NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
M. ANANTARAMAN 127
till the region of the pars ejectrix as the descending limb and travels forwards
for nearly the same distance, coiled many times in its course.
FIG. 25. The tail of a female adult; the ovary, uterus, pars haustrix, pars ejectrix,
vagina, and vulva are shown.
It is with this complicated sexual equipment that the adult lives in the
colon of the cattle propagating its race in the usual prolific manner.
M. ANANTARAMAN 129
No. 13 also infected likewise previous to 23 October 1940 continues to dis-
charge eggs to this day, 9 June 1941.
In artificial infections, the same technique as was employed for 0.
columbianum was adopted here. Both gradual and sudden infections were
caused and the calf that took superimposed doses of larvæ died sooner than the
one which had an intake of larvæ in one instalment.
Death of the host may be due to two varieties of œsophagostomiasis,
(1) traumatic and (2) toxic.
In calf No. 4. which had had repeated doses of larvæ from 16 October
1939 to 27 December 1939 in 23 instalments each ranging from 100 to
1200 in number, death was caused during the larval development of the
worm. The motion was loose and sloppy on 28 December 1939 and 29
December 1939 ; the animal went off feed from 18 January 1940, showed an
inordinate thirst on the 21 and 22, and started a mucus and blood-tinged
diarrhoea from the 18, which persisted till death and with which numerous
ourth-stage and adult 0. radiatum were passed. The attitude was dull and
indifferent, the abdomen tucked up, and the body was trembling, for two days
prior to its death on the 22 January 1940. There was a general physical
decay in the last stages. Numerous worms, adult and larval, were present
in the intestine.
(2) Calf No. 2 was drenched with 1500 larvæ on 12 September 1939.
Symptoms definitely attributable to this infection were not observed until
several months had passed. During the last days, constipation and diarrhoea
alternated in a mild form, and the animal had been much weakened. Its
Weight on 19 September 1939 was 112 lb., which gradually increased to 132
lb., on 18 January 1940 and thereafter declined to 116 lb. on 9 May 1940.
There was a good appetite. The debility was enormous in the last stages and
the animal was unable to stand steady due to muscular weakness of the hind-
limbs, and frequently fell on the floor in attempting to rise. The last fall on
12 May 1940 resulted in abrasions over the body and probably a sprained
back. The animal proved unequal to the strain and expired during the night
of 14 May 1940. About 40 worms were present inside. Here death may be
ascribed to verminous intoxication.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The development of O. radiatum proceeds on the same lines as Bunostomum,
Haemonchus and other species of Oesophagostomum, being in five larval stages
and with an ecdysis between two successive stages. The following table
represents in a summarised form the order and place of their occurrence.
Host
Field
.
.
.
.
Intestinal lumen .
.
.
Nodule
.
.
.
.
Caecum and colon
.
.
Egg
I stage larva .
I ecdysis . .
II stage larva .
III stage larva .
II ecdysis
III stage larva .
III ecdysis . .
IV stage larva .
IV ecdysis .
V stage adult .
Non-Parasitic.
Infective.
Parasitic.
*Eggs of O. radiatum are discovered in the faeces of the calf even on 31 March 1942,
So, the infection may be regarded as lasting for at least 17 months.
130
Oesophagostomum radiatum
The various stages of the worm bear a close resemblance to the corres-
ponding stages in the other species of Oesophagostomum, the development of
which is so far known, in development, structure and behaviour. Below is an
analytical chart to compare the rate of growth in and the measurements of
the free-living stages of five species of Oesophagostomum.
Egg . . .
I Stage larva . .
II Stage larva . .
Infective larva .
Hatching time of egg
Time required for
Infective stage.
O. apiostomum
0.073 to 0.084
×0.044 to 0.057
0.34×0.016
...
0.9×0.03
12—24 Hours.
3—4 day
O. columbianum
0.083×0.054
0.41×0.017
0.62×0.025
0.80×0.028
7—20 hours
4 days
O. dentatum
0.07 to 0.074 ×
0.04 to 0.042
0.435×0.025
...
0.06 to 0.72
×0.03
...
...
O. longicaudum
...
...
...
...
...
5—7 days
O. radiatum
0.088 to 0.095
× 0.044 to 0.055
0.4 to 0.43 ×
0015
0.63×0.02
0.82×0.025
12—20 hours
4 days
(All measurements in millimetres)
The Oesophagostomum.larva can be described as having a long, filiform
tail and a zig-zag intestinal lumen and as reaching the infective stage about
the fourth day. The infective larvae of some of the species of Oesophagos-
tomum
The larvae of O. columbianum and O. apiosotomum have not been said to possess
any but the mature larva of O. dentatum [Goodey, 1924] has a complex net-
work of fibres in the anterior end of the œsophagus, and that of O. radiatum
has a triradiate cuticular design in the region of the buccal capsule. The
cells of the chyle intestine of the infective larva are 16 in O. dentatum 18
O. columbianum and 20 in O. radiatum.
In all cases, the nodules are formed only in the sub-mucosa of intestine,
and all species of the worm, except O. dentatum of pig [Goodey, 1926], are
known to cause these nodules as a reaction to their entry into the intestinal
wall, to undergo the third ecdysis in them and return to the intestinal lumen.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I cannot express how sensible I am of the valuable help I received from
Rao Sahib M. Anant Narayan Rao, Lecturer in Parasitology, Madras Veteri-
nary College, during the progress of this work.
To Mr S. N. Vaidyanathan, the Assistant in the Section, whose cooperation
I had the privilege all along to have and to Mr P. Doraiswami Mudaliar, whose
photography has contributed much to this article, I am deeply grateful. I am
also under obligation to Mr M. R. V. Panikkar, Principal, Madras Veterinary
College and Mr T. J. Hurley, Director of Veterinary Services, Madras for their
constant encouragement and the facilities offered for this work.
REFERENCES
Chandler, A. A. (1929).
Hookworm Disease. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.
Cleland, J. B. (1907). Nodules containing larval nematode worms in the intestinal sub-
mucosa of a bullock. J. Trop. Vet. Sci. 2, 67
M. ANANTARAMAN 131
Fourie, P. J. J. (1936). A contribution to the study of the Pathology of Oesopfiagoslo-
miasis in sheep. Ond. J. Vet. Sci. 7, (1), 277
Goodey, T. (1924). The anatomy of Oesophagostomum dentalum, a Nematode parasite
of the Pig, with observations on the structure and biology of the free-living larvæ.
J. Helm. 2, 1
—(1924).
Oesophagostomes of Goats, Sheep and Cattle. J. Helm. 2, 97
—
(1926). Some stages in the development of Oesophagostomum dentalum from
the pig. J. Helm. 4, 191
Jowett, W. (1911). Nodular disease of the intestines of cattle. Agric. J. Union of S.
Africa, 2, 581
—(1912).
Nodular intestinal disease of cattle. J. Comp. Path and Ther.
Marotel, G. (1908). La maladie nodulaire des bovines est une œsophagostomose.
Jour. de Med. Vet. et de Zootechnic, 59 .
Mayhew, R. L. (1939). Studies on bovine gastro-intestinal parasites I: The mode of
infection of the hookworm and nodularworm. Cornell Vet. 29, (4)
Monnig, H. 0. (1933). The cause of nodular enteritis in cattle. Onder. J. Vet. Sci. and
Ani. Ind. 1, (1), 63
Neumann, L. G. (1905). Parasites and parasitic diseases of domesticated animals
(Translation by Flemming), Baillere, Tindall and Co., London
Spindler,L. A. (1933). Development of the nodular worm, Oesophagostomum longicattdum,
in the pig. J. Agric. Res. 46, (6), 531
Thomas, H. W. (1910-11). The pathological report of a case of Oesophagostomiasis
in man. Ann. Trop. Med. and Parasit. 4, 57
Veglia, F. (1915). The life-history and anatomy of Haemonchus contortus, 3rd and 4th
Repts. Div. of Vet. Res. Africa
—(1923).
Preliminary notes on the life-history of 0. columbianum. 9th and 10th
Repts. Div. of Vet. Res. Africa. 809
—(1928).
Oesophagostomiasis in sheep. 13th and 14th Repts., Div. of Vet. Res.
Part II, 755
Walker, E. L. (1913). The life-history of Oesophagostomum apiostomum I. Development
outside the host. Phill. J. Sci., Sec. B. 501
Weinberg, M. (1908-10). Oesophagostomose des anthropoides et des singes inferieurs.
Arch. Parasit. 13, 161
EXPLANATION OF LETTERING IN TEXT-FIGURES AND PLATES
a. . . .
a. l. . . .
b. c. . . .
cas. c. . . .
cerv. gl. . . .
cerv. gr. . .
cerv. vcs. . .
ch. int. . .
c. w. . . .
d. . . .
d. l. . . .
e. d. . . .
exc. p. . .
gen. b. . .
g. r. . . .
int. . . .
l, . . .
anus.
antero-lateral ray.
buccal capsule.
caseating centre.
cervical gland.
cervical groove.
cervical vesicle.
chyle intestine.
cyst-wall.
dorsal ray.
descending limb of
ovary.
externo-dorsal, ray.
excretory pore.
genital bursa.
genital ru iment
intestine.
larva.
lp. . . .
l. v. . . .
m. l. . . .
m. m. . . .
n. . . .
n. c . . . .
n. r. . . .
oes. . . .
or. m. . . .
ov. . . .
p. b. . . .
p. e. . . .
p. h. . . .
p. l. . . .
rect. . . .
r. l. . . .
s. m. . . .
sp. . . .
lips.
latero-ventral ray.
medio -lateral ray.
mucous membrane.
nucleus.
nerve-cells
nerve-ring.
œsophagus.
oral marking.
ovary.
polar body.
pars ejectrix.
pars haustrix.
postero-lateral my.
rectum.
rectal ligament.
sub-mucosa.
spicules.
132
Oesophagostomum radiatum
EXPLANATION OF LETTERING IN TEXT-FIGURES AND PLATES—contd.
t. . .
test. . . .
ut. . . .
v. . . .
tooth.
testis.
uterus.
vulva.
vag. . . .
v. c. . . .
v. d. . . .
v. v. . . .
vagina.
valvular cells.
vas deferens.
ventral ray.
LIVER FLUKE AND ITS CONTROL IN HYDERABAD
STATE*
BY
† M. R. MAHAJAN, M.R.C.V.S.
Veterinary Investigation Officer, H. E. H. the Nizam's Dominions
Hyderabad, Deccan
(Received for publication on 11 July 1941)
(With Plates XII-XV)
INTRODUCTION
F ASCIOLIASIS or liver fluke- disease is the most serious helminthic infesta-
tion in cattle, sheep and goats in this country. The next in importance may
perhaps be the conditions brought about by blood flukes, especially Schistosoma
nasalis, the cause of bovine nasal schistosomiasis in India. Sewell [ 1922 ]
by his valuable contribution on Cercariæ indicæ has very much simplified the
study and shown the importance of the role of intermediary host, the fresh
water snails in this disease. The control of diseases caused by trematoda or
flukes, by cutting the life-cycle through the removal of the intermediary hosts
is not only of importance to this country but has engaged the attention of
many other countries, viz. America, Australia, Japan, Iraq and Egypt since
these diseases are common to both man and animal.
The occurrence of liver fluke (Fasciola gigantica) has been recognized
by the Civil Veterinary Department in the Hyderabad State for many years
[ Rais Jung, 1932 ]. The disease is most commonly met with in central and
south eastern parts of the State (Telangana). Irrigation in these parts is
from tanks and, due to excessive rains, this area is usually water-logged.
Recently, some large irrigation projects have been completed by damming
rivers. Among these projects are those of Pocharam and Nizamsagar.
The investigation of this problem was carried out by the author since
1932 and this paper records the work done with a view to determine :—
(i) the extent and severity of liver fluke disease in animals,
(ii) the types of flukes responsible,
(iii) the types of intermediary mollusc hosts present, and
(iv) suitable methods of treatment and control.
OCCURRENCE
Most of the operations regarding this problem were carried out in the
canal areas, where liver fluke infestation is a serious menace. The completion
* Also incorporates two papers on the subject read by the author at the Indian Science
Congress, 1937 and 1939.
† Working in a scheme jointly financed by the Imperial Council of Agricultural
Research and H. E. H. the Nizam's Government.
133
134
Liver Fluke and its Control in Hyderabad State
of the Nizamsagar project brought about heavy loss to the cultivators due
to high mortality amongst their cattle. The area affected is under develop-
ment for the increased cultivation of paddy and sugarcane and is situated
between the left bank of the canal and the river Manjra including the taluqs
of Banswada, Bodhan, Armur and Nizamabad of Nizamabad district. The
area fed by the Pocharam canal comprises villages in Medak and Yellareddi
taluqs of Medak district. Besides, sheep at Hingoli and cattle at Himayat¬
sagar farm have been shown to be affected and infestation has also been con-
firmed in the districts of Aurangabad, Warangal, Nalgonda, Mahabubnagar,
Asifabad, Hyderabad and Atrafbalda.
Most of the material for the article is the result of systematic survey
carried out in twenty-four villages in Nizamsagar area and four villages in
Pocharam area and of experimental control measures applied in two selected
villages during 1937 and 1938.
It is noted that the villages most affected by liver fluke in Nizamsagar
have the smallest number of cattle. This is due to mortality from this pest.
Therefore, for effecting any improvement in quality and number of cattle
in the area, the control of this parasitic infestation is of paramount
importance.
METHODS OF WORK
(a) Collection of flukes from slaughter houses and at post-mortem
examination of animals.
(b) Study of causes of water-logging.
(c) Collection of snails from the known infected areas, their identifica-
tion and study of cercarial fauna.
(d) Clinical diagnosis of distomiasis in animals with microscopic con-
firmation by examination of fæces as a routine.
(e) Study of treatment and control measures.
VILLAGES SURVEYED
The following twenty-one villages and three hamlets beginning from the
Nizamsagar reservoir in Banswada taluq were visited during this investigation
covering twenty miles of the canal and twenty distributaries. The canal
is ninty-six miles in length and has eighty-two distributaries.
Nizamsagar
Banjapalli
Narva
Gunkal
Burgul
Turkapalli
Tunkipalli
Komlancha
Galipur
Makdumpur
Tirmalapur
Burmi
Borlam
Banswada
Ibrahimpet
Pocharam
Rampur
Baswapalli
Desaipet
Someshwar
Durki
Lingampalli (hamlet of Nizamsagar)
Sultanagar (hamlet of Banjapalli)
Mohmednagar (hamlet of Gunkul)
M. R. MAHAJAN 135
The villages surveyed in Pocharam canal area were ; Atmakur, Pocharam,
Nagareddi and Malthumida. Pocharam was incidently the first in the canal
areas that attracted the attention of the Veterinary Department in 1931.
DETERIORATION OF STOCK AND ITS CAUSES
Before the Nizamsagar project came into existence it is said that the area
with low hill ranges was full of forests and was a good breeding tract for Malvi
cattle. The breeders (Lambadas) had settled there and even animals from
other parts of the country were brought there during the season for grazing.
The Revenue Secretary in 1935 wrote as follows :—' The final and sub-
sidiary point of some importance from the point of view of development is
that of the improvement in the breed of cattle in the Nizamabad district. At
present cattle have poor stamina and are unable to cope successfully with
harder work involved in wet cultivation. The help of the Veterinary Depart-
ment on a more extensive scale appears necessary in order that improved
breed of cattle may gradually be introduced '.
The present survey revealed that the area commanded by the canal is
no more a breeding tract and even the very existence of cattle in this area
is now threatened. Many breeders (Lambadas) realizing this soon moved out
of this area. Any good cattle seen in a few places were due to owners taking
great care in feeding and grazing.
The average working life of cattle in this area to-day is only two to three
years. These have to be replaced in order that cultivation (the villager's
main stay) be carried on. Calculating even at an average low price of rupees
thirty per animal, the yearly loss is great.
The main reasons for such deterioration of the stock are :—
(i) More and more of the land is being converted into wet cultivation.
Both man and beast therefore work harder than before.
(ii) Turning the forest and the natural grazing area into cultivation,
pasture are becoming almost extinct. This has resulted in an inadequate
supply of natural fodder. The main crop in the area being paddy, paddy
straw is the chief fodder for cattle and this is a poor fodder ; the growing of
kadbi is going down with the increase in wet cultivation. No fodder is
grown exclusively for animals and concentrates are given to them only by
a few owners, while the additional supply of mineral salts is never
provided.
(iii) While the above factors play their part, the infestation with
Fasciola gigantica and to a lesser degree with other parasites is the main
cause of the deterioration. This is responsible not only for the short
working life of animals but has also wiped off cows and she-buffaloes in the
area with the consequent fall in reporduction of animals and in the quantity
of milk and ghee required for the people.
The Revenue Secretary has noted as follows :—' The economic loss caused
to each village by liver fluke seems to vary between Rs. 1,500 and Rs. 3,000
per annum, if one takes into account mortality only. He adds, ' it is swollen
by the loss due to malnutrition caused by the scarcity of milk and its products '.
E
136
Liver Fluke and its Control in Hyderabad State
Hon'ble the Revenue Member in 1938 wrote regarding liver fluke as
follows:—
' The problem is one of the vital causes which are retarding the successful
development of the Nizamsagar project, as the average life of animals affected
by liver fluke is only about two years. He also said that a large-scale campaign
for the next two or three years is urgently required and stressed the necessity
to station a gazetted officer at Bodhan and give him sufficient staff and medi-
cines to enable him to concentrate on the eradication of this disease'.
The various fluke infestations recorded so far in the Hyderabad State
are given in Table I.
TABLE I
Serial
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Fluke
Fasciola gigantica .
.
Paramphistomum cervi .
Paramphistomum explana¬
turn
Gastrothylax (sp ?) .
Eurytrema pancreaticum .
Cotylophoron cotylophorum
Pseudodiscus collinsii
Gastrodiscus secundus
Schistosoma spindalis
Schistosoma indicum
Schistosoma nasalis
Isoparorchis hypselobagri
(immature)
Host
Cattle, sheep, goat and
buffalo
Cattle, sheep, goat and
deer
Buffalo
Cattle and deer
Cattle
Deer
....
Elephant and horse
Do.
Cattle, sheep and goats .
Do.
Cattle
....
Fish
....
Habitat
Bile duct (liver)
Rumen
Rumen
Rumen
Pancreatic duct
Rumen
Intestines
Intestines and cæcum
Portal vein (liver)
Do.
Nasal blood vessels
Muscles
The most common fluke responsible for heavy losses in this area amongst
cattle, sheep and goats is Fasciola gigantica. The next in importance perhaps
are the blood flukes, especially Schistosoma nasalis followed by paramphi¬
stomes, the immature forms of which have been shown by Pande [ 1935 ]
to be particularly harmful.
One interesting observation made in Pocharam canal area was an exten
sive infestation of fish with Isoparorchis hypselobagri (immature) embedded
in the muscles, which renders the fish inedible.
M. R. MAHAJAN 137
WATER-LOGGING IN THE AREA AND ITS CAUSES
In Table II particulars of water supply to the villages in the Nizamsagar
canal area are given.
TABLE II
Distri-
butary
number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
19-A
19-B
20
Mile
on the
canal
2
3
4
5
5/1
6/2
7/1
7/4
8/6
10
13/1
13/7
14/2
15
15/3
15/6
17
17/3
18
18/4
19/2
19/6
20/1
Length
in
chains
110
65
8
6
6
83
89
65
90
179
130
..
100
100
40
28
14
60
81
275
5
..
126
Discharge
at present
in cusee
4
7
3.8
3
85
13
3.9
2.7
26.3
7
16
..
1
1.5
1
½
½
2 .7
½
6.25
½
„
10
Shutter
dimen-
sion
(in ft.)
2 × 2½
Do.
.
Do.
.
Do.
.
..
Do.
.
Do.
.
Do.
.
Do.
Do.
.
4×5
2×2½
Do.
Do. .
Do.
.
Do.
.
Do.
.
Do.
.
Do.
.
Do.
.
Do.
.
1½×1½
2×2½
Villages watered
Sultanagar
Banjapalli.
Gunkul . . .
Burgul . . .
Do. . . .
Tunkipalli . .
Komlancha . .
Galipur . . .
Do. . . .
Makdumpur
Tirmalapur
Tirmalapur . .
Burmi
Borlam . . .
Banswada . .
Borlam tank only .
Borlam . . .
Borlam . . .
Ibrahimpet . .
Ibrahimpet . .
Do. . .
Do. . .
Do. . .
Ibrahimpet . .
Pocharam
Pocharam . .
Rampur . . .
Desaipet . .
Someshwar . .
Rampur . . .
Rampur tank only.
Rampur . .
Baswapalli . .
Desaipet, Durki .
Tanks
in
villages
1
1
1
3
..
1
2
2
..
2
2
1
..
1
2
..
1
..
1
..
..
..
..
..
1 1
1
2
..
..
..
..
1
3
E 2
138
Liver Fluke and its Control in Hyderabad State
The water from the canal runs almost throughout the year to the fields,
villages and tanks, through the distributaries and field channels which are
imperfectly maintained and lack efficient drainage for surplus water. In
addition to canal water supply to the villages surveyed as per Table II,
during the rainy season water flows from the hilly area on the right bank of
the canal through the under bridges into the low-lying area. All along the
canal there are pits on the left bank excavated for making the canal bank,
and stagnant pools form here due to percolation of water from the canal.
The distributaries and field channels, the tank, big and small, together
with many ditches and pools found in each village, make the whole area water-
logged, damp and swampy, with the result that very favourable conditions
exist for the propagation of the fluke through water snails which have
ample opportunities for development.
Hon'ble the Revenue Member in 1938 wrote regarding water-logging
as follows :—' One of the chief problems adversely affecting the develop-
ment under Nizamsagar project is the local water-logging which exists in
many villages on account of neglected drains, pits, intercepted drainage etc.,
by which water stagnates instead of being drained off to the lower valleys—
the removal of this cause of water-logging is of very great importance to the
economics of the project '.
DEVELOPMENT OF SNAILS IN THE. WATER-LOGGED AREAS [ PLATE XII ]
Liver fluke has increased to serious proportions in the area, because water
is available throughout the year for the propagation of intermediary host,
the snail. As this factor has existed for the past several years, there has been
no chance of drying up of snails and their natural death by desiccation.
The possibility of passage of snails into the area direct from the canal
was looked into but no snails were caught when wire-gauze interceptors were
placed at a number of distributaries. Close inspection revealed that millions
of snail eggs passed with the water from the canal. Enough evidence was
seen to support this, as snails in stage of development were seen in fields with
standing paddy crops, fed directly from the canal. The environments and
temperature of water in the paddy fields being favourable, snail eggs mature
there and develop into snails. Of course, this does not exclude the possibility
of local centres of snail breeding and development which were also seen in a
number of places.
The snails are most common near the water edges of tanks, ditches and
stagnant pools, also in canal distributaries and some in stages of develop-
ment in the fields with standing paddy.
The eggs of snails are about a quarter of an inch in length, 1/6 inch
in breadth, whitish, jelly-like mass with a dozen yellowish spots and trans-
parent. They are usually seen attached to fallen leaves or stems of vegetation.
The following are the fresh water snails :—
(i) Limnœa acuminata (Lamarck)
(ii) Limnœa luteola (Lamarck)
Indian J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. XII, Part II ]
PLATE
XII
Waterlogged pastures and tunga
PLATE
XIII
[ Indian J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. XII, Part II
Affected animals
FIG.
1. Cow
FIG. 3. Bullocks
FIG. 4. Sheep