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SELECTED ARTICLE
SCHISTOSOMES AND SCHISTOSOMIASIS IN INDIA
BY
G. D. BHALERAO, D.Sc., PH.D. (LOND.), F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., F.A.Sc.
Helminthologist,
Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar.
[Reprinted from the " Papers on Helminthology published in commemoration of 30-
year Jubileum of the Scientific, Educational and Social activities of the Honoured Worker
of Science K. J. Skrjabin, M. Ac. Sci., and of Fifteenth Anniversary of the All-Union Institute
of Helminthology" published by the All-Union Lenin Academy of Agricultural Science,
Moscow].
ALTHOUGH fortunately schistosomiasis has not much significance in re-
gard to the welfare of mankind in India, it has assumed paramount impor-
tance in connection with the health of domestic animals in this country.
Compared with any other single group of parasites, schistosomes rank fore-
most in undermining the health of various of our domestic animals, and al-
though the exact data in this connection are not available it will not be an
exaggeration to say that they cause much inconvenience and harm to live-
stock in India, and inflict considerable monetary loss upon stock-owners in
this country. In spite of this enormous loss, no thorough attempt has yet
been made to bring together in a comprehensive manner all the maladies of
domestic animals in which schistosomes are incriminated. We cannot, how-
ever, deny credit in this direction to Montgomery who, working at this Insti-
tute, published as early as 1906 two very comprehensive papers dealing with
schistosomiasis of equines, cattle and sheep and discovered three new species
of schistosomes. Since this pioneer work of Montgomery, there have
appeared in this country, particularly in the last decade and a half, several
valuable papers dealing with this group of parasites in relation either to do-
mestic animals or human beings, and the present opportunity is, therefore,
availed of to give a short résumé of all the work done in this country on
this economically highly important group of parasites.
The earliest record of the occurrence of schistosomes in India was made
by Cobbold, who in 1882, at a meeting of the Medical Chirurgical Society in
London, declared that cattle and sheep in India are infected with schisto-
somes. Four years after this statement, Bomford reported the occurrence of
Schistosoma haematobium eggs in the large intestine of two bullocks of the
Transport Department destroyed in Calcutta. The dimensions of the egg
were 0.17 mm. × 0.08 mm. S. haematobium has never been since recorded
from cattle in this country and for this reason it is thought that the eggs
( 149 )
G. D.
BHALERAO
151
spindalis var. nasalis. Rao went a step further and regards the nasal schisto-
some as a new species S. nasalis. It may be remarked here that the writers
in the west such as Möning and Pillers uphold Bhalerao's view in this con-
nection. One of the contentions in this respect is that it has been alleged
that the nasal schistosome has been confined to the nasal area, but our recent
knowledge on the subject does not substantiate this statement. A case from
Assam revealed a typical Napoleon's hat-shaped ovum in a section of the in-
testine of a bull. Two more cases have been reported to the writer by a re-
liable worker in which the characteristic ova were found in the faeces of the
infected animals.
Researches of Rao and Sewell have shown that the intermediate hosts
of this nasal parasite have been Limnaea luteloa, L. acuminata and Indopla-
norbis exustus. Two important larval stages of this parasite, viz., miracidia
and cercaria have been described by Rao and the disease has been artificially
produced by him in cattle. The disease is also known to occur, although
very rarely in buffaloes and goats.
Datta [1933] published a paper describing the nodular portal cirrhosis
in enlarged liver of horses in India, causing persistent debility and heavy
mortality as due to ova of S. indicum. He published a report of eight cases,
described the morbid anatomy of the various organs of the horse and dis-
cussed the methods of diagnosis and control of the disease.
There exists in India a disease of equines, known locally as kumri, which
resembles to a large extent the better known-condition of equine paraplegia.
Malkani in 1933 reported the occurrence of Schistosoma indicium worms from
the liver and portal vessels of two kumri ponies at Patna. He obtained en-
couraging results by treating the kumri ponies with sodium antimony tar-
trate. On the basis of these two facts S. indicum has been looked upon by
some as causing kumri in horses. This fact, however, requires corroboration
before it can finally be accepted, for cases are known to the writer in which
schistosomes were found but the animals did not show any symptoms of
kumri.
Besides the animals referred to previously, camels also are infected with
S. indicum. Record of this infection has been made by Leese [191 1] who
obtained the worms from the mesenteric veins of a camel in the Punjab.
Next in importance to the infection of domestic ruminants and equines
with schistosomes comes the infection of pigs with these worms. Sewell
[1919] recorded the occurrence of a cercaria resembling that of S. japonicum
in Indoplanorbis exustus and Limnaea amygdalum in Calcutta. Bhalerao
[1934] described male worms from the intestine of pigs in Calcutta which he
regarded as a variety of S. japonicum, but since he is against the principle
of the multiplicity of new variety names he preferred to designate the worms
from the pigs in Calcutta as S. japonicum. The main difference between this
G. D.
BHALERAO
153
bilharziosis is likely to spread in India cannot, in the present state of our
knowledge, be answered with any degree of certainty either in the affirmative
or in the negative.
Besides the cases of natural infection dealt with so far, Fairley in 1927
and Fairley, Mackie and Jasudasan in 1930 tried to infect monkeys and
guinea-pigs artificially with the cercaria of Schistosoma spindalis obtained
from Indoplanorbis exustus and as a result of this they discovered that monkeys
possess some natural immunity by virtue of which the development of cer-
caria does not proceed beyond the schistosomula stage in them. In the case
of guinea-pigs they found that only the male worms attain full development
while no female worms are demonstrable at autopsy. They suggest that in
these animals some host factor antagonistic to the development of female
schistosomes underlies the phenomenon of exclusive male survival rather
than initial unisexual infestation. Two water-buffaloes were also success-
fully infected with S. spindalis by Fairley and Jasudasan [1927] and these
buffaloes developed Bilharzial pseuclotubercles in the liver within three months.
Coming now to the work on larval forms, besides the references to the
work of Soparkar on the cercaria of Schistosoma spindalis and to that of Rao
on the miracidia and cercaria of the nasal schistosome, Soparkar [1921] describ-
ed from various molluscs in Bombay four new species of Cercaria bombayensis
and Sewell [1922] recorded four new species of apharyngeal furcocercous
cercariae. Sewell [1930] published a very valuable paper tracing the evolu-
tion of the excretory system in certain groups of furcocercous cercariae. As
a result of a very exhaustive study, Sewell concludes that throughout both
pharyngeal and apharyngeal forms there is a marked tendency for the more
posterior flame-cells to undergo division before those that are situated more
anteriorly, and in brevifurcate cercariae there is a tendency for the anterior
daughter cells produced by the division of the flame-cell in the tail stem to
migrate into the distome body. In the same paper he also remarks that the
suppression of the acetabulum and the consequent production of a mono-
stome form has occurred on more than one occassion and on different lines
of evolution.
Besides the successful use of antimosan and sodium antimony tartrate
as anthelmintics in cases of nasal schistosomiasis and kumri, Fairley [1924]
used emetine hydrochloride and tartar emetic in cases of S. sptindalis infection
of goats and he found that emetine hydrochloride possess a maximal efficacy
in the treatment of this species. In the same publication Fairley made a
statement that this may prove to be the case in human bilharziosis as well.
Christopherson [1925] remarks that Fairley is unjustified in considering that
because emetine proved superior to antimony tartrate against S. spindalis
in goats it will prove equally efficacious in human bilharziosis as well. He-
points out that in Fairley's own cases, emetine prove more toxic than antimony
tartrate, and this is true for man also, as has been demonstrated by Kasr-el-
Ainy in 1923.
154
Schistosomes and Schistosomiasis in India
There is yet another aspect of the subject which has not been dealt with
so far and this is in connection with the work on metazoon immunity. The
workers who deserve credit for having tackled this important branch of
science are Fairley and his collaborators : Fairley in 1925 and 1926 performed
several tests with the antigen derivefcd from the dried powdered livers of
Indoplanorbis exustus infected with the cercaria of Schistosoma spindalis
and as a result of these tests he has drawn the following conclusions :—
(a) The antigen which reacts with specific antibody in the complement
fixation reaction for Bilharzia is a lipiod or lipoidal complex of colloidal
nature.
(b) The cercarial alcoholic extracts derived from the infected livers of Indo-
planorbis exustus is strongly antigenic and will detect human schistosomes as
well as Schistosoma spindalis and S. indicum in goats.
(c) Intravenous injections of alcohol soluble extracts of cercaria cause a
marked increase in the antibody content of the serum, but do not modify the
course of the disease. Fairley and Jasudasan [1930] infected a large number
of goats experimentally and numerous complement fixation tests were per-
formed on each animal. Cercarial antigens of Schistosoma spindalis were
used and the group nature of the cercarial antigen was proved for S. haemato-
bium, S. mansomi, S. japonicum, S. bovis, S. spindalis, and S. indicum.
Fairley and Jasudasan in 1930 published two papers :—one of them deals
with the seasonal infection of the snails, Indoplanorbis exustus, with the cer-
caria of S. spindalis while the records of the experiments depicted in the other
point to the conclusion that among ruminants alimentary infection with
schistosomes is more important, since the contents of the rumen give an
alkaline or neutral reaction. The schistosome cercaria cannot survive the
normal acidity of the gastric contents in animals other than ruminants.
Finally, mention must be made of the work of Fairley and Mackie [1930]
which deals with the pathological changes which the infection of S. spindalis
brings about in the host tissues. They state that the lesions occurring prior
to the deposition of ova include verminous phlebitis, involving the branches
of mesenteric and portal veins, and toxic changes in the liver and kidneys
pseudotubercles and periportal cellular infiltrations also occur in the liver.
Hepatic pseudotubercles, verminous phlebitis of the main portal vein and its
intrahepatic branches, mesentertic thrombosis and peripheral cirrhosis con-
stitute the more common later manifestations. Although egg deposition
occurs, macroscopical lesions in the small and large intestine are uncommon.
Compared with other schistosomes the ova of S. spindalis are less toxic, but
the worms produce more phlebitis. The liver invariably contains eggs and
the deposition occurs in decreasing frequency in the large and small intestine,
lungs, mesenteric glands, pancreas and other internal organs.
G. D.
BHALERAO
155
REFERENCES
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—(1926).
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—(1927).
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and Jasudasan, F. (1927). The experimental Transmission of S.
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Schistosomes and Schistosomiasis in India
Fairley, N. H. and Jasudasan, F. (1930). Studies in Schistosoma spindalis, Part I,
The infective rate, seasonal incidence and source of supply of infected
molluscs. Ind. Med. Res. Mem. No. 17, 1-10.
—
(1930). Studies in Schistosoma spindalis, Part II.
The definite hosts of S. spindalis with special reference to alimentary infection
in ruminants. ibid 11-15.
—
(1930). Further Observations on Spontaneous
Cure in Macacus sinicus. ibid 53.
—(1930).
The complement fixation reaction with
cercarial antigen—A study in experimental serology. ibid 73-180.
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—
and Jasudasan, F. (1930). The guinea-pig as a
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—(1933).
Etiology of ' Kumri'. Proc. Twentieth Sci. Cong. p. 383.
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—(1919).
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(1933). A preliminary Report on the successful infection with nasal
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—and
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ABSTRACTS
The value of artificially dried grass, silage made with added molasses and
A. I. V. fodder in the diet of the dairy cows and their effect on the quality of the
milk, with special reference to the value of the non-protein nitrogen. WATSON,
S. J. and FERGUSON W. S. (J. Agric. Sci., 26, 337-367,1936).
AN experiment was carried out to study the nutritive value of artificially dried
grass and of silages prepared by two distinct processes, one with the addition of molas-
ses which entails a fair degree of protein breakdown and the other A. I. V. silage where
the protein breakdown is limited, in relation to the yield and quality of milk of dairy
cows, with special reference to non-protein nitrogen whose feeding value has long been
debated upon.
Four lots of four cows each were fed for a continuous period of 17 weeks, one lot
on the control ration (ordinary winter ration) consisting of hay, roots and concentrates
and the other three on artificially dried grass, molassed silage and A. I. V. fodder respec-
tively which replaced a considerable part of the concentrates. The rations had been so
adjusted that each supplied equal amounts of starch equivalent and digestible crude
protein for maintenance and milk production. The experimental foodstuffs were all
of good quality, high digestibility, with a high proportion of crude protein ranging
from 17 to 21 per cent of the dry matter and supplying half of the total digestible crude
protein in the ration. Artificially dried grass was fed at the rate of approximately
8 lb. and molassed silage and A. I. V. fodder at 30 lb. per head daily and these supplied
5.9 per cent, 31.4 per cent and 25 per cent of the total digestible crude protein intake
in the form of non-protein nitrogenous compounds, besides the 10 per cent of the diges-
tible crude protein in the form of non-protein nitrogen compounds supplied by the basal
ration. The control ration was low in carotene whilst the experimental ones raised the
carotene intake appreciably.
A statistical analysis of milk and butter-fat yields, butter-fat percentage and live-
weight changes of the cows showed no significant differences between the four rations.
The artificially dried grass diet had been the most efficient as regards its effects on solids-
not-fat content of milk and the A. I. V. fodder the least. The other two rations showed no
significant difference. The mean of all the cows showed a value just below that of the legal
standard of 8.5 per cent solids-not-fat in milk and all the rations, except the artificially
dried grass, were below the standard. The artificially dried grass, molassed silage and
A. I. V. fodder had also increased the carotene content in milk and thus the vitamin A
potency to a level equal to that of the grazing season for cows on pasture. Artificially
dried grass; at the level fed, had replaced an equal weight of nutrients in the form of
concentrated foodstuffs.
Thus for milk production the digestible crude protein of the foodstuffs, whether
present in the form of non-protein compounds to the extent of 30-40 per cent of the ni-
trogen intake as in this experiment or as true protein, had all been utilized.
( 159 )
160
ABSTRACTS
The nutritive value of non-protein nitrogen in these two silages proved high, at the
levels fed, thus showing that digestible crude protein is a better measure of the value of
the nitrogen in these feeds than either digestible true protein or protein equivalent
values. [ N. K.].
Vitamin deficiency diseases in poultry. BURMESTER, B. R. (Vet. Med., 32, 8, p. 364).
WITH the development of poultry industry, involving as it does, intensification of
production, has arisen the necessity for providing adequate nutrition, and in this connec-
tion the author gives a brief summary of the position regarding various avitaminoses
in poultry.
Deficiency of Vitamin-K, a heat- and light-resistant, fat-soluble, unsaponifiable
component of alfalfa or other green plants, produces a haemorrhagic condition in young
chicks. The haemorrhages appear particularly in the muscle and in the subcutis, and
are associated with an increase in the clotting time of the blood.
Chicks fed on diets to produce the above condition often show erosion of the gizzard
lining. Experiments have proved that the latter is due to the deficiency of a fat-soluble,
saponifiable component of green plants and cereals. The disease is very often noticed
in chicks kept on common chick rations and can be prevented or cured by supplying
large amounts of alfalfa leaf-meal.
The vitamin-B complex consists of several growth-promoting factors including the
anti-neuritic Vitamin B 1 found in yeast, egg, liver, cereals and green feeds, and the anti¬
pellagra vitamin-G or B 2 . Vitamin-G has recently been split up into at least three com-
ponents one of which is the yellow green pigment Flavin or Vitamin-G proper found
in alfalfa, whey and egg white. Deficiency of Flavin produces impaired growth, ema¬
ciation, diarrhoea and death in chicks and dermatitis in turkey poults and rats. The
other two factors are factor No. 1 (probably Vitamin B 6 ) of unknown significance and
factor No. 2, or " filtrate factor," which produces dermatitis in chicks but not in turkey
poults or rats.
Other less-understood growth-promoting factors of the Vitamin-B Complex are
vitamin B 4 , and two others which, if excluded from the diet, produce defective bone-
formation (micromelia) and encephalomalacia respectively.
Exclusion of Vitamin-A from the diet will produce nutritional roup and degenera-
tive changes in the epithelium, thereby rendering the bird more susceptible to infection.
Vitamin A is passed into the egg so that high-producing hens require a plentiful supply
of it in their diet.
Deficiency of vitamin-D in the diet produces in the growing bird a type of leg weak-
ness which recent investigations have shown to be analogous to osteoporosis and not to
rickets. Chicks can utilize the vitamin-D of animal source better than that derived
from plants. [M. Y. M.]