t h e b e a k r e s t i n g o n t h e f l o o r o f t h e c a g e
between each deep, laboured respiration. Inspiration accompanied
by elevation of the head and mandibular gaping ; eyes permanently
closed.
11-20 A.M. General convulsions ; comb and wattles extremely livid.
11-45 A.M. Dead. The heart continued acting violently for some considerable time
after the cessation of respiration. The blood was at first of ex
- t r e m e l y d a r k c o l o u r b u t s l o w l y b r i g h t e n e d o n e x p o s u r e t o a i r . I t
coagulated rapidly and firmly.
According to the above data the venom of Bungarus fasciatus would
appear to be practically equivalent to very feeble cobra-venom of which the
minimal lethal dose for fowls of 1 kilo in weight is approximately 0.01
gramme in place of 0.00025 or 0.0005 gramme as that of normal cobra-venom is.
Medical Officers of the Army of India.
53
In none of the cases in which smaller doses were employed did any symptoms
of general blood poisoning, resembling those described by Wall as occasionally
presenting themselves in those of his experiments in which death did not
rapidly follow the infliction of a bite, occur. This is probably to be accounted
for by the fact that Wall's experiments were conducted by means of causing
specimens of Bungarus fasciatus to bite animals ; whereas in the present series
of experiments dried venom was employed. The difference in the results may
therefore have been owing either to the occurrence of some change in the
specific constituents of the material during the course of desiccation, or, more
probably, to the fact that desiccation serves to render certain extraneous
elements, which are liable to be present in the fresh venom, inert. The sali--
vary secretion of snakes, like that of animals generally, constantly contains
numerous micro-organisms of various kinds, and it is quite possible that in
certain cases these may possess pathogenic properties. Where, therefore, the
venom is introduced in the fresh state by means of bites, there is always a
possibility that results may follow which are in no way dependent on the spe-
-cific action of the essential toxins of the former. But where venom, which has
been subjected to prolonged and thorough desiccation, is employed, the chances
of the occurrence of any such complication must be greatly diminished. On
the whole, therefore, it appears to be probable that the venom of Bungarus
fasciatus does not in any way differ specifically from that of the cobra, but
only differs in containing a smaller proportion of one and the same toxic
principle.
It is quite clear that Bungarus fasciatus, with its weak jaw, and a co
m - p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l q u a n t i t y o f r e l a t i v e l y f e e b l e v e n o m a t i t s d i s p o s a l , m u s t b e
incapable of contributing to any important extent to the mortality from snake
-bite. The largest amount of fresh venom which was obtainable from any
specimen on any single occasion only yielded 0.102 gramme of dried material ;
but, as 0.01 gramme constitutes an approximately minimal lethal dose for
fowls of one kilo in weight, it is extremely improbable that even this maximal
yield would have been sufficient to cause death in any adult human subject.
As the species is very difficult to obtain in Calcutta, and as its small size
renders the amount of venom which can be collected from any individual
excessively small, in the only experiments which have as yet been tried with
the venom of Echis carinata the venom was administered by bites. The results,
however, which were obtained were sufficient to show the essential identity of the
material with Daboia-venom, and, consequently, that it is quite distinct in nature
from the venom of the cobra and of Bungarus cœruleus and fasciatus.
Experiment LXXVI. —10-6 A.M. A fowl weighing 1,275 grammes was
bitten by an Echis.
54
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It was seized with furious general convulsions after an interval of a
minute and a half and died a minute later.
Experiment LXXVII. —10-25 A.M. A fowl was bitten by an Echis. It
presently sat down with its beak partly open, and occasionally making conspi-
cuous swallowing movements.
10-29 A.M. Violent general convulsions, accompanied by loud screaming, set in.
10-30 A.M. Dead. The blood was of a dull brick-red, rapidly brightening on exposure
to air. It was absolutely incoagulable.
The symptoms of acute intoxication by this venom are clearly, then,
precisely of the same nature as those induced by Daboia-venom, and, from the
data which are on record in regard to the phenomena present in cases of chronic
intoxication following echis-bites, there can be little doubt that the two
materials are in all respects practically identical.
There is thus conclusive evidence that in two distinct genera of Colubrine
snakes, Naia and Bungarus, the venom possesses essentially identical properties,
and that the same holds good in regard to the venom of two Viperine genera,
Vipera and Echis, but that the colubrine venom is perfectly distinct in property
from the viperine one. This evidence, afforded as it is by the venom of one
or two species of snakes only, is, of course, by no means conclusive, but at the
same time it, at all events, suggests the probability that all snake-venoms are
essentially referable to two groups, each of which includes a number of varieties
differing from one another in quality but not in kind, or, in other words, dis-
tinguished merely by the quantity and not by the nature of the toxic materials
which they contain. In regard to Crotalus-venom, at all events, Dr. Weir
Mitchell's experimental results leave little room to doubt that it is essentially a
viperine venom of the same specific nature as Daboia-venom and, like the latter,
containing two distinct toxic principles, one of which acts as a local and central
nervous irritant, whilst the other gives rise to septic changes in the blood.
CALCUTTA:
The 19th August 1895.
D. D. CUNNINGHAM.
55
On Milula, a new genus of Liliaceæ from the Eastern Himalaya.
BY
SURGEON-CAPTAIN D. PRAIN,
INDIAN MEDICAL SERVICE.
The subject of this notice is one of the interesting plants which the
botanical investigation of the Eastern Himalaya, conducted during the past
twenty years on behalf of the Government of Bengal by Dr. G. King, Superin-
tendent of the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta, has revealed to science. It
was obtained by one of Dr. King's native collectors in Chumbi, the valley
that lies immediately to the east of Sikkim. Politically this valley is Tibetan ;
geographically it forms part of the Himalayan region, since the stream that
drains it finds its way southwards through Bhutan and Assam to the Brahma-
putra. Its flora, however, indicates that though so near to Sikkim, it enjoys a
comparatively dry climate. This is due to the fact that in place of lying open,
as does the basin of the Tista which practically constitutes Sikkim, to the
moisture-laden currents that sweep up from the Bay of Bengal to precipitate on
the Sikkim-Himalaya the heavy rainfall which characterises this area, the
Chumbi Valley has a narrow southern outlet, and the lofty ridges that enclose
it practically deprive these currents of their moisture ere they reach the depres-
sion beyond.
The facies of this singular plant, which bears out to some extent the co
m - p a r a t i v e d r y n e s s o f i t s h a b i t a t , i s s o c o m p l e t e l y t h a t o f a nA
l l i u m
t h a t a t f i r s t
sight one feels inclined, in spite of its spicate inflorescence and its solitary bract,
to treat it as the type of a somewhat aberrant section in that comprehensive
genus. Both characters, repugnant though they be to our generic conception
of Allium, might be looked upon as incidental. Already Allium includes
species with heads of sessile florets, while in some other genera the passage
from a head to a spike is of the simplest ;* the difference, moreover, between
one bract and two, among plants like the Allieæ where the bracteal variation
is admittedly 2—8, is no more than arithmetical. But when we find these
characters associated with such apparently essential ones as a distinctly gamo-
phyllous perianth and a decidedly 2-seriate andrœcium it becomes at least in-
advisable to further expand the limits of a genus already so unwieldy as Allium
* The genus Acacia, for example, amongst the Leguminosœ ; cfr. Prain, in journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society, V, 165 (1890).
56
Scientific Memoirs by
is. A secondary reason for excluding the plant from Allium is that the speci-
mens show no trace of the garlic odour so characteristic, even in dried examples,
of most, if not of all the species of that genus.
The localisation of the genus does not appear to be difficult ; an over-
whelming majority of characters indicate its tribal position to be among the
Allieæ, (tribe xii of Liliaceæ in Bentham and Hooker's Genera Plantarum ).
It is true that none of the Allieæ hitherto described have a spicate inflorescence
or a solitary bract. But it must be remembered that both characters may
be merely incidental ; the main point is that, like the other Allieæ, the plant under
review is bracteate under the inflorescence. The Scilleæ, with which it agrees
in the single character of a spicate inflorescence, but whose facies it does not
recall, have no involving bract. The secondary question of the subordinate
position of the genus presents a little difficulty. Of the already recognised
subtribes it clearly approaches most nearly the Euallieæ, and, if it must be
located in a known subgroup, it is among these that it can with the least amount
of dislocation be placed. The question really turns on the relative value for
purposes of classification of characters derived from the inflorescence and from
the individual florets. Already the Euallieæ include plants with a gamophyllous
perianth and plants with 2-seriate filaments, so that the characters on which
the generic rank of Milula largely depends favour the localisation of the genus
in that subtribe. At the same time it must be recollected that, whether inci-
dental or not, the characters of a spicate inflorescence and of a solitary bract
are not shared by any other member of the Allieæ, and it seems more natural as
well as more convenient to treat Milula as typical of a new subtribe to be
inserted among the Allieæ immediately before the Euallieæ.
The systematic definitions and descriptions required to indicate its position
are as follows.
NAT. ORD. LILIACEÆ.
Tribus XII. ALLIEÆ ( definitione parum ampliata ) Bracteæ 1— 00, flores
rarissime spicati.
Subtribus1 *
M i l u l e æ
( s u b - t r i b . n o v a , p r o x i m a
E u a l l i e i s
a n t e p o n e n d a ) .
Bulbus tunicatus : spica in scapo simplici aphyllo terminalis. Bractea mem-
branacea sub spica 1 ; b r a c t e o l æ
o ; p e r i a n t h i u m g a m o p h y l l u m ; a n d r œ c i u m
regulare ; capsula loculicide dehiscens.
MILULA gen. nov.—Bulbus tunicatus ; folia liguliformia ; inflorescentia
spicata, bracteâ solitariâ membranaceâ obtecta ; perianthium gamophyllum
6-partitum lobis rotundatis ; stamina breviter epiphylla 6, petalis opposita ;
ovarium syncarpum 3-loculare, stylo simplice filiformi, ovula in loculis singulis 2 ;
capsula loculicide dehiscens, seminibus 2-3 ;t e s t a
c o r r u g a t a e t m i n u t i s s i m e
punctulata.
Medical Officers of the Army of India.
57
Milula spicata sp. unic. Herba bulbo elongato dimidio inferiore squamis
(foliorum veterum reliquiis) fibrosis vestito, radicibus numerosis ; foliis lineari-
lanceolatis scapum fistulosum bulbo duplo longiorem aequantibus excedentibusve ;
spica cylindrica bracteâ basali spathaceâ ovato-acuminatâ inclusa, floribus viridi-
rubescentibus parvulis plurimis campanulatis, segmentis perianthii aequalibus
margine undulato-fimbriatis ; staminibus in seriebus duabus exterioribus 3 car-
pellis alternantibus filamentis dimidio inferiore expansis petaloideis, interioribus
3 carpellis oppositis paullo brevioribus filamentis prorsus filiformibus, antheribus
versatilibus omnibus perfectis ; ovario subgloboso ovulis ad angulum loculi
interiorem parum supra basin affixis ;c a p s u l a
g l o b o s a , o v u l i s i n l o c u l o q u o q u e
s e mp e r 1 n o n n u n q u a m a mb o b u s a b o r t i s ; s e mi n i b u s n i g r i s .
In HIMALAYA ORIENTALI : Chumbi, apud Do-tho, Kingii mercenar. !
Bulbus " prasinus " 4—7 cm. longus ; squamæ fibrosæ 2½—3½ cm. ; radices
4—5 cm. ; folia viridia 10—15 cm. longa, haec 1/3—½ cm. lata ; scapus viridis
liber 6—9 cm. longus, ¼—1/3 cm. crassus ; spica 2—5 cm. longa, 1 cm. diam. ;
bractea 3 cm. longa haec 2 cm. lata ; flosculi 2½ mm. lati, perianthio 3½ mm.
filamentis 4—5 mm. longis ; ovarium 1½ mm. diam., stylo 2 mm. longo stigmate
minimo ; capsula 3 mm. lata tenuis ; semina 2½ mm. longa, 1½ mm. diam.
Explanation of the Plate.
Milula spicata, Prain.
The specimen selected is the only one of the solitary gathering which shows
2 scapes ; the others have but one.
1. Section of stem x 1/1.
2.
Flower x 3/1.
3.
Perianth laid open to show staminal insertion x 3/1.
4.
Stamen of outer series from within and also sideways x 3/1.
5.
Stamen of inner series
„
,,
,,
,,
,,
X 3/1.
6.
Ovary x 5/1.
7.
Vertical section of ovary showing an ovule x 5/1.
8.
Floral diagram, vertical.
9.
,, ,, horizontal.
10.
Ripe fruit, cut across x 5/1.
11.
,, ,, seeds fallen, showing dehiscence x 5/1.
12. Diagram showing dehiscence and position of seeds and of abortive ovules.
13. Seed x 5/1.
14. Vertical section of seed showing embryo x 5/1.
Figs. 1 to 9 are taken from flowers belonging to the specimen delineated ; figs. 10 to
14, from fruits of a second specimen collected at the same time and place.
Sc. Mem. Ind. Army, Part. IX.
PLATE I.
Dr awn by D. Pr ai n.
Lith: by New Chitra Silpi C2.
M I L U L A S P I C A T A , P r a i n .
59
An experimental investigation of the effects of hæmosta-
tic and other drugs on the intravascular coagulability of
the blood.
BY
SURGEON-LIEUTENANT LEONARD ROGERS, M.B., B.S.
LOND., F.R.C.S., ENG.
In December last I read a paper before the Medical Section of the Indian
Medical Congress on " Some Clinical applications of the different methods of in-
fluencing intravascular coagulability," which was based on the work of Dr. Wright
of Netley* and on some experiments I have been doing on the effect of
various drugs on the time of coagulation. As some of the latter had been carried
out under somewhat disadvantageous circumstances whilst on a march, I have
since repeated and considerably extended them, and propose to set forth the
results obtained in the present paper.
The method adopted is a very simple one. It consists in the determination
of the coagulation-time of the blood both before and after taking a given dose
of a drug by means of Dr. Wright's apparatus,† which is figured and de-
scribed in the British Medical Journal, vol. I, page 237, 1894. All the precau-
tions there advised were taken, but, during the latter experiments, the water in
the vessel was slightly above "half blood heat" owing to the impossibility of
getting ice in this station (Doranda). As in the different observations of any
one experiment there was never a difference of more than a fraction of a degree
centigrade, this could not possibly have influenced the results.
One slight modification of the apparatus was found necessary, namely, the
fitting of a cork to the metal vessel containing the water, and the placing
of it in a horizontal position, in order to prevent the column of blood running
down and drying at the orifice of the tube. Briefly, the principle of the method
is to draw up a drop of blood, obtained by pricking the finger, into a given
length of uniform capillary tubes, and then by blowing down the tubes after
noted intervals of time, say, at half minute intervals, to determine the period at
which coagulation occurs ; the shortest time in which the blood is found to be
clotted so that it cannot be blown out of the tube, or, if blown out on to blotting
paper, a clot is found to have been formed in it, is the coagulation-time. As
* British Medical Journal, 1893, Vol. II, pages 57 and 223.
† B r i t i s h M e d i c a l J o u r n a l , 1 8 9 4 , V o l . I , p a g e 2 3 7 .
H 2