NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
K. C. SEN AND B. C. RAI SARKAR 189
4. Variations in the carotene intake have a marked effect on the carotene
and vitamin-A content of the blood plasma of animals.
5. The average vitamin-A potency of butterfat on a carotene intake
of 869,128 I. U. per day is about 9,745.9 I. U. per lb. of butterfat (January)
and it appears that this value can be still further raised by additional green
fodder feeding. The percentage recovery of carotene in butterfat with this
amount of carotene ingestion is only 1.16 showing a large wastage of this
material.
6. Carotene appears to contribute about 27 per cent of the total potency
of butterfat under this type of feeding, but, with increased green fodder
ingestion, it is possible to raise this figure up to about 35 per cent, but not
beyond this figure.
REFERENCES
Atkeson, F. W., Hughes, J.S., Kunreth, Bernice, L., Peterson, J.W., and Kramer, M.
(1937). J. Nutrition 14, 621
Baumann, C.A. and Steenbock, H. (1933). J. Biol. Chem. 101, 547
Baumann, C.A., Steenbock, H., Beeson, W. M. and Rupel, I. W. (1934). J. Biol.
Chem. 105,167
Booth, R.G., Kon., S. K., Dann, W. J. and Moore, T. (1933). Biochem. J. 27, 1189
Crawford, M. E. F., Perry, E. O. B. and Zilva, S. S. (1932). Med. Res. Coun. Spec. Rept.
Ser. No. 175
Davies, W. L. (1939). The Chemistry of Milk. (2nd edn.), p. 489
Fraps, G. S., Copeland, O. C., Treichler, R. and Kemmerer, A. R. (1937). Texas Agr.
Exp. Sta. Bull. 536
Fraps, G. S. and Treichler, R. (1932). Ind. Eng. Chem. 24, 1079
Gillam, A. E. and ElRidi, M. S. (1935). Biochem. J. 29, 2465
Gillam, A. E., Heilbron, I.M., Morton, R. A., Bishop, G. and Drummond, J. C. (1933).
Biochem. J. 27, 878
Olson, F. R., Hegsted, D. M. and Peterson, W. H. (1939). J. Dairy Sci. 22, 63
Watson, S. J., Drummond, J. C., Heilbron, I. M. and Morton, R. A. (1933). Emp. J.
Expt. Agric. 1, 68
Wilbur, J. W., Hilton, J. H. and Hauge, S. M. (1940). J. Dairy Sci. 23, 765
Woodman, H. E. (1939). J. Roy. Ag. Soc., London 100, 94
PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS FOR CHICKENS
BY
A. J. MACDONALD, B.Sc., B.Sc. (AFRI.), N.D.A.
Officer-in-charge, Poultry Research Section, Imperial Veterinary Research
Institute, Izatnagar
(Received for publication on 5 September 1941)
P REVIOUS experiments carried out by the author [1941] demonstrated
that cereal diets, even when supplemented with adequate amounts
of green food and calcium, gave very inadequate results when fed as the sole
diet to young chickens. From day old to six weeks, very satisfactory growth
results and low mortality were obtained by feeding chicks with a mixed cereal
ration plus liberal amounts of green food and calcium supplemented with
separated milk only to drink. From 6-24 weeks, the basal ration plus separat-
ed milk and water in separate containers gave satisfactory growth, low morta-
lity and early sexual maturity. In efforts to reduce the cost of chick rations,
supplement of soya-bean meal plus salt, though not so satisfactory as the
supplement of separated milk, gave results which indicated that suitable
vegetable proteins plus salt might be used with considerable success when
separated milk was unobtainable or too expensive.
In view of the limited amounts of soya-bean meal available in many
parts of India, it was decided to conduct a further trial with a cheap vege-
table protein which could be obtained fairly easily in all parts of the country.
Ground earthnut cake, hereafter referred to as earthnut meal, was used in
this study and the results have been compared with those obtained by using
a separated milk supplement.
Stock
A total of 118 wing-banded week-old chicks, hatched in November, 1939
were divided into two groups :
TABLE I
Breed
White Leghorn . . .
Rhode Island Red . . .
Desi
.
.
.
.
Total .
No. of chicks
Group 1
16
23
20
59
No. of chicks
Group 2
15
23
21
59
190
A. J. MACDONALD 191
Feeding
Both the groups were fed on mash and grain rations throughout the whole
experiment. The mash was fed ad libitum in suitable containers and the
grain was fed in the morning and evening according to appetite. Broken
limestone of suitable size was fed ad libitum throughout and liberal amounts
of succulent green food (berseem) were fed daily.
The basal mash fed consisted of wheat bran 50 parts, yellow maize meal
30 parts and finely ground oats 20 parts. During the first eight weeks of the
experiment, the grain ration consisted of equal parts of broken yellow maize,
jowar and cheena. From eight weeks onward, the grain mixture consisted of
equal parts of broken yellow maize, wheat and paddy. Group 1 was fed the
basal rations plus separated milk only to drink during the first nine weeks.
From nine weeks onward, separated milk and water in separate containers
were fed instead of the separated milk only. Group 2 was given water to drink
throughout but, up to 16 weeks, the basal mash was supplemented with 20
per cent earthnut meal and 1 per cent common salt. From 16-24 weeks, a
supplement of 10 per cent earthnut meal and 1 per cent common salt was
used in place of the previous supplement of 20 per cent earthnut meal and
1 per cent salt. Table II gives the average composition of the mashes and
grain fed to the birds.
Rate of growth
The chickens were weighed individually on each occasion and the average
weekly or biweekly weights in ounces of the cockerels and pullets of each
breed in each group are given in Table III. For convenience, Group 1, fed
on separated milk only to drink for the first nine weeks and separated milk
and water from that time onward, is hereafter known as the ' milk fed group '
and Group 2 fed on the earthnut mash as the ' earthnut group '. The cocker-
els were removed from the experiment at 10 weeks.
The weights of the cockerels and pullets of the three breeds were greater
in Group 1 at each weighing from two to eight weeks of age. The differences in
weight between the corresponding birds in the two groups became consistently
greater at each weighing in the milk-fed group. At 10 weeks of age, the birds
in the milk group were significantly heavier than the corresponding birds in
the earthnut group. At 10 weeks, the average weights of the White Leghorn,
Rhode Island Red and desi males in Group 1 were 26 . 4, 28.6 and 20.0 oz.
respectively, whilst the corresponding figures in Group 2 were 19.4, 21.7
and 16.3 oz. respectively. The average weights of the females in Group 1
at 10 weeks were White Leghorn 22.7, Rhode Island Red 26.2 and desi 18.5
oz. whilst in Group 2 the corresponding figures were 16.4, 18. 5 and 14.2
oz. respectively. From 10 to 16 weeks, the Rhode Island Red and desi
pullets in Group 1 grew somewhat faster than the corresponding birds in
Group 2 but the White Leghorn pullets in Group 2 grew slightly faster than
the pullets in Group 1. At 16 weeks, the average weights of the White Leg-
horn, Rhode Island Red and desi pullets in Group 1 were 38.5, 46.7 and 36.3
oz. respectively. The corresponding figures in Group 2 were 33.9, 38. 3
192
Protein Supplements for Chickens
TABLE II
Food composition (percentages) on dry matter basis
Feeding stuff
Basal mash
Wheat bran 50 parts .
Yellow maize 30 parts .
Ground oats 20 parts .
Earthnut mash (20 per cent)
Basal mash 79 parts . .
Earthnut cake 20 parts .
Salt 1 part . . .
Earthnut mash (10 per cent)
Basal mash 89 parts . .
Earthnut cake 10 parts . .
Salt 1 part . .
Chick grain
Yellow maize . .
Cheena .
.
.
.
Jowar
.
.
.
.
Grower's grain
Yellow maize . .
Wheat
.
.
.
.
Paddy
.
.
.
.
Separated milk . . . .
Earthnut cake . . . .
Fibre
12.4
10.8
11.6
5.8
4.6
0
5.2
Crude
protein
11.5
18.7
15.0
9.9
9.7
30.0
48 .0
Ether
extract
5.8
6.1
5.9
4.2
3.1
5.1
7.6
Nitrogen-
free
extract
63.6
57.0
60.0
77.4
79.5
44.5
33.7
Ash
6.7
7.4
7.5
2.7
3.1
9.4
5.5
A.
J.
MACDONALD
193
TABLE III
Average weights of cockerels and pullets in oz.
Breed
Group
Sex
1 week .
2 weeks .
3 „ .
4
„ .
5
„ .
6 „ .
7 „ .
8 „ .
10 „ .
12 „ .
14 „ .
16 „ .
18 „ .
20 „ .
22
„ .
24 „ .
White Leghorn
1
Male
1.8
3.3
4.2
6.0
8.3
10.3
13.6
19.3
26.4
Female
1 .7
2.6
4.0
5.5
6.9
9.0
12 .4
16 .2
22.7
26.2
32.7
38.5
43.3
46.3
53.8
57.2
2
Male
1 .7
2.2
3.0
4.3
5.9
8 .1
9.8
12.3
19.4
Female
1.7
2.2
2.9
4.1
5.5
7.4
8.8
10.9
16.4
21.7
28.7
33.9
40.7
45.3
52.6
55.1
Rhode Island Red
1
Male
1.8
2.7
4.3
6.5
8.9
11.6
15.2
20.3
28.6
Female
1 .8
2.7
4.3
5.9
8.0
10.8
14.6
19.4
26.2
32.2
39.4
46.7
54.7
62.0
69.4
74.5
2
Male
1 .8
2.2
3.0
4.4
6.0
8.2
11.3
14.3
21 .7
Female
1 .8
2.1
2.8
3.9
5.6
7.8
9.4
11.9
18.5
24.7
32.8
38 .3
46 .5
52.4
62.8
67 .8
Desi
1
Male
1 .4
2.2
3.3
4.3
6.0
8.0
10.2
14.2
20.0
Female
1 .4
2.2
3.3
4.2
5.8
7.4
9.7
13.7
18.5
24.8
31 .0
36.3
41 .6
46.4
49.9
51 .8
2
Male
1 .4
1 .8
2.5
3.6
4.9
6.7
8.1
10.3
16 .3
Female
1 .4
1 .7
2.2
3.0
4.7
5.7
6.8
8.7
14.2
18.8
25.1
30.6
36 .1
39 .9
45.4
48.4
194
Protein Supplements for Chickens
and 30.6 oz. respectively. The weights of the pullets of all the three
breeds in Group 1 at this stage were significantly greater than those of the
corresponding birds in Group 2. At 24 weeks of age, the average weights
of the White Leghorn, Rhode Island Red and desi pullets were 57.2, 74.5
and 51.8 oz. respectively, whilst the corresponding figures in Group 2
were 55.1, 67.8 and 48.4 oz. respectively. The Rhode Island Red pullets
in Group 1 at 24 weeks were significantly heavier than those in Group 2 but
there were no significant differences in the average weights in either the White
Leghorn or desi pullets in Groups 1 and 2 respectively.
Food consumption
Table IV gives the average food consumption per bird in pounds for
each group for the first period of three weeks and each subsequent period
of four weeks and the food consumption in pounds per pound of live
weight gain. In order to make the figures comparable, the milk consumed
by Group 1 was brought to a dry matter basis and the figure so obtained
was added to those of the mash and grain consumed.
TABLE IV
Food consumption
Period
in weeks
1. 1—4
2. 4—8
3. 8—12
4. 12—16
5. 16—20
6. 20—24
Whole period
....
Average food con-
sumption per bird in
pounds
Group 1
1.26
2.76
4.85
5.33
6.16
5.48
25.84
Group 2
1.03
2.46
4.61
5.19
6.23
6.48
26.00
Food consumption in
pounds per pound live-
weight gain
Group 1
5.38
3.66
6.54
6.72
8.81
9.44
6.76
Group 2
7.12
5.26
6.07
6.58
8.17
8.57
6.96
During the first four periods, the birds in Group 1 consumed slightly more
food during each period than those in Group 2 but in periods 5 and 6 the
average food consumption per bird was higher in Group 2 than in Group 1.
During the first two periods, the birds in Group 1 made considerably better
utilization of their food than those in Group 2 but in the remaining four periods
Group 2 made slightly better utilization of the food consumed than Group 1
A. J. MACDONALD 195
Protein consumption
Table V gives details of the total protein percentages contained in the
food consumed for the six periods of the experiment.
TABLE V
Protein consumption
Period
(in weeks)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1—4
5—8
9—12
13—16
17—20
21—24
Percentage protein
Group 1
12.2
12.9
12.2
11.2
11.0
11.5
Group 2
15.0
15.0
14.8
13.8
11.5
11.5
In Group 1, the percentage of protein in the food consumed rose from 12.2
in period 1 to 12.9 in period 2 and thereafter fell steadily during periods 3,
4 and 5 but rose slightly to 11.5 in period 6. In Group 2, the percentage of
protein consumed remained fairly steady round 15.0 during the first three
periods but fell to 13.8 in period 4. During periods 5 and 6, whilst the birds
were fed on a mash supplemented by only 10 per cent earthnut meal and salt
the percentage of protein in the food consumed was 11.5 in each period.
Mortality
The general health of the birds in both groups was satisfactory through-
out, but, during the first 12 weeks, those in Group 1 handled better, were
more uniform in size and feathered better than those in Group 2. These
differences, however, tended to disappear as the experiment progressed and,
except for the difference in size and weight, the two groups were very similar
in appearance at 24 weeks. The mortality in each of the groups from 1-24
weeks was only 3.4 per cent.
Egg production
Table VI gives particulars in regard to the age at first egg, the percentage
of birds laying at 24 weeks and the average egg production and weight for
each breed in both groups. At 24 weeks, the White Leghorn and Rhode
Island Reds of both groups were put on a standard diet for a further period
of two weeks and Table VII gives details of the egg production.
O
196
Protein Supplements for Chickens
TABLE VI
Egg production
Group
Breed
Age at first egg (days) .
Percentage of birds laying at
24 weeks
Average egg production per
bird to 24 weeks
Average egg weight (oz.)
1
White
Leg-
horn
174
0
0
0
Rhode
Island
Red
161
22
1.0
1.68
Desi
151
75
7.6
1.24
2
White
Leg-
horn
178
0
0
0
Rhode
Island
Red
173
0
0
0
Desi
164
43
0.9
1.16
In Group 1 the first egg was produced by the White Leghorns, Rhode Island
Reds and desis at 174, 161 and 151 days respectively. In Group 2, the corres-
ponding figures were 178, 173 and 164 days respectively. In Group 1 none of
the Leghorns, 22 per cent of the Rhodes and 75 per cent of the desis had started
to lay by 24 weeks, whereas none of the Leghorns or Rhodes and only 43
per cent of the desis had produced eggs in Group 2. At 24 weeks the average
egg production per bird in Group 1 was nil for the Leghorns, 1.0 for the Rhodes
and 7 . 6 for the desis. The corresponding figures in Group 2 were nil for the
Leghorns and Rhodes and 0. 9 for the desis.
TABLE VII
Egg production at 26 weeks
Group
Breed
Percentage of birds laying at 26 weeks
Average egg production per bird .
Average egg weight (oz.)
1
White
Leg-
horn
80
2.8
1.59
Rhode
Island
Red
56
5.0
1.49
2
White
Leg-
horn
43
0.9
1.57
Rhode
Island
Red
25
0.8
1 .55
In Group 1, 80 per cent of the Leghorns and 56 per cent of the Rhodes had
started to lay at 26 weeks, whilst in Group 2 the corresponding figures were
198
Protein Supplements for Chickens
(2) From 10 to 24 weeks, the feeding of milk and water in separate contain-
ers along with a cereal ration plus liberal amounts of green food and calcium
gave satisfactory growth results, efficient food utilization and a normal rate
of sexual maturity.
(3) From 1 to 16 weeks, a basal ration supplemented with 20 per cent
earthnut meal and 1 per cent salt in the mash did not give as good growth
results as a basal ration supplemented with separated milk only to drink
from 1 to 10 weeks and separated milk and water to drink from 10 to 16
weeks.
(4) From 16 to 24 weeks, the basal ration plus 10 per cent earthnut meal
and 1 per cent salt in the mash gave somewhat better growth results than
that given by the separated milk and water ration.
(5) Over the whole experimental period, the basal ration supplemented
with separated milk only to drink from 1 to 10 weeks and separated milk and
water from 10 to 24 weeks gave better growth results, more efficient food utili-
zation and earlier sexual maturity than the basal ration supplemented with
earthnut meal and salt.
(6) Satisfactory results were obtained with the basal ration plus separated
milk only to drink from 1 to 10 weeks and separated milk and water to drink
from 10 to 24 weeks, even though the percentage of protein in the ration was
considerably lower at all stages than the accepted standards.
(7) The results obtained with the earthnut cake ration, though not so
good as those obtained with the separated milk ration were fairly satisfactory
in regard to the rate of growth, general health, rapidity of sexual maturity
and efficiency of food utilization. In the absence of separated milk or other
suitable milk products, earthnut meal plus salt can be used with very consi-
derable success in chick rations.
REFERENCE
Macdonald, A. J. (1941). Nutritional experiments with chickens. Indian J. Vet. Sci.
& Anim. Husb. 11, 207
OBSERVATIONS ON NORMAL WORM BURDEN OF
GOATS FROM CERTAIN DISTRICTS IN THE
UNITED PROVINCES
BY
P. G. PANDE, M.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.
Veterinary Investigation Officer, United Provinces, Lucknow
(Received for publication on 1 September 1941)
D URING recent years, it may be said that considerable advance has been
made on the taxonomic study of different species of helminth parasites
[Bhalerao, 1940 and Thapar, 1939] found in goats in the United Provinces.
Though important, such studies have given little indication of the frequency
and intensity of infestation by any one species and as such, its true significance
as a cause of disease has remained undetermined.
During the ast few years field workers in this country have come across
conditions in sheep and goats in which clinical and post-mortem findings had
suggested diagnoses of helminthiasis on the basis of preponderance in number
of one or more than one species of worms found in certain organs of the body.
Such instances in goats are acute paramphistomiasis [Sahai, 1938 ; Bawa,
1939 ; and Pande, 1939] caused by immature paramphistomes, parasitic
gastro-enteritis [Bawa, 1938] caused by Haemonchus contortus and a few other
Strongyloid worms, and parasitic pneumonia [Chadha, 1937 and Balwant
Singh, 1938] caused by Varestrongylus pneumonicus. These reports, there-
fore, clearly indicate that the pathogenicity of helminth parasites would, to
a great extent, depend upon their numerical strength, whether occurring singly
or mixed with other species in their normal habitats in the body of the host.
The necessary pre-requisite, therefore, in the diagnosis of helminthic
conditions is reliable knowledge of the normal worm burden of animals, and as
far as goats are concerned, an attempt is made in this paper to supplement
the meagre data on the frequency and intensity with which normal goats are
infested with different species of helminth parasites in certain localities in these
provinces.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This survey was started in September 1940, at the Provincial Central
Laboratory, Lucknow, goats in apparently good health and required fo the
production of Goat Tissue Virus against rinderpest being utilized for the pur-
pose. These animals were purchased either from a local market or from out-
lying villages at a distance of a few miles from Lucknow. During 1941, from
May to July the work was conducted at the slaughter houses in Nainital,
Ranikhet and Mussoorie, where animals in average health as judged by general
standards were selected for the collection of parasites. In August 1941,
199
P. G. PANDE 201
These were found attached to the mucosa of the pyloric region of the aboma-
sum and the duodenum to the extent of about six inches from the pyloric orific.
These numbered about 500 in one and about 350 in another, and on identifica-
tion appeared to be the larval forms of P. cervi and C. cotylophorum. As a
result of infestation by these forms the duodenal wall was thickened and oede-
matous, the mucous coat was covered with necrotic material, and when washed,
several minute necrotic ulcers were detectable on the mucous membrane.
The liver fluke, Fasciola gigantica (Cobbold 1855) was found in the livers
of five goats in a mild degree of infestation, the maximum number recovered
being six in one goat.
Calcareous nodules due to Schistosoma indicum (Montgomery 1906) infection
were observed on the livers of four goats, the number of nodules varying from
3 to 10. One goat showed evidence of recent infestation in which hæmorrhagic
areas were seen in the liver parenchyma. The parasites identified as Schisto-
soma indicum (Montgomery 1906) were recovered from the mesenteric veins of
two of these goats, the number being 5 from one and 8 from the other. The
mucous membranes of the caecum and a part of the colon of both goats showed
thickening and ulcerations, and scrapings from these on microscopic examina-
tion revealed numerous ova of S. indicum.
3. NEMATODES
A. Parasites of the respiratory system
Protostrongylus rufescens (Leuckart 1865), the cause of verminous bronchi-
tis, was recovered from one goat which contained only six specimens of this
parasite in its bronchial tubes. Varestrongylus pneumonicus [Bhalerao, 1932]
the common lung nematode of hill goats of these provinces, was curiously
enough encountered in one goat only at the slaughter house in Nainital. This
parasite has been known to cause fatal verminous pneumonia in hill goats of
this province and occasionally also in goats in other provinces.
B. Parasites of the alimentary canal
(a) Abomasum or fourth
stomach
Haemonchus contortus (Rudolphi 1803), the well-known 'stomach worm '
of ruminants, was present in 80 goats out of 120 examined. Of these, eight
showed a very mild degree of infestation, the goats harbouring from 3 to 25
worms. Sixty cases were classed as having a mild infestation, with the
count of from 25 to 100 worms. Eight goats had a moderately heavy infes-
tation of from 100 to 500, and four were those in which infestations might be
said to be fairly heavy with the count of from 500 to 1,500 worms. With the
presence of over a thousand worms in the abomasum the only pathological
changes noticeable were slight oedema of the mucous coat and a fairly large
number of petechial marks studded over the membrane.
(b) Duodenum, Jejunum and Ileum
Trichostrongylus colubriformis (Giles 1892), the common nematode worm
infesting chiefly the duodenum, was collected from 25 goats. In two goats
it occurred at the rate of 10 in each, in 10 the number varied from 100 to 500,
and 13 animals had a fairly heavy infestation of from 500 to 3,000 worms.