NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
7
prevented death, while 3 c.c. delayed, but did not prevent, a fatal issue (protocols,
table VII). We can, therefore, calculate that 1 c.c. of serum would be able
to neutralise the general action in vivo of at least 0.45 milligramme of the
venom of Crotalus adamanteus.
These experiments conclude the observations which have been made with
this serum and the various venoms, as far as their general actions in vivo are
concerned. We have found, that a serum prepared with the pure venom of
Daboia Russellii, a typical viperine poison, has no action whatever on any of the
colubrine poisons, five in number, against which it was tested : that it neutralises well
its homologous venom : that it has a certain, but not very marked, neutralising
effect on the venom of another viper, namely, the American rattlesnake : and that
it has no antitoxic action for the venom of a closely allied viper, Echis carinata,
nor for that of another Indian viper, Trimeresurus gramineus.
We have now to pass on to the consideration of some observations which
were made with the object of determining if a daboia venom anti-serum has any
hindering effect on the hæmolytic actions in vitro of a number of poisons, ten
in all. The technique employed was identical with that used in a similar series
of experiments, detailed in the last communication, with the anti-serum for cobra
venom and that for the poison of Hoplocephalus curtus. The following is a short
summary of the method. The red cells of the dog, as being very susceptible to
hæmolysis by all venoms, were chosen. The blood was first gently defibrinated :
the red cells were then carefully washed several times with salt solution (0.85 per
cent.), being centrifugalised between each washing. A 5 per cent. suspension of the
washed red cells was then made in sterile 0.85 per cent. salt solution. It was found
that these manipulations completely removed all serum complement. As a preli-
minary measure it was necessary to determine the minimum complete hæmolysing
dose of each venom for 1 c.c. of the 5 per cent. red cell suspension, when a fixed
amount of serum complement was added. The complement used was that of the
dog, and the amount employed was 0.5 c.c. of a two-fold dilution of fresh serum.
The tubes were placed in the incubator (37° C.) for one hour and then in the ice
chest over night. Working in this way the hæmolysing value of each poison was
accurately determined, and it was easy to fix the minimum amount of venom which
could bring about complete hæmolysis of a fixed quantity of red cells. This
amount, or a very small multiple of this amount, was the quantity of venom
which was used as a test dose to determine whether or not daboia venom
anti-serum had any hindering effect on the hæmolytic actions of the various poisons.
The test dose of venom dissolved in 0.85 per cent. salt solution was mixed with
varying amounts of the serum and the mixtures were allowed to stand at
laboratory temperature for at least half an hour. To each tube was then added
1 c.c. of a 5 per cent. suspension of dog's washed red cells and 0.5 c.c. of
a two-fold dilution of dog's fresh serum. The preparations were then treated
8
as described above.
A reference to the protocols (table VIII) will show at a glance the results
obtained. In the first place, it was found that this serum had no hindering
effect whatever on the venom of any of the six colubrine snakes against which it
was tested. In the second place, it was found that it neutralised equally
well the venom with which it was prepared and the venom of Echis carinata :
that it had a considerable but less neutralising effect on the venom of the American
rattlesnake, but no hindering effect on the venom of Trimeresurus gramineus.
These results are of considerable interest and call for some comment. We
have previously seen that this serum has a certain neutralising effect on the
general action in vivo of the venom of Crotalus adamanteus. We now find
a corresponding effect on the hæmolytic action in vitro of this poison. We
have also seen that it has no neutralising effect on the general action in vivo
of the venom of Echis carinata : we now find that it prevents the hæmolytic
action of this poison as well as it prevents the same action of its homologous
venom. It is evident, therefore, that while the results got in vivo may correspond
with those obtained in vitro, we cannot, by any means, depend on this being
always the case, and that if we had been led to appraise the effect of the serum in
vivo from the results got in vitro, a procedure which would appear justifiable from
the testings with the venom of Crotalus adamanteus, we should have fallen into
serious error. Further, it is easily calculated that the neutralising value of a
specific serum for its venom as estimated by its effect in preventing the
hæmolytic action of the poison in vitro is no criterion of its power on the
general action of the poison in vivo. Thus, a reference to the protocols will
show that 0.04 c.c. of serum was able to completely neutralise the hæmolytic
action of 0.025 milligramme of daboia venom. From this it can be estimated
that 1 c.c. would be able to neutralise 0.625 milligramme. Now, we have already
seen that 1 c.c. of the same serum could neutralise 2.8 milligrammes of poison
in vivo, an amount 4½ times more than that which the same quantity of serum
could neutralise when tested against the hæmolytic action.
We have now to take up the concluding portion of the present investigation,
that is, the consideration of some observations which were made with the view
of ascertaining if a serum prepared with daboia venom has any hindering effect
on the action which some venoms exert on the coagulability of the blood plasma
as tested with citrate plasma in vitro.
As I have pointed out previously 8 daboia venom has a marked action in
increasing the coagulability of the blood, which action can also be demonstrated
in vitro with citrate plasma. I have also shown that this action is of the nature
of a ferment activity. Further, I have investigated this phenomenon with
9
the venoms of several other species and have found that all viperine venoms and
some colubrine poisons have a similar action to that of daboia venom. On the
other hand, the venoms of the cobra and of the king cobra have a direct anti-
ferment action, diminishing the blood coagulability in vivo and delaying or
completely inhibiting the clotting of citrate or oxalate plasma in vitro. The
venoms of the following snakes with which I have worked increase the coagula-
bility of the blood plasma, which action can be easily demonstrated with citrate
plasma in vitro : (1) Daboia Russellii, (2) Echis carinata, (3) Trimeresurus
gramineus, (4) Crotalus adamanteus and (5) Hoplocephalus curtus. If a suitable
amount of any of these poisons be added to citrate plasma clotting takes place,
in the case of the last four almost instantaneously. The action of daboia venom
in this respect is not so marked nor so energetic as that of the others : it takes
a larger quantity and a much longer time to bring about clotting than any of the
other four poisons.
Daboia venom anti-serum was now tested against this action of this group
of poisons. The test dose of each venom used was such an one as caused solid
clotting of 2 c.c. of citrate plasma within a short time. The following was the
method employed in all instances. The test dose of venom was mixed with
varying amounts of serum. The mixtures were allowed to stand at laboratory
temperature for half an hour. To each tube were then added 2 c.c. of citrate
horse plasma (1 per cent.). The results were noted at short intervals. From
table IX of the protocols it will be seen that, while the serum in small amount
had a complete hindering effect on this action of its homologous venom, it had
no neutralising effect on the other poisons against which it was tested. In this
respect it appears to be specific. As regards the venom of Crotalus adamanteus
this result appears to be in contradiction to the result obtained in the experiments
made in vivo. It is, however, to be noted that the test dose of this poison used
in the animal experiments did not produce an intravascular thumbosis : death was
due to other causes.
The following conclusions may now be drawn :—
1. By injecting a horse with pure unheated daboia venom an anti-serum for
this poison has been obtained. This serum is of considerable strength and has
a marked neutralising effect on all the actions of daboia venom both in vivo and
in vitro. It should be of considerable therapeutic value in cases of bites from
this snake.
2. The serum thus obtained is markedly but not strictly specific in vivo ;
it has no action on the poisons of five colubrine snakes against which
it was tested : it has a certain neutralising action on the venom of Crotalus
adamanteus, but has no effect on the venoms of two other vipers, namely, Echis
carinata and Trimeresurus gramineus.
C
10
3. When tested in vitro against the hæmolytic actions of the various poisons,
it is found that this serum has no neutralising effect on this action of any
colubrine venom : that it neutralises the venom of Echis carinata as well as it
does that of the poison with which it is prepared : that it has a marked but not
equally great effect on the venom of Crotalus adamanteus ; and that it has no
neutralising action on the venom of another viper, namely, Trimeresurus grami-
neus. Further, when tested in vitro against the fibrin ferment actions of various
poisons, it is found that, while this serum neutralises well its homologous
venom, it has no effect on the poisons of four other species, one colubrine
and three viperine, namely, (1) Hoplocephalus curtus, (2) Echis carinata,
(3) Trimeresurus gramineus and (4) Crotalus adamanteus.
4.These observations lead us to the same conclusion which was previously
arrived at and which receives the support of Noguchi's observations, 9 namely,
that an antivenomous serum is markedly but not strictly specific and that in
treating any case of snake bite the homologous serum must be used.
Protocols.
The two antivenomous sera, which were used in the observations detailed
below, were as follows:—
(1) The serum of a horse which had been immunised with pure unheated
cobra venom : when tested in vivo, 1 c.c. of this serum could
neutralise 0.7 milligramme of pure cobra venom.
(2) The serum of a horse which had been subjected for the period of a
year to repeated doses, gradually increasing in amount, of pure
unheated daboia venom.
In all the experiments to test the neutralising effect of these two sera
on the general action in vivo of the several venoms, rabbits were used.
The test dose, a small multiple of the minimum lethal dose either by sub-
cutaneous or intravenous injection, was mixed in vitro with different amounts of
the serum under experiment. The mixtures before injection were allowed to
stand at laboratory temperature for at least half an hour.
TABLE I.—Experiments to ascertain if a serum prepared with pure cobra
venom has any neutralising effect for the general action in vivo
of the venom of the king cobra (Naia bungarus).
The minimum lethal dose for rabbits of the sample of venom used was
0.35 milligramme by subcutaneous injection. The test dose now used was
about 6 lethal doses.
11
The following results were obtained :—
Animal.
Weight
in
grammes.
K. C. V.
in
milligrammes.
Serum.
Result.
Rabbit 1
.
.
1,020
2
10 C.C.
Died in 52 hours.
"
2
.
.
1,040
2
15 C.C.
Died in 52 hours.
„ 3 (Control)
1, 120
2
Nil.
Died in 2.½ hours.
From this it is seen that, while large amounts of serum were able to delay
death considerably, they did not completely neutralise the venom. It can be
calculated that I.c.c. of serum failed to neutralise 0.112 milligramme of poison.
TABLE II —Experimetns to ascertain if a serum prepared with pure cobra
venom has any neutralising effect for the general action in vivo
of Me venom of Bungarus cœruleus.
The minimum lethal dose for rabbits of the sample of venom used was 0.04
milligramme per kilo. by intravenous injection. The test dose now used was five
lethal doses, namely, 0.2 milligramme per kilo.
The following were the results :—
Animal.
Weight
in
grammes.
B. C. V. in
milligrammes
per kilo.
Serum.
Result.
Rabbit 1
.
.
1,110
0.2
5 C.C.
Died in 82 minutes.
2
•
•
1 , 1 8 0
0.2
3
c . c .
Died in 75 minutes.
„
3 (Control) .
1 , 0 0 0
0.2
Nil
Died in go minutes.
From this it is seen that 8 c.c. of serum had no effect whatever even in
delaying death. We can calculate that I c.c. of serum could not neutralise even
0.025 milligramme of venom.
TABLE III. —ExPeriments to ascertain if a serum prepared with pure daboia
venom has any neutralising effect for the general actions in
vivo of the poisons of five colubrine species.
(a) Cobra venom.—The test dose used was about 7 lethal doses by subcuta-
neous injection into rabbits.
C 2
1 2
The following was the result :—
Animal.
Weight
in
grammes.
C. V. in
milligrammes.
Serum.
Result.
Rabbit .
.
.
9 0 0
2
15 C.C.
Died in 2½ hours.
(b) King cobra venom.—The test dose used was about 6 lethal doses
by subcutaneous injection into rabbits. The following was the result:—
Animal.
Weight
in
grammes.
K. C. V. in
milligrammes.
Serum.
Result.
Rabbit 1
.
.
1 , 1 1 0
2
15 C.C.
Died in 3 hours.
" 2 (Control) .
1,120
2
Nil
Died in 2½ hours.
(c) Bungarus cœruleus venom.—The test dose used was 5 lethal doses
by intravenous injection into rabbits. The following was the result :—
Animal,
Weight
in
grammes.
B. C. V. in
milligrammes
per kilo.
Serum.
Result.
Rabbit 1 .
.
.
1,040
0.2
8 c.c.
Died in 1½ hours.
"
2
(Control)
.
1,000
0 2
Nil.
Died in 1½ hours.
(d) Bungarus fasciatus venom.—The test dose used was about 3 lethal
doses by intravenous injection into rabbits. The following was the result:—
Animal.
w e i g h t
in
grammes.
B. F. V. in
milligrammes
per kilo.
Serum.
Result,
Rabbit 1 .
.
.
1 , 1 1 0
2
15 C.C.
Died in 11 hours.
„
2 (Control)
.
1,290
2
Nil.
Died in 34 hours.
(e) Enhydrina valakadien venom.—The test dose used was 10 lethal
doses by subcutaneous injection into rabbits.
The following was the result :—
Animal.
Weight
in
grammes.
E. V. V. in
milligrammes
per kilo.
S e r u m .
Result.
Rabbit 1 .
.
.
8 7 0
0.5
15 C.C.
Died in 1½ hours.
"
2 (Control)
.
8 8 0
0.5
Nil.
Died i n 1½ hours.
13
TABLE IV.—Experiments to determine the neutralising power of a serum
prepared with pure daboia venom for the general action in
vivo of pure unheated daboia venom.
The minimum lethal dose of the sample of venom used was 0.1 milligramme
per kilo. by intravenous injection into rabbits. The test dose now used was 5
milligrammes per kilo., that is, 50 lethal doses. The following were the results.
All the rabbits were about one kilo. weight.
Animal.
D. V. i n
milligrammes.
Serum.
Result.
Remarks.
Rabbit
1
.
.
5
0 . 1
C . C .
Died in 2 minutes.
Intravascular clotting b
marked.
„
2
.
.
5
0.75 C.C.
”
Ditto.
”
3
.
.
5
1 c.c.
Died in 10½ hours. No intravascular clotting.
”
4
•
•
5
1.25 C.C.
”
31
”
Ditto.
,,
5
.
.
5
1 . 5
C . C .
”
34. ,,
Ditto.
„
6 .
.
5
1 . 7 5C
. C .
Recovered.
”
7
.
.
5
2 C.c.
”
”
8
.
.
5
3 C.C.
”
”
9 (Control)
5
Nil,
Died in 1 minute.
Intravascular clotting
marked.
From this table it is seen that 1 c.c. of serum was able to prevent the
intravascular clotting but was not able to save the life of the animal also, that
1.75 c.c. was able to completely neutralise the test dose of poison. We can,
therefore, calculate that 1 c.c. of serum would be able to neutralise 2.8 milli-
grammes of daboia poison.
TABLE V.—Experiments to ascertain if a serum prepared with pure daboia
venom has any neutralising effect on the general action in vivo
of the poison of Echis carinata.
The minimum lethal dose of the sample of venom used was 0.05 milligramme
per kilo. by intravenous injection into rabbits.
14
Two experiments were made :—
(a) In the first observation the test dose used was 2 lethal doses, that is,
milligramme per kilo. The following was the result :—
Animal.
Weight in
in
grammes.
E C. V. in
milligrames
per kilo.
Serum.
Result.
Rabbit 1
.
1 , 0 0 0
0.1
5 c.c.
Died in 2 minutes.
” 2 (Control) .
1 , 1 0 0
0 . 1
Nil.
Died in 2 minutes.
From this it can be calculated that 1 c.c. of serum could not neutralise
the general action in vivo of 0.012 milligramme of Echis carinata venom.
(b) In the second observation a single lethal dose was used as a test
dose.
The following was the result :—
Animal.
Weight
in
grammes.
E. C. V. in
milligrames
per kilo.
Serum.
Result.
Rabbit
.
.
.
910
0.03
5 c.c.
Died in 5 minutes.
TABLE VI.—Experiment to ascertain it a serum prepared with pure daboia
venom has any neutralising effect on the general action in
vivo of the poison of Trimeresurus gramineus.
There was not sufficient of this poison available to determine with accuracy
the minimum lethal dose. It was, however, ascertained that in rabbits 2 milli-
grammes per kilo. by intravenous injection killed, while milligramme per kilo.
was non-lethal. The test dose now used was 2 milligrammes per, kilo.
The following was the result :—
Animal.
Weight
in
grammes.
T. G. V. in
milligrames
per kilo.
Serum.
Result.
Rabbit I
.
.
.
1 , 0 1 0
2 5 c. c.
Died in 4½ days.
”
2 (Control)
.
1,030
2
Nil.
Died in 1½ days.
It is, therefore, apparent that this serum has no neutralising effect for the
general action in vivo of this poison.
15
TABLE VII.—Experiments to ascertain if a serum prepared with pure daboia
venom has any neutralising effect on the general action in
vivo of the poison of Crotalus adamanteus.
The minimum lethal dose of this venom was determined to be 0.25 milli-
gramme per kilo. of rabbit by intravenous injection. The test dose now . used was
8 lethal doses, namely, 2 milligrammes per kilo.
The following results were obtained :—
A n i m a l .
W e i g h t i n g r a m m e s .
C. A. V. in
milligrammes
per kilo.
Serum.
Result.
Rabbit 1
.
.
1,100
2
1 C.C.
Died in 1½ hours.
" 2
.
.
1,200
2
2 C.C.
"
1 ¾
"
"
3
.
•
1,180
2
3 c . c .
”
1 ¾ ,,
”
4
•
•
1,000
2
4 C.C.
Recovered.
„
5 (Control) .
1,030
2
Nil.
Died in 6 minutes.
From this table it is seen that 4 c.c. of serum were able to neutralise
8 lethal doses of poison. It can, also, be calculated that 1 c.c. of serum
would be able to neutralise 0.45 milligramme of Crotalus adamanteus venom.
TABLE VIII.—Experiments to ascertain if a serum prepared with pure daboia
venom has any neutralising effect on the hemolytic actions
of the venoms of various snakes.
The following technique was employed. Dog's blood was defibrinated : the
red cells were washed several times with 0 . 85 per cent. salt solution. A 5 per
cent. suspension of the washed red cells was made in 0.85 per cent. sterile salt
sol uti on : of thi s suspensi on 1 c. c. was the amount used i n each preparati on. The
test dose of venom was in each instance a single complete hmmolysing dose, or a
very small multiple of this amount, when a fixed quantity of serum complement was
added. This test dose and varying amounts of serum were mixed and allowed
to stand in contact for half an hour at room temperature. To each tube was then
a d d e d 1 c . c . o f t h e 5 p e r c e n t . r e d c e l l s u s p e n s i o n a n d 0 . 5 c . c . o f a t w o - f o l d
dilution of dog's fresh serum. The preparations were left in the incubator (37°C.)
for one hour and then placed in the ice chest for 18 to 20 hours, after which time
he results were recorded.
16
The letters at the top of each column are the initial letters of the genus and
species of each snake as follows :—
I.—Colubridœ.
1. Naja tripudians (cobra) = N. T.
2. Naja bungarus (king cobra) = N. B.
3. Bungarus cœruleus (krait) = B. C.
4. Bungarus fasciatus (banded krait) = B. F.
5. Hoplocephalus curtus (tiger snake) = H. C.
6. Enhydrina Valakadien (sea-snake) = E. V.
II.—Viperidœ.
7. Vipera Russellii (daboia) = V. R.
8. Echis carinata (phoorsa) = E. C.
9. Trimeresurus gratnineus (green pit viper) = T. G.
10.
Crotalus adamanteus (rattlesnake) = C. A.
Serum .
N. T.
0.025 Mgr.
N. B.
0 . 0 2 5 M g r .
B. C.
l 0.025 Mgr.
B. F.
0.05 Mgr.
H. C.
0.025 Mgr.
E. V.
0.1 Mgr.
V.P.
0.025 Mgr.
E. C.
0.05 Mgr.
T. G.
0.025 Mgr.
C. A.
0.025 Mgr.
2 C . C .
+
+
+
+
+
+
. . .
. . .
+
...
1 C.C.
+
+
+
+
+
+
. . .
. . .
+
. . .
0 . 8 C . C .
+
+
+
+
+
+
. . .
. . .
+
—
0 . 6 C . C .
+
+
+
+
+
+
....
...
+
—
0 . 4 C . C .
+
+
+
+
+
+
...
...
+
—
0.2 C.C.
+
+
+
+
+
+
...
...
+
—
0 . 1 C . C .
+
+
+
+
+
+
—
—
+
+
0 . 0 8 C . C .
...
...
...
...
...
...
—
—
...
+
0 . 0 5 C . C .
...
...
... ... ... ...
—
—
...
+
0 . 0 4 C . C .
...
...
...
... ...
...
—
—
...
+
0 . 0 2 C . C .
...
... ... ... ... ...
+
+ —
...
+
0 . 0 1 C . C .
... ... ... ... ... ...
+
+
...
+
0 . 0 8 C . C .
...
...
...
... ... ...
+
+
...
+
Nil
(Control).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Complete hæmolysis : — no hæmolysis.
TABLE IX.—Experiments to ascertain if a serum prepared with pure daboia
venom can neutralise the actions on citrate plasma in vitro
of the venoms of (1) Daboia Russellii, (2) Echis carinata,
(3) Trimeresurus granzineus, (4) Crotalus adamanteus, and
(5) Hoplocephalus Curtus.
All these poisons clot citrate plasma in vitro without the addition of any
17
soluble salt of lime. The technique employed to test if daboia venom anti-serum
had any hindering effect on this action was as follows :—
The test dose of each poison, namely, an amount which clotted the control
in a short time, was mixed with varying quantities of serum. The mixtures were
allowed to stand at laboratory temperature for half an hour, Then to each
tube there was added 2 c.c. of citrate horse plasma (1 per cent. citrate). A
control tube without serum was prepared in each instance.
The following results were obtained :—
Serum. D. R. V. 2 Mi l l i grs.
E. C. V. 0.5 Milligrs.
T. G. V. 0.3 Milligrs.
C . A . V . 0 . 0 5 M i l l i g r s .
H. C. V. 0.05 Milligrs.
1. 5 C. C.
Liquid after 24 hours.
Clotted 8
minutes.
Clotted 7
minutes.
Clotted 7
minutes.
Clotted 7
minutes.
1 C . C .
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
0.5 C.C.
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto •
Ditto
Ditto
0.25 C.C.
Ditto
Clotted 7
minutes.
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
0. 1 C. C.
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
0.5 C.C.
Ditto
Ditty
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
0.25 C.C.
Ditto
Clotted 5
minutes.
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
0.01 C.C.
Loose clot after 24 hours
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
0.005 C.C.
Clotted after 24 hours .
... ... ... ...
0.0025 C.C.
Clotted after 1 hour.
... ... ...
0.001 C.C.
Clotted after 1 hour
.
... ... ... ...
Nil (Control) Clotted after 1 hour
.
Clotted 5
minutes.
Clotted 7
minutes.
Clotted 7
minutes.
Clotted 7
minutes.
18
References.
1 'Scientific Memoirs by officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the
Government of India': New series: Nos. 5 and 10.
2 'Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society', Series B, Vol. 197, pp. 123-191.
3 'Indian Medical Gazette' : Sept. 1904, p. 332.
4 'The Lancet ', Feb. 11th, 1905, p. 388.
5 'Scientific Memoirs by officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the
Government of India' : New series : No. 10.
6 'Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society ', Series B, Vol. 197, pp. 327-345.
7 'The Lancet', Nov. 5th, 1904.
8 'Scientific Memoirs by officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the
Government of India ' : New series: No. 4.
9 'Brit. Med. Jour.' Sept. 10th, 1904, p. 580.
G. I. C. P. O.—No . 2426 S. C.—13-5-05.— P. M. M.—1145.
No. 16.
(NEW SERIES.)
SCIENTIFIC MEMOIRS
BY
OFFICERS OF THE MEDICAL AND SANITARY DEPARTMENTS
OF THE
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA.
THE SPECIFICITY OF ANTIVENOMOUS SERA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO A SERUM PREPARED WITH THE VENOM OF DABOIA RUSSELLI.
BY
CAPTAIN GEORGE LAMB, M.D., I.M.S.
ISSUED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
BY THE SANITARY COMMISSIONER WITH THE GOVERNMENT
OF INDIA, SIML
A.
CALCUTTA:
OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF GOVERNMENT PRINTING INDIA.
1905.
Price Annas 6 or 7d.
ANNUAL ADMINISTRATION REPORT
OF THE
CIVIL VETERINARY DEPARTMENT IN INDIA
FOR THE OFFICIAL YEAR
1896-97.