NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
27
II.
used and their rates of success during the year 1927-28.
vaccination.
Unsuccessful.
14
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Unknown.
15
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Percentage of successful cases.
16
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Re-vaccination.
Direct from the calf.
Total.
17
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Successful.
18
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Unsuccessful.
19
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Unknown.
20
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Percentage of successful cases.
21
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
With lanoline or glycerine lymph.
Total.
22
4,591
2,727
3,897
3,534
13,128
17,163
22,047
10,151
19,764
16,319
17,338
9,364
17,771
14,733
5,885
1,004
9,824
7,984
3,967
18.199
2,787
222 197
Successful.
23
2,181
1,915
1,890
2,289
4,060
6,391
11,899
2,554
13,553
7,083
7,880
4,009
11,672
9,812
2,641
395
5,681
5,324
730
9,946
1,526
113,431
Unsuccessful.
24
1,949
675
1,835
772
2,190
6,301
7,881
4,149
4,869
5,914
3,375
3,256
3,664
3,912
1,414
307
2,195
1,923
972
6,215
741
64,539
Unknown.
25
461
137
172
473
6,878
4,471
2,237
3,448
1,312
3,292
6,683
2,089
2,435
1,009
1,830
302
1,948
737
2,285
2,038
520
44,227
Percentage
of successful cases.
26
47.50
70.22
48.49
64.17
30.92
37.23
53.51
25.16
68.57
43.40
45.44
42.81
65.68
66.59
44.87
39.4
57.82
66.86
18.30
54.65
54.75
51.05
Arm-to-arm vaccination.
Total.
27
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Successful.
28
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Unsuccessful.
29
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Unknown.
30
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Percentage of successful cases.
31
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
B. & O. G. P. (D. P. H.) no. 7—500—6-10-1928—A. R. N.
No. 39
(NEW SERIES)
SCIENTIFIC MEMOIRS
BY
OFFICERS OF THE MEDICAL AND SANITARY DEPARTMENTS
OF THE
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
THE APPLICABILITY TO MEDICO-LEGAL PRACTICE
IN INDIA OF THE BIOCHEMICAL TESTS FOR
THE ORIGIN OF BLOOD-STAINS
BY
LIEUT.-COLONEL W. D. SUTHERLAND, M.B., I.M.S.
(Edited by the Director-General, Indian Medical Service)
.
Issued under the Authority of the Government of India by the Sanitary
Commissioner with the Government of India
CALCUTTA
SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA
1910
Price Annas 8 or 9d.
3 9 4 3 0 7 9
No. 39.
(NEW SERIES)
SCIENTIFIC MEMOIRS
BY
OFFICERS OF THE MEDICAL AND SANITARY DEPARTMENTS
OF THE
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
THE APPLICABILITY TO MEDICO-LEGAL PRACTICE
IN INDIA OF THE BIOCHEMICAL TESTS FOR
THE ORIGIN OF BLOOD-STAINS
BY
LIEUT.-COLONEL W. D. SUTHERLAND, M.B., I.M.S.
( Edited by the Director-General, Indian Medical Service )
Issued under the Authority of the Government of India by the Sanitary Commissioner
with the Government of India
CALCUTTA
SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA
1910
B
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List of numbers of Scientific Memoirs by Officers of the Medical and
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No. 1. Standardisation of Calmette's Anti-Venomous Serum with Pure Cobra Venom :
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No. 7. Some Observations on the Poison of the Banded Krait (Bungarus Fasciatus), by
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No. 8. A Preliminary Report on a Parasite found in Patients suffering from Enlargement
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B 2
THE APPLICABILITY TO MEDICO-LEGAL PRACTICE
IN INDIA OF THE BIOCHEMICAL TESTS FOR
THE ORIGIN OF BLOOD-STAINS.
A T the instance of the Government of India I worked at the Medical College,
Calcutta, for twelve months, with a view to ascertain whether the bio-
chemical tests for the origin of blood-stains might be easily applied to medico-legal
work in India. Most of what follows is deduced from the results obtained by me in
Calcutta.
I. — Historical.
The question as to whether a blood-stain, produced as a pièce à conviction
in a criminal case, is really due to human blood, is one that has much interested
medico-legists ever since the importance of blood-stains came to be recognised. So
early as in 1808 Jacopi is reported to have examined certain stains and declared
that the microscope had revealed that these were due to bovine, and not to
human blood. Mainly because the great Orfila did not believe in the accuracy
of the microscope this statement did not attract the attention that it deserved.
Orfila said 1 that he had often, when using the microscope, been unable to distin-
guish the blood of man from that of a pigeon, or indeed to be sure that it was
blood that he had before him. Now, although in 1673 Leeuwenhoek had arrived
at an approximately correct measurement of human blood cells, 2 t h e t e c h n i q u e
of the microscopists was still very defective in 1827, so that Orfila's statement
should arouse less wonder than Jacopi's.
In 1829 Barruel3 asserted that he had accidentally discovered that the
addition of concentrated sulphuric acid to a suspected stain caused the evolution
of an odour, by which one could tell that the stain was really due to blood, and
also could say what species the blood had come from. This story was received
by Orfila in good faith, 4 but in 1853 a relative of Barruel withdrew all claims
that had been made for the "test". Yet in 1881 Dragendorff wrote of it, not
1 ORFILA:—Nouveau mémoire sur le sang, considéré sous le rapport médico-légal. Journ de
chimie méd. 1827, 365, 413; 1828, 105,
I MANDL: —Recherches médico-légales sur le sang. Gaz. méd. de Paris. 1842, x, 560.
3 BARRUEL:—Mémoire sur l' existence dun principe propre à caractériser le sang de
l'homme et celui de diverses espèces d'animaux. Ann. d' hygiène, 1829, 267.
4 ORFILA, BARRUEL and CHEVALIER:—Taches de sang: rapport médico-légal. Ibid. 1835,
xiv, 349.
3
If the reader will take the trouble to refer to pages 53 and 55 of my mono-
graph on blood-stains 1 h e w i l l s e e t h e r e e l a b o r a t e t a b l e s o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s
of the various animals' blood-cells, as estimated by the leading authorities, and
he will note that, although there measurements are on the whole very near each
other, yet they are only average measurements: the highest and the lowest for
any given animal showing as great difference as exists between the average for
that animal and the average for another species. He will observe, too, that the
measurements are fixed for fresh cells. In a blood-stain the cells are dried and
shrunken, and one cannot be sure that by treating them with this or that fluid
they can be made to regain their original size. Of fresh blood examined by
means of the microscope Masson with characteristic candour stated 2 : "Our
experience has shown that, in the case of human blood, its differentiation from
the blood of a pig, ox, or cat is easy; from the blood of a dog difficult; from
the blood of a rabbit uncertain; and from the blood of a guinea-pig impossible."
How much the difficulties are increased by the change of shape and size caused
by drying, a little reflexion will show.
Micrometry having been tried in the balance and found wanting, endeavours
were made to hit upon some other character of blood that might be of service for
differentiation. Elaborate studies of the forms of the crystals of hæmoglobin
derived from various animals' bloods were made; but the painstaking work of
Michelsson3 showed that for forensic work these differences cannot be
utilised. Cotton4 t h o u g h t t h a t t h e m e r e c h a n g e o f f o r m c a u s e d b y d r y i n g
was a guide in the differentiation of the red blood cells of one species from those
of another; but no one has verified his statement as to the differences produced.
Thus, up to the close of the nineteenth century there had not been discovered
a sure and certain means of fixing the source of a blood-stain. It was then that
the subject of "antisera" and their reactions began to be closely studied. In
1899 Tchistovitch had reported that by carefully treating animals with eel-serum,
which is highly poisonous he had managed not only not to kill them, but even to
modify their blood-serum so that when brought in contact with eel-serum it caused
a precipitate to form in it.5 In 1900 Myers reported 6 that by treating
animals with injections of egg- and serum-albumen he had obtained from them
antisera for these substances, so that the sera of the treated animals precipitated
1 SUTHERLAND:—Blood-stains, their detection, and the determination of their source. London, 1907.
2 MASSON:—De l' origine du sang en médecine légale. Ann. d' hygiène. 1885, 385, 530.
3 MICHELSSON: —Die Differentialdiagnose von Menschen- und Tierblut in der forensischen Praxis.
Blätter f. ger. Med. 1906, 9, 116, 204, 285, 381.
4 COTTON:—Bull. gén. de thérap. 1901, cxli, 334.
5 TCHISTOVITCH:—Études sur l' immunisation contre le sérum d'anguilles. Ann. Inst. Pasteur.
1899, 406.
6 MYERS:—On immunity against proteids. Lancet, 1900, ii, 98.
4
solutions of these albumins. Uhlenhuth reported to the same effect 1 a n d
then he, and—independently of him—Wassermann and Schütze reported that
these facts could be turned to medico-legal use. 2
The first experiments on precipitating antisera that were made in India were
carried out in 1901 by Dr. E. H. Hankin, who reported them in the Annual Report
of the Chemical Examiner, Agra, for that year.
In 1904 Marx and Ehrnrooth thought that they had shown that the
agglutination of the blood-cells of one species by the blood-serum of another could
be utilised as a preliminary test.3 U h l e n h u t h i s s t i l l o f o p i n i o n t h a t t h i s i s t h e
case; I regret that my experiments, detailed in my monograph on blood-stains,
have convinced me that this test is of no forensic value.
In 1900 Deutsch had proposed that the hæmolysins should be utilised as a
guide, but for the method devised by him one needed intact blood-cells, and these
are none too common in blood-stains, so his method met with no acceptance. 4
In 1905 Neisser and Sachs proposed another method of utilising the hæmolysins,
and this has been much used all over the world as a confirmation of the results
obtained by means of the precipitin test.5
In 1909 Thomsen reported that the phenomena that are known as those of
Anaphylaxis, and occur when certain animals (preferably guinea-pigs) receive,
after some weeks' interval, a second dose of the blood of another species
might be utilised in differentiating the blood of one animal from that of other
species not nearly allied to it.6
Regarding these two tests I shall have a few words to say later; most of
what follows concerns the precipitin test. The agglutination test I have not
gone into since my previous work showed that it is not of value; but I am bound
to say that the agglutinins have again come to the fore as a means of differenti-
ating the blood of one individual from that of another of the same species.7
1 UHLENHUTH:—Neuer Beitrag zum spezifischen Nachweis von Eiereiweiss auf biologischem
Wege. Deutsche med. Wochenschr . 1900, 734.
Eine Methode zur Unterscheidung der verschiedenen Blutarten, im besonderen zum
differential diagnostischen Nachweise des Menschenblutes. Ibid. 1901, 82.
2 WASSERMANN and SCHÜTZE:—Ueber eine neue forensische Methode zur Unterscheidung von
Menschen- und Säugetierblüt. Berliner klin. Wochenschr. 1901, 187.
3 MARX and EHRNROOTH :—Eine einfache Methode zur forensischen Unterscheidung von Men-
schen- und Säugetierblut. Münchener med. Wochenschr. 1914, 293, 696.
4 DEUTSCH:—Die forensische Serum-Diagnose des Blutes. Centr. Bl. f. Bakt. 1901 xxix, 661.
5 NEISSER and SACHS:—Ein Verfahren zum forensischen Nachweis der Herkunft des Blutes
Berliner klin.Wochenschr. 1905, 1388 ; 1906, 67.
6
THOMSEN:— Om Serumanafylaxiens Specifictet, og om Muligheden af at anvende dennei den
mediko-forensiske Praxis til Adskillelse mellem Menneske-og Dyrblod. Hospitalstidende . 1909, 177.
7 V. DUNGERN and HIRSCHFELD:—Ueber eine Methode, das Blut verschiedener Menschen
serologisch zu unterscheiden. Münchener med. Wochenschr. 1910, 741.
5
Whether their supposed value for this purpose will stand the test of time remains
to be seen; I have grave doubts on the subject.
II.—The Precipitin Test.
When we inject into an animal of species A. the blood, or blood-serum of
another, not too closely allied, species B, then, in time, if the animal be immunis-
able—all animals of a species are unfortunately not so—we shall cause its blood to
be so profoundly modified that, when we bring its blood-serum in contact with a
dilution, and even a very high dilution, of the blood of species B, there is formed
a precipitate. It is of no moment, from the medico-forensic point of view,
whether the surface-tension of the colloid particles in suspension in the diluted
blood is altered, or their electric charge is changed in kind, as the final result of
the contact of the antiserum (the modified blood-serum of the immunised
animal). The outstanding fact is that a precipitate is formed. Nuttall's very
careful work 1h a s s h o w n t h a t , a l t h o u g h w e h a v e a " m a m m a l i a n r e a c t i o n "
when any anti-mammalian serum is brought in contact with any mammalian
blood-dilution, if time be given for the reaction to take place, and the dilution
be not a high one, yet if the time- and dilution-limits fixed by Uhlenhuth 2
be observed, the expert has no trouble in distinguishing between specific
and non-specific reactions: for the latter are entirely eliminated. The mam-
malian reaction, which is of the highest importance to the biologist, is there-
fore no hindrance to the work of the medico-legist. The limits fixed by
Uhlenhuth are these:—the dilution of the blood to be examined shall be at
least a thousand-fold dilution, and the reaction of this dilute blood shall be
evident within twenty minutes. Repeated observations by many competent
workers have shown that these limits are all that are needed to give sure value
to the test.
It was soon evident that dried blood-stains, on being treated with 0.85 per
cent. salt solution gave a fluid which was to all intents and purposes a dilute blood,
and reacted in a similar way. At first it was thought that the colour-index of
the solution was a good measure of the height of its dilution, but Nuttall showed
that it is not so to nearly the same extent as is the froth-index. When a solution
of albumin is shaken, or has air blown through it, the amount of froth produced.
and its permanency vary directly as the strength of the solution. With a little
practice one is able to treat an old dried blood-stain so as to obtain the required
dilution of its extract.
1 NUTTALL:—Blood relationship and blood immunity. Cambridge , 1904.
2 UHLENHUTH and BEUMBR:—Praktische Anleitung zur gerichtärztlichen Blutuntersuchung mit-
telst der biologischen Methode. Zschr. f. Med.-Beamte, 1903, pp. 185, 229.
6
Like all other tests used in forensic medical work the precipitin test has its
limitations, but unlike most tests— e.g. van Deen's guaiacum test—its limitations
are but few. The age of the stain, and the material stained have no influence on
the results obtainable if the extract of the stain be rendered nearly neutral, as
Graham-Smith and Sanger first pointed out, 1 a n d V i n c e n t a l s o o b s e r v e d .2
Biondi showed that the material is of no moment, 3 and Ponzio 4 proved that even
the blood of poisoned animals gives its normal reaction. Nuttall, Uhlenhuth and
Biondi showed that it makes no difference whether the blood tested be decomposed
or not—a matter of importance to workers in the tropics—and Ferrai, 5 Mirto6
and Biondi showed that heat, even as high as 120°C. (248°F.) does not so alter
a blood-stain that its extract ceases to give the reaction, when brought in contact
with the appropriate antiserum. Biondi too first pointed out that the
stains made when blood-sucking insects are crushed react according to the
animal on which the insect has been feeding, an observation, confirmed by
Uhlenhuth and by myself, which is of value for work in the tropics.
The few substances that cause an alteration of the constituents of a blood-
stain so profound that its extract, if obtained, will not give the characteristic
reaction are these:—mineral acids; corrosive sublimate; chloride of lime; sul-
phates of copper and iron; bisulphides of carbon and sodium; nitrate of silver;
thymol; and permanganate of potassium. The extract in these cases will not
react at all. It is not that it will give a positive reaction with some antiserum
other than the appropriate one, consequently one source of error is even here
eliminated.
I have been at some pains, here and in Europe, to verify the above-mentioned
-facts, and have been able to confirm them in all particulars.
So far as my results go, stains of 27 months' age in India give a good ex-
tract when treated with saline solution—those which do not do so readily respond
to treatment with cyanide of potassium, the resulting extract having its excessive
alkalinity corrected by the addition of tartaric acid, as Ziemke first recommended. 7
1 GRAHAM- SMITH and SANGER:—The biological or precipitin test for blood, considered mainly from
its medico-legal aspect. Journ. of Hygiene , 1903, p. 258.
2 VINCENT:—Le diagnostic médico-légal. Application de la méthode biologique. Ann. d' hygiéne,
1904, P. 44.
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