NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
M. R. MAHAJAN 139
(iii) Indoplanorbis exustus
(iv) Digonostomum pullchellum
(v) Viviparus bengalensis
(vi) Viviparus dissimilis
Of the mollusc host, by far the most important for the propagation of
the Fasciola gigantica and Schistosoma nasalis are the Limnœa acuminata,
Limnæa luteola and Indoplanorbis exustus. Bhalerao [ 1933, 1] has established
the first one as the intermediary host for Fasciola gigantica, and Rao [ 1933 ]
has done likewise in establishing the other two snails as the intermediary
hosts for Schistosoma nasalis in India.
In Table III Cercariæ and Rediæ encountered in Hyderabad State are
given.
TABLE III
Cercariae and Rediæ
Xiphidiocercaria and sporocysts . .
Echinostome cercariæ and rediæ . .
Rediae and cercariae of what look like those
of Fasciola gigantica .
.
.
.
Amphistome cercariae and rediae of pigmenta-
ta group
.
.
.
.
.
Schistosoma cercariæ .
.
.
.
Distome rediae and cercariæ
Cercaria indicœ XXX (Sewell) 1921 . .
Snail host
Limnaea acuminata and Indoplanorbis
exustus
Luminœa acuminata
Luminœa acuminata
Luminœa acuminata
Indoplanorbis exustus and Limnaea acu-
minata.
Limnæa acuminata
Limnœa luteola
The percentage of infection of the snails with various cercariæ and rediæ
varies with the season. When examined in March and April fifty to sixty
per cent were seen infected.
LIFE-HISTORY
The life-history of liver fluke is of common knowledge to the profession
The animals while grazing or drinking water, pass eggs of liver fluke in fæce
and the larvæ which develop from the eggs gain access to the intermediary
host, the snail. Animals specially buffaloes wade through ditches, ponds and
tanks and other waterlogged and marshy places to graze tunga (a weed)
which grows abundantly in water. The encysted cercariæ on ' tunga' are
eaten and these eventually grow and become adults in the bile ducts of
animals and thus the cycle is kept up for the propagation of flukes.
140
Liver Fluke and its Control in Hyderabad State
SYMPTOMS AND DIAGNOSIS [PLATE XIII, FIGS. 1-3]
The local name of the disease in Telugu is 'Janegarogam', and farmer is
quite familiar with the condition. Knowing little about the life-history of
the parasite, he blames the eating of tunga as its cause. This of course
is caused by the ingestion of meta-cercariæ that are deposited on
tunga.
The effect and severity of disease due to fluke infestation depend largely
upon the number of parasites present in the liver, and therefore the symptoms
and the course of the disease are variable, lasting from six months to a year
or so. Animals brought into the area pick up infection usually during and
just after the rains and show the first symptoms in about three months, early
in winter. These are :—Gradual loss in condition, staring coat, intermittent
diarrhœa which later advances to shooting diarrhœa. The visible mucous
membranes are icteric and general anæmia is noticeable. The symptoms
of œdema under the jaw is by no means a constant feature and is
seen in the last stage, particularly in buffaloes.
The emaciation is
progressive and bonyparts specially the ribs become apparent due to loss
of muscles. Finally, animals being unable to get up, begin to die in the
following spring.
The symptoms especially in the early stage are not at all clear and it is
therefore difficult to diagnose cases from clinical observations alone. Micros-
copic examination of fæces is conclusive. The post-mortem examination shows
a cirrhotic liver and pipey condition of the bile ducts. Innumerable mature
flukes can be squeezed out of the bile ducts by pressure.
In an outbreak of liver-rot in Bikaneri sheep, at the Government Farm,
Hingoli, in 1936, sixteen cases died within a month. New stock imported
from Karnal started the infection, since there was no record of liver fluke at
the farm for the past fifteen years. The infestation was kept up through the
affected snails in common water supply from the tank.
In sheep the symptoms are different from those seen in cattle, and the
disease usually runs an acute course (Plate XIII, fig. 4). Apparently healthy
looking sheep might die within a few days, although chronic cases are also
encountered. Much depends, however, on the extent of fluke infestation.
Some sheep in the prime of condition showed dullness and anorexia and died
in a day or so. Post-mortem examination showed acute liver-rot in such cases,
even areas in lungs were encountered which were degenerated and necrotic
and on section revealed the presence of liver flukes.
Cameron [ 1932 ] records that it is not the actual death which constitutes
the sole loss but far more expensive is the loss of condition and decreased
productivity. This experience we also gained at our farm, since at the end
of mating season, out of 55 ewes, 13 did not come into œstrum and remained
empty. Besides, the progeny was observed to be weak in condition.
In goats, the condition is frequently seen at the slaughter houses. Liver
being the chief organ involved, shows areas of necrosis and cirrhotic bands
in the parenchyma.
M. R. MAHAJAN 141
MICROSCOPIC DETERMINATION OF LIVER FLUKE INFESTATION
Table IV gives details about the percentage of infection recorded dur-
ing the survey in Nizamsagar and Pocharam canal areas in 1937 :—
TABLE IV
Serial
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Villages
Nizamsagar area
Lingampalli (hamlet or Nizam-
sagar).
Nizamsagar . . .
Banjapalli .
.
.
.
Sultanagar .
.
.
.
Narva
.
.
.
.
Gunkul
.
.
.
.
Mohmednagar
(hamlet of
Gunkul).
Burgul
.
.
.
.
Turkapalli . . .
.
Turkipalli .
.
.
.
Komlancha. . . .
Galipur
.
.
.
.
Makdumpur . . .
Tirmalapur . . .
Burmi
.
.
.
.
Borlam
.
.
.
.
Banswada (old & new) .
Ibrahimpet . . .
Pocharam .
.
.
.
Rampur
.
.
.
.
Desaipet .
.
.
.
Someshwar . . . .
Baswapalli .
.
.
.
Durki
.
.
.
.
Pocharam area
Atmakur .
.
.
.
Pocharam .
.
.
.
Nagareddi .
.
.
.
Malthumida . . .
Total .
Cattle
Exam.
5
12
10
5
10
10
11
10
10
10
11
10
10
10
10
15
16
11
10
10
10
5
10
10
19
10
20
9
299
Positive
(Percent-
age)
3(60)
9(75)
3(30)
2(40)
5(50)
7(70)
7(63)
3(30)
2(20)
5(50)
6(54)
4(40)
5(50)
9(90)
3(30)
8(53)
6(36)
5(45)
5(50)
5(50)
7(70)
...
2(20)
4(40)
4(73½)
7(70)
11(55)
4(45)
151(50)
Buffaloes
Exam.
15
14
10
7
10
9
10
9
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
14
15
10
10
10
10
5
10
10
11
12
11
7
289
Positive
(Percent¬
age)
8(53)
10(71)
5(50)
5(71)
4(40)
4(44)
6(60)
4(44)
4(40)
6(60)
5(50)
8(80)
8(80)
8(80)
5(50)
13(92)
9(60)
7(70)
6(60)
7(70)
6(60)
3(60)
5(50)
6(60)
10(90)
12(100
6(54)
5(71)
185(64)
Sheep
Exam.
8
...
...
...
...
9
5
...
...
10
10
5
5
...
...
5
5
10
...
8
...
...
...
1.0
...
7
10
4
111
Positive
(Percent-
age)
1(12)
...
...
...
...
...
3(60)
...
...
2(20)
4(40)
...
...
...
...
1(20)
...
...
...
2(25)
...
...
...
5(50)
...
6(85)
4(40)
...
28(25)
Goats
Exam.
...
...
...
...
5
...
2
10
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
5
10
...
2
...
...
...
...
...
1
...
...
35
Positive
(Percent-
age)
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
2(20)
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
1(20)
2(20)
...
2(100)
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
7(20)
142
Liver Fluke and its Control in Hyderabad State
Only ordinary smear method of examination of fæces under field condi-
tions was made and results recorded. Had more accurate method of exami-
nation been adopted, the results obtained would probably have shown a
larger infestation than that recorded.
From the microscopical examination of fæces of 299 cattle, 289 buffaloes,
111 sheep and thirty-five goats, 151 cattle, 185 buffaloes, 28 sheep and seven
goats were found to be infected with Fasciola gigantica. The results
recorded for 28 villages indicate on an average a 50 per cent infection in
cattle, 64 per cent in buffaloes, 25 per cent in sheep and 20 per cent in
goats. The infestation recorded for cattle and buffaloes is more extensive
than in sheep and goats. This is, because the shepherd usually grazes his
flock on high lands avoiding marshy and water-logged areas. Even the govern-
ment breeding bulls posted in the canal development area suffer from liver
fluke infestation and receive continuous attention from the veterinary staff.
TABLE V
Confirmed cases of liver fluke infestation in Hyderabad state
Year
1933-34 . . . . . . . . . .
1934-35 . . . . . . . . . .
1935-36 . . . . . . . . . .
1936-37 . . . . . . . . . .
1937-38 . . . . . . . . . .
1938-39 . . . . . . . . . .
1939-40 . . . . . . . . . .
1940-41 . . . . . . . . . .
Number
Examined
2
21
30
629
777
649
116
26
Confirmed
Positive
2
4
22
307
336
194
65
23
CONTROL MEASURES
To provide adequate supply of uninfected fodder, the farmer is advised
to grow green fodder exclusively for animals.
For natural grazing
government allow animals to be grazed in the forests and hills.
Final Report [ 1938 ] of the Punjab Parasitological Research Scheme,
financed by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research concludes, that
animals kept on mineral deficient rations are more severely attacked by para-
sites and that good food is to a great extent responsible for keeping the para-
sites under check.
The Veterinary Department is educating ryots by lectures and demonstra-
tions at the local shows and by distribution of pamphlets giving salient
144
Liver Fluke and its Control in Hyderabad State
within 10 hours of administration. Further use of this drug from Merck's
was stopped and calcium gluconate was kept handy for administration as an
antidote.
In the liver-rot outbreak encountered amongst sheep at the Hingoli
farm, at first treatment was undertaken using extract of male-fern given as
an electuary in doses of 1/4 to 1/2 drachm, both as curative and preventive.
In spite of this treatment, however, the strength of the flock was reduced from
107 to 97 during the three weeks . After this, carbon tetrachloride in cap-
sules was used giving a dose of 0.5 to 0.7 c.c. both as a curative and protective,
having first ascertained the idiosyncrasy of the sheep towards this drug.
The results obtained from this were encouraging as no fresh attacks occurred
in the healthy lot, while only a few, far advanced in disease, succumbed.
This was repeated after six weeks to kill all flukes that had matured during
the interval. In addition well-water was provided for drinking and the
disease was controlled.
Yet another drug used in the treatment of infested cattle was Igitol
(Bayer). The results of treatment with this were more satisfactory in the
sense, that it was quite safe even in milch cattle but the cost is prohibitive
for large scale operations. The results of treatment with this drug and carbon
tetrachloride were compared when 312 animals were treated with the former
and 536 with the latter. At Himayatsagar Dairy Farm, where, out of 323
animals, 50 cows were found positive, Igitol only was used and the results
of microscopic examination, a month later, showed only 17 cows still positive.
They were given a second course and by preventing these animals gaining
access to the infected channel at the Farm the disease was effectively con-
trolled.
Since, Igitol is not available in the country now and because of its prohi-
bitive cost, the only drug now used is carbon tetrachloride.
It is desirable that wholesale treatment of sick cattle of affected villages
should be carried out with this drug and the operation repeated within two
months.
To sum up, the treatment of cattle carried out in the affected areas during
the past four years, showed improvement in the general condition of the animals
and to support this Table VI from Tirmalapur village is of interest:—
TABLE VI
Year
1934-35 . . . . . . . .
1935-36 . . . . . . . .
1936-37 . . . . . . . .
1937-38 . . . . . . . .
Number
died
36
50
12
3
Number
purchased
22
21
62
9
M. R. MAHAJAN 145
Although the treatment of animals gave encouraging results and the con-
dition of the animals had also definitely improved, yet it was realized from the
very beginning that this was only tackling one aspect of the problem because
the infection being constantly present in the snails, the animals were exposed
to re-infection.
ERADICATION OF SNAILS
The second aspect, which must be taken up simultaneously with treat-
ment, is to destroy the intermediary host that harbours cercariæ and rediæ, viz.
the snail. Much work on this has been done notably in Australia, United
States of America, Yugoslavia and other countries. The main recommenda-
tions are :—
(i) efficient drainage,
(ii) destruction of snails with copper sulphate,
(iii) draining or filling of wet and marshy areas,
(iv) introduction of ducks into the stream to keep down the snail
population.
Report of the Chief of the Bureau of the Animal Industry in U. S. A.
[1936] gives an outline of a field campaign against liver fluke, conducted in
Washington, Oregon, Idaho and Utah. This consisted of draining swampy
lands and large scale use of copper sulphate to poison snails in areas which
cannot be drained.
Revenue and Public Works Department are considering measures to
provide drainage in waterlogged areas in Nizamsagar.
For control measures to be effective there are two objects to be kept in
view :—
(i) to avoid contamination of water with fæces of infected animals
which contain ova of fluke disease,
(ii) extermination of the intermediate host, the snails.
These are the difficulties that appear especially in the canal areas. To
avoid contamination of water, one has to keep infected animals away from
marshy and water-logged areas and this appears quite impracticable under
conditions in the area surveyed. To achieve this, the most suitable plan is
to kill all liver flukes in the infected animals with the treatment indicated,
so that the contamination of water with eggs is minimized.
Control of snails should be taken up simultaneously with the treatment
of infested animals.
CONTROL OF SNAILS
The following methods were adopted for the control of snails :—
(i) Mechanical removal.
(ii) Treatment of water-logged areas with copper sulphate spray.
This work was taken up in the two villages of Borlam and Tirmalapur
with a temporary staff during 1938.
146
Liver Fluke and its Control in Hyderabad State
(i) Mechanical removal [ Plate XIV, figs. 1-3 ]
For mechanical removal, specially designed wire-gauze nets attached to
wooden poles were locally made. Each labourer was provided with one of
these and a basket tied to his waist. He was made to wade through the water,
catch snails and collect them in his basket. In this manner, all water areas
in the two villages were nearly freed from snails. About three to four gunny
bags full of live snails were caught and destroyed.
As an experiment, wire-gauze screens were provided to the distributaries
supplying water from the main canal to these villages. No snails, however,
were caught. Closer inspection revealed, that snails as such, did not pass
through the water from the canal to the area but only millions of their eggs.
(ii) Chemical destruction
Rais Jung [ 1932 ] recommends the use of copper sulphate, one part to
500,000-2,000,000 parts of water to kill snails in 24 hours.
Bhalerao [ 1933, 2 ] recommends the use of 1 lb. of copper sulphate for
200,000 gallons of water.
Out of several chemicals used for destroying snails by Boyet [ 1938 ]
in Yugoslavia, copper sulphate was found to be the most effective when sprink-
led in 1 per cent solution and he advocated the strength of one part to 20,000
to kill snails in one hour.
As no records of practical data were available on the subject in India, the
concentration of copper sulphate to be used required a careful consideration.
Before taking up spraying work, copper sulphate in a gunny bag was
placed in the streams of some villages. A measured quantity was placed
in a bag but no appreciable results were, however, obtained.
Copper sulphate spraying work was then taken up in all the water-logged
areas containing snails [ Plate XV, figs. 1-3] in order to destroy those that were
left over after mechanical removal during the operations in two villages in
1938. For spraying purposes, a given quantity of copper sulphate was pow-
dered and dissolved in a known quantity of water in a bucket. ' Enotes '
high pressure hyject foot pump which worked up to a distance of 50 ft. was
employed to spray this concentrated copper sulphate solution, having worked
out roughly the quantity of water containing snails in a given ditch or tank.
The usual concentration of copper sulphate employed for spraying work
was about 5-6 ounces in a bucket-full (387 ounces) or a 2 per cent solution
was used for spraying which killed the snails but not fish. Since most of the
water in the area is running water it is difficult to apply this chemical, as the
effect usually passes away. Yet another difficulty was the penetration of
the drug to the snails which were in tunga ridden water.
The snails found in the ditches and small ponds were effectively treated
with copper sulphate and even in these places because the tunga and other
vegetative growth interfered, a higher percentage of copper sulphate was
required to be effective for the purpose, and this worked out to about one
pound of the chemical in fifty to seventy thousand gallons of water.
Indian J. Vet Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. XII, Part II ]
PLATE
XIV
Eradication of snails (mechanical removal)
FIG. 1. Labourers with equipment
FIG. 2. Operations in progress
FIG. 3. Typical labourer with equipment
PLATE XV
[ Indian J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. XII, Part II
Eradication of snails (chemical destruction)
FIG. 1. Tank
FIG. 2. Distributary
FIG. 3. Stagnant pool
with tunga
M. R. MAHAJAN 147
Our experience of the use of copper sulphate in the strength of one lb.
in a million gallons of water showed a mortality of 60 per cent, 16 hours later.
Next day one lb. in 50,000 gallons of water was used and only 29 were
found alive out of 353 examined. A few surface fish were also found dead
and floating. In other places general mortality of snails noticed after the
use of copper sulphate spray was 60 to 70 per cent.
DETAILS OF COPPER SULPHATE SPRAY IN VILLAGES OF TIRMA
BORLAM (1938)
Quantity of copper sulphate used: 177 lb.
TABLE VII
1. Number of tanks
2 . . .
2. Number of kuntas
8 . . .
3. Number of distributaries
6 . . .
4. Number of ditches
500 . . .
5. Number of field channels
34
. . .
6. Number of percolations,
all between distributaries
10 and 11 . .
7. Number of marshy lands
7 . . .
In how many coppersul¬
phate was used
1 . . .
8 . . .
6 . . .
160 . . .
34 . . .
All between distributaries
10 and 11 . .
7 . . .
In how many copper sul-
phate was not used.
One (snails absent)
....
340 (snails absent)
....
....
Government was approached to grant a holiday known as ' liver fluke
day ' to associate the work of destruction of the snails with what has come to
be known as a water hyacinth clearance week, in Nizamabad district. This
the Government kindly sanctioned. Rewards are given by the Veterinary
Department for destruction of snails on that day.
During the year 1939-40, for the first time in the Nizamsagar area, wide-
scale anti-snail measures were, therefore, adopted by the district authorities
in cooperation with the ryots for two days in April 1939 along with the hya-
cinth eradication operation. It was observed that the response was fair,
and large numbers of snails were collected and destroyed in a number of villages.
The collection showed that the predominating species was Limnæa acuminata
in Banswada taluq, next being in Bodhan taluq. The percentage of snails
in the tanks varied with water-logging in the area. The collected snails
were mixed with quick-lime and buried. These eradication operations are
now held as a routine measure annually.
148
Liver Fluke and its Control in Hyderabad State
Further indications of work in connection with the control operations
appear to be :—
(a) to find a safer drug for treatment of cases in milch cattle.
(b) to study the normal life of the snail and to find out a biological
control of this pest,
(c) to study the application of control methods over large canal areas,
(d) to find out actually in what concentration copper sulphate is lethal
to snails without becoming harmful to fish, human-beings,
live-stock and crops,
(e) how best to destroy snail eggs since copper sulphate does not seem
to affect them.
The Imperial Council of Agricultural Research reviewing the Annual
Report of the Veterinary Investigation Officer, Hyderabad State [ 1938 ]
commended the measures reported from Hyderabad for the control of the
intermediate host to other provinces for consideration. A comprehensive
scheme to carry out large-scale operations based on the experimental work
recorded in this paper, for a definite period, is now engaging the serious atten-
tion of Government.
The following is the proposed plan of action to be followed when schemes
for large-scale operations come into action :—
The affected area is to be divided into zones, each to be under the charge
of an Assistant Veterinary Surgeon with provision of carbon tetrachloride,
copper sulphate, labourers and other equipments including duck rearing in
the areas. Steps to be taken will be :—
(a) treatment of affected animals,
(b) destruction of snails with copper sulphate in areas where fascioliasis
exists,
(c) draining or filling shallow areas to render them untenable to snails.
Weekly report of operations are to be forwarded to the Senior Veterinary
Officer and he should give advice to villagers regarding affected grazing areas,
etc.
SUMMARY
The investigation, as to the extent of liver fluke disease in animals, espe-
cially in water-logged areas under the canal irrigation in the Hyderabad
State, is recorded from the year 1932 to date as a result of intensive survey
carried out. Lists of flukes, snails and cercaria encountered in the State are
given with methods of diagnosis and results of microscopic determination
of percentage of infection. Treatment and control measures on an experiment-
al basis in two selected villages show that similar measures can be adopted
for large-scale operations. Carbon tetrachloride is used as a routine for treat-
ment. Results of mechanical removal and chemical destruction of snails
using copper sulphate spray are recorded. Suggestions are given for further
work.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Mr B. K. Badami, Director, Veterinary Department, Hyderabad, guided
the work and accorded all other facilities. The Director, Imperial Veterinary
M. R. MAHAJAN 149
Research Institute, Mukteswar and Principal,. Madras Veterinary College,
confirmed material sent to them. Officers in charge of Hingoli and Himayat¬
sagar Farms and Messers Madho Rao and S. N. Mohteda, Assistant Veterinary
Surgeons and my staff cooperated fully in this work. Mr Asadullah, Assist-
ant Engineer, Nizamsagar and Mr. Jagjivan Chendra, Tahsildar, Banswada
helped considerably. The author is indebted to all the above officials.
REFERENCES
Bhalerao, G. D. (1933, 1). Indian J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb. 3, 120
—(1933,
2). Agric., & Live-stock Ind., 3, 354
Cameron, T. W. M. (1932). Vet. J. 88, 4, 140
Hall, M. G. (1936). Control of Animal Parasites. Washington. 64-72
Khan, W. M. (1938-39). Ann. Rept. V. I. O. Punjab, 8-9
Pande, P. G. (1935). Indian J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb. 5, 363
Rais Jung (1932). Hyderabad Farmer, Vol. II, Part IV
Rao, M. Anant Narayan (1933). Indian J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb. 3, 160
Sewell, R. B. S. (1922). Indian J. Med. Res., Vol. 10, Supp.