NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
G. S. WILSON, F. C. MINETT AND H. F. CARLING 61
TABLE I
Raw milk group
No.
4
5
8
10
11
13
14
16
18
19
21
22
24
1
2
3
6
7
9
12
15
17
20
23
25
Sex
Bull .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
Heifer .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„
„
„
„
„
„
Weight
in lb. at
commence-
ment
92
89
98
89
80
93
90
70
80
92
106
80
115
90
76
79
75
98
90
80
90
79
90
86
88
Total 25 : 13 bull, 12 heifer
A. M.
S. D.
A.M.
S. D.
Bull .
„ .
Heifer .
„ .
A. M. Both sexes
S. D.
„
.
90.31
11.29
85.08
6.85
87.80
9.78
Weight
in lb.
after
8 weeks
145
144
161
141
140
164
149
120
126
150
161
141
171
145
122
127
110
152
140
131
140
125
140
145
148
147.15
9.59
135.42
11.88
141.52
14.03
Increase
in
weight
in lb.
53
55
63
52
60
71
59
50
46
58
55
61
56
55
46
48
35
54
50
51
50
46
50
59
60
56.85
10.64
50.33
6.37
53.72
7.01
Age in
months
when
sold
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
..
2
19
15
..
12
9
..
..
2
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
Price
obtained
£. s.
2 15
2 10
2 15
2 10
2 10
3 0
2 10
2 0
2 10
2 10
2 10
2 10
3 0
..
2 4
9 10
9 10
..
9 l0
6 10
..
..
2 10
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
Remarks
Suckled mother
for 7 days.
Slight scouring,
5th week.
Suckled mother
for 10 days.
Slight scouring,
2nd and 3rd
weeks.
A. M. = arithmetic mean ; S. D. = standard deviation.
Note.—All animals that were not sold were added to the Sanatorium herd.
The fact that no such difference occurred suggests that pasteurized milk is
at least equal in value to raw milk in promoting the growth of young calves.
62
Nutritive Value of Raw and Pasteurized Milk
It is interesting to note that the highest individual gain—80 lb.—in a bull
calf and the highest individual gain—63 lb.—in a heifer calf both occurred in ani-
mals fed on pasteurized milk (P 7 and P 21 ).
It will be observed that in the pasteurized group the average increase in weight
of the male animals, instead of being greater than that of the female, was slightly
less. This circumstance was due mainly to the occurrence of scouring in the bull
calves P 2 and P 5 which retarded their growth during the first three weeks and
consequently led to a depression in the average weight of the male animals. In
this connection attention has already been drawn, when describing the milk, to
the trouble that was experienced from scouring during the early stages of the ex-
periment. This appeared to be due, in some measure at least, to inadequate
cooling of the milk after pasteurization leading to gross multiplication of the
organisms in the milk destined for the evening feed. It seems probable that this
TABLE II
Pasteurized milk group
No.
2
3
5
7
11
17
19
22
4
6
8
9
10
12
13
14
15
16
18
21
23
24
25
Sex
Bull .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
Heifer .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
„ .
Weight
in. lb. at
commence-
ment
77
90
90
98
95
84
73
98
94
86
74
84
80
97
90
70
82
79
83
88
97
87
72
Total 23 : 8 bull, 15 heifer.
Weight
in lb.
after
8 weeks
106
140
138
178
160
127
128
154
148
132
126
135
132
150
138
118
141
135
141
151
158
150
121
Increase
in
weight
in lb.
29
50
48
80
65
43
55
56
54
46
52
51
52
53
48
48
59
56
58
63
61
63
49
Age in
months
when
sold
2
2
2
2
2
..
2
2
..
..
13
..
..
..
..
7
..
6
..
..
..
..
..
Price
obtained
£.
s.
1
2
1 15
2 10
2 15
2 10
..
2
0
2 10
..
..
9 10
..
..
..
..
3 10
..
4 10
..
..
..
..
..
Remarks
Scouring for first
3 weeks.
Scouring for first
2 weeks.
Registered
for
breeding
pur-
poses.
Slight
scouring
during 3rd week.
Slight
scouring
during 2nd week.
Slight
scouring
during 2nd week.
G. S. WILSON, F. C. MINETT AND H. F. CARLING 63
TABLE II—(contd.)
No.
A. M.
S. D.
A. M.
S. D.
A. M.
S. D.
Sex.
Bull .
„ .
Heifer .
„ .
Both sexes
„ .
Weight
in lb. at
commence-
ment .
88.13
8.79
84.20
8.12
85.57
8.57
Weight
in lb.
after
8 weeks.
141.39
20.09
138.40
11.24
139.43
15.42
Increase
in
weight
in lb.
53.26
14.12
54.20
5.38
53.86
9.43
Age in
months
when
sold.
..
..
..
..
..
..
Price
obtained.
..
..
..
..
..
..
Remarks.
A. M. =arithmetic mean ; S. D. =standard deviation.
Note 1.—Calves P 1 and P 20 which for causes already stated in the text, died during the
first three weeks of life, have been omitted from this table.
Note 2.—All animals that were not sold were added to the Sanatorium herd.
alone was sufficient to give rise to gastro-intestinal disturbance in animals receiv-
ing the pasteurized milk. It is true that in both the raw and the pasteurized
groups slight scouring occurred in occasional animals at a later date, but never
with the serious results observed in calves P 2 and P 5 .
Table III shows the average weekly increase in weight of the two groups.
TABLE III
Average weekly increase in weight of the animals in the raw and pasteurized groups
Week
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Total
Increase in weight in lb.
Raw
3.88
4.16
4.40
5.32
7.32
9.16
9.12
10.36
53.72
Pasteurized
3.73
3.92
4.08
5.18
8.17
8.83
9.82
10.13
53.86
64
Nutritive Value of Raw and Pasteurized Milk
As is to be expected with relatively small numbers of animals, the differences
are subject to a certain amount of variation. On the whole the mean increase
in weight tended to be slightly higher in the raw than in the pasteurized group
during the first month. This was probably due in the main to the depression of
the average by one or two animals in the pasteurized group which, as already
noted, suffered from scouring during the first two or three weeks of life. In spite
of this, the average total increase for the whole experiment was slightly higher
for the pasteurized than for the raw animals, the percentage figures being 62.94
and 61.18 respectively.
Compared with calves fed on a normal diet, the gains in weight were un-
doubtedly low. The amount of milk given, while permitting good skeletal deve-
lopment, was insufficient to fatten the animals. Their weight and their market
value at the end of eight weeks were, therefore, inferior to those of calves receiving
a more generous diet. As soon as their period of experimental observation was
over, and the animals that were not to be sold at once were put on to a liberal
mixed diet, their weight increased rapidly and within about two to three months
equalled that of normally fed animals.
Throughout the experiment the general condition of the calves was good.
Though lean, they appeared perfectly healthy and showed no sign of rickets, or
of symptoms referable to anaemia such as have been noted by several workers
who have fed calves on an exclusive diet of raw milk [see Cannon, 1931 ; Knoop
et al. 1935]. The slight scouring that occurred in occasional animals after the
faulty cooling of the pasteurized milk had been put right, and which was seen in
both raw and pasteurized groups, may well have been due to the system of pail-
feeding, since it is known that this is liable to give rise to digestive disturbances
[Sheehy, 1934]. At no time during the course of the experiment was any lay or
professional observer able to distinguish between the two groups of animals.
Towards the close of the experiment heifer R l , which was two years old, was
served twice at an interval of three weeks, and heifer P 4 , which was twenty-two
months old, was served once. Both animals are now ' in calf '.
DISCUSSION
The results, which have been set out in detail, without any reservations,
need little discussion. They speak for themselves. That slight variation should
occur in the behaviour of different animals in the two groups was inevitable, but
there is nothing whatever to suggest that they are attributable to the difference
in the nature of the milk received, or that the differences as a whole are significant.
In some respects the results are surprising. Each one of us at the commencement
of the experiment was not only prepared to find a difference, but actually expected
to find a difference, in favour of the animals in the raw group. Moreover, the
farm hands who looked after the animals were strongly prejudiced against the
G. S. WILSON, F. C. MINETT AND H. F. CARLING 65
use of pasteurized milk for the feeding of the calves. This prejudice, which affect-
ed all of us, in favour of raw milk for calf feeding, was based of course on pure
a priori reasoning without any experimental justification. The outcome of the
present experiment seems to leave little doubt that, judged by all the criteria
we have used, milk produced in a clean manner from healthy animals and submit-
ted to low-temperature pasteurization followed by adequate cooling is equal in
nutritive value to milk from the same source consumed in the raw condition. It
may be noted that Blackwood et al. [1936], who made a careful study of the assimi-
lation and retention of nitrogen, phosphorus, and calcium by calves, were like-
wise unable to detect any significant difference between raw and low-temperature
pasteurized whole milk.
Reference should perhaps be made to the work of M'Candlish and Black
[1935], which has frequently been quoted as showing that raw milk is of higher
nutritive value for calves than pasteurized. Such an interpretation seems to us
to be unjustified. It is true that in certain small groups the animals fed on raw
milk increased in weight more rapidly than those on pasteurized, but in other
groups the reverse was the case. If an analysis is made of the figures relating
to all the animals, it is found that the weighted mean increase was actually greater
in the pasteurized than in the raw group, the percentages being 311.3 and 308.4
respectively.
It is not proposed to enter here into the possible application of this knowledge
to practical farming conditions. Suffice it to point out that adequate pasteuriza-
tion of milk should prove of considerable value in the rearing of healthy calves in
diseased herds. Some success has already been reported from California in the
eradication of tuberculosis from dairy herds by this method [see Roadhouse and
Perry, 1930]. In deciding whether or not to adopt pasteurization, farmers need
no longer be deterred by the fear that calves brought up on pasteurized milk
will develop less satisfactorily than those brought up on raw, because of any
hypothetical nutritive inferiority of the pasteurized product.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
1. An experiment on the feeding of calves is described, which lasted over
two years, and which was carried out on a healthy Shorthorn herd free from tuber-
culosis and contagious abortion.
2. Alternate animals as they were born were allocated, without any selection
whatever, to one or other of two groups. One of these was fed on raw, the other
on pasteurized milk. Every animal received its mother's colostrum for three
and a half days before being put on the milk diet.
3. The milk used was taken from the mixed morning's milk of the whole
herd. It was divided into two parts, one of which was given raw, the other of
K
66
Nutritive Value of Raw and Pasteurized Milk.
which was submitted to low-temperature pasteurization at 145°F. (62.8°C.) for
30 minutes and subsequently cooled. The animals were fed morning and evening
on measured quantities that were in strict relationship to their body weight.
4. In addition to the milk, hay was allowed ad lib. Observations showed
that practically none was eaten during the first month, after which each animal
consumed about 1 lb. a day, rising to 3 lb. by the eighth week.
5. With the exception of two weaklings which died after fifteen and twenty-
three days respectively from causes apparently unconnected with the nature of
their diet, all the animals—twenty-five in the raw and twenty-three in the pas-
teurized group—throve well and showed no obvious signs of rickets or anaemia.
6. The average increase in weight over the eight-week period for the animals
in the raw group was 53.72 lb., and in the pasteurized group 53.86 lb., or 61.18
and 62.94 per cent respectively. This practical identity in weight increase is
all the more surprising in view of the fact that the number of bull calves was very
much less in the pasteurized than in the raw group.
7. The highest individual gain among the bull calves—one of 80 lb.—and
the highest individual gain among the heifer calves—one of 63 lb.—both occurred
in animals fed on pasteurized milk.
8. At no time throughout the experiment was any observer, lay or profes-
sional, able to distinguish between the two groups of animals.
9. The diet given, though permitting of good skeletal development, was in-
sufficient to fatten the animals. After they had been transferred, however, to
a normal diet at the conclusion of their eight weeks in the experiment, they soon
put on weight and within two or three months were indistinguishable in size or
condition from animals that had received a more generous diet from birth.
10. There is nothing in these results to suggest that the nutritive value of
pasteurized milk for calves is in any way inferior to that of raw milk.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We are indebted to United Dairies, Ltd., for a grant in aid of the expenses of
this investigation.
REFERENCES
Blackwood, J. H., Morris, S. and Wright, N. C. (1936). J. Dairy Res. 7, 228.
Cannon, C. Y. (1931). Iowa agric. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull No. 136.
Knoop, C. E., Krauss, W. E. and Washburn, R. G. (1935). J. Dairy Sci. 18, 337.
M'Candlish, A. C. and Black, A. N. (1935). West of Scotland agric. Coll. Res. Bull.
No. 4.
Roadhouse, C. L. and Perry, R. L. (1930). Calif. agric. Exp, Sta. Circular
No. 319.
Sheehy, E. J. (1934). Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc. 21, 73.
Stirling, J. D. and Blackwood, J. H. (1933). Bull. Hannah Dairy Res. Inst. No. 5.
ABSTRACTS
Control of parasites in sheep. J. H. RIETZ (J. Amer. Vet. Med. Assn., vol.
XC. N. S. vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 163-170, 1937).
THE paper was presented at the seventy-third annual meeting of the American
Veterinary Medical Association and in the discussion which followed a number of scientists
took part.
The control of parasites is one of the major problems confronting sheep husband-
men throughout the sheep raising areas. The problem is specially acute in enclosed
pastures, for the hazards in the life-cycle of the parasite are considerably greater in
open-range pastures. The problem of educating the sheep husbandmen in the better
methods of control that are devised must be accomplished before, widespread control
methods can be adopted.
The author carried out experiments at the West Virginia Station on the treatment,
proper feeding and management of sheep. In all, he encountered 16 species of para-
sites consisting of stomach, nodular, hook and whipworms, tapeworms, lungworms,
coccidia and grubs. A total of 162 sheep exclusive of the untreated controls, were used
in the series of experiments and were handled in lots of 20 to 30 individuals. The different
treatments were administered at intervals of 21 days. Faecal examinations were re-
gularly made before, during and after the treatments.
On the basis of the results obtained the writer concluded that 1 to 12 per cent solu-
tion of calcium polysulphite, when given in doses varying from 1 to 12 ounces after
starving the animals for 24 hours, was irritating to the mucous membranes ; was a poor
anthelmintic, caused the death of most of the sheep. Tetra chlorethylene, when adminis¬
tered in 5 c.c. doses to animals prepared by starving for 24 hours, was found to reduce
nematode egg counts but not so rapidly as was the case with some other preparations.
It did not relieve cestode infestation. Three ounces of 1.5 per cent solution of
nicotine sulphate (40 per cent), when given after starving for 24 hours, nauseated
most of the sheep but was found to be quite effective in the reduction of nematode
ova and cestode infestation. Colloidal iodine (Merck) proved ineffective in the
removal of nematode and cestode infestations. After starving the animals for 24 hours,
an average of 8.15 and 14 treatments with 3 and 4.5 ounces of one per cent solution
of copper sulphate resulted in 71.7 and 50.8 per cent reduction in the nematode ova
respectively. The cestodes were not affected. On an average of 7.5 treatments, without
any previous fasting, with 4.5 ounces of 1 per cent solution of copper sulphate effected
a reduction of 81.1 per cent in nematode ova ; the cestodes remaining unaffected.
An average of 14.8 to 7.1 treatments with 3 ounces of 1.5 per cent solution of copper
sulphate resulted in a reduction of 76 to 96.6 per cent in nematode ova. In the former
case the animals were not starved previously and the cestode infestations were con-
trolled only partially, while in the latter case the animals were starved for 24 hours
prior to treatment and the cestode infestations were completely controlled. In one of
the lots receiving the latter treatment the reduction of nematode ova was 98.7 per cent.
( 67 )
68
ABSTRACTS
A mixture of equal parts of 1.5 per cent solutions of copper sulphate and nicotine sul-
phate (40 per cent) when administered in doses of 3 ounces resulted in a reduction of
98.2 per cent in nematode ova and a complete control of cestode infestation. An average
of seven treatments were given.
The untreated control animals in all the lots showed an increase in parasitic in-
festations. Mass feeding of copper sulphate in a salt mixture in the ratios of 1 : 30
or 1 : 50 proved not only ineffective but at times dangerous. Finally the author con-
cludes that a 1.5 per cent solution of copper sulphate in dosages of 1 ounce or more for
lambs and 3 ounces for adults at intervals of three weeks throughout the year, will
effectively control the gastro-intestinal parasites. Fasting for 24 hours before treat-
ment is essential.
The author reports having obtained fair results in the treatment of lungworms
with chloroform. He, however, points out that the method is not unattended with
danger of losses from pneumonia following anesthesia. About 250 head of sheep suffer-
ing from lungworms were treated with an oily solution of pyrethrum, manufactured
from 3 pounds of pyrethrum flowers extracted in one gallon of oil. The solution was
injected directly into the trachea in doses of 3 to 6 c.c. Only one treatment was re-
quired for 70 to 75 per cent of the sheep treated and only 3 to 5 per cent required a third
treatment before the larvae disappeared from the faeces. No losses from pneumonia
resulted following the use of this solution.
Good feeding and management are markedly reflected in the control of parasites
of sheep. [H. D. S.]
Immunisation Active des Bovidés contre la Fiévre Aphteuse au moyen d'adsor¬
bats d'aluminium (Active immunization of bovines against foot-and-mouth disease
by means of aluminium adsorbates). M. E. TOUSSIENG (Bulletin de l ' Of f i ce
International des Épizootics, xii, 417-444, 1936).
THE article records the results of experiments conducted with a view to test
if immunity is conferred upon calves that have been vaccinated against foot-and-mouth
disease with virus adsorbed on to aluminium, hydroxide.
One or the other of the following three strains of viruses was used in the making
of the several brews of the experimental vaccine : (a) " Riems O ", an " O " strain
obtained from Prof. Waldmann, (b) " Hansen-Fionie ", a strain recovered from a spon-
taneous outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in the Fionie Island and ascertained to be
an " O " strain, and (c) " Virus 2 ", a second " O " strain obtained from Prof. Wald-
mann.
Some of the brews of vaccine were made each to comprise two portions, the second
portion made to contain double the concentration of virus as that contained in the first
portion.
Calves that were intended for the test of the efficacy of a vaccine were vaccinated
twice at ten days' interval with the brew concerned, first with the portion containing
the lower concentration of virus and secondly with that containing the higher. Brews
made in single strength were used in much larger quantities for the second inoculation.
72
ABSTRACTS
(3) the factors regulating resistance to B. enteritidis are not related to those regu-
lating resistance to encephalitis virus. and
(4) the mechanism of this inheritance may be relatively simple, since the mor-
tality percentages in the cross-bred generations approximate for the most
part those expected on the basis of two single factor crossings.
When BSVR strain was crossed with BRVS, bacteria-resistant-virus-resistant
(BRVR) mice were encountered. Hence it was assumed that among these cross-breds, a
pure BRVR strain might be present which could be segregated from heterozygous BRVR
reactors by selective breeding. Certain lines have thus emerged from this which to date
are resistant to both B. enteritidis and virus.
All selected lines proved uniformly susceptible to a strain of mouse passage rabies
virus, given by natural or artificial routes. [R. L. K.]
The problem of grass silage :—
1. The chemical composition of grass silage. S. J. WATSON and W. S.
FERGUSON. (J. Agric. Sci. 27, 1-42, 1937).
2. Losses of dry matter and digestible nutrients in low-temperature silage
with and without added molasses or mineral acids. S. J. WATSON
and W. S. FERGUSON. (J. Agric. Sci. 27, 67-107, 1937).
3. Grass Silage. A comparison of the changes involved in the ordinary
molasses and A. I. V. Processes. W. MORLEY DAVIES, G. H. BATHAM
and W. B. THOMPSON. (J. Agric. Sci. 27, 151-161, 1937).
1. THE main chemical changes which take place during different processes of ensilage
are studied in this paper. The study extends to 293 samples of silage made in towers
wood-lined pits and stacks or clamps.
Detailed methods of analysis are given for pH, crude protein, volatile base, amino¬
acid, lactic acid, total volatile acids, acetic acid and butyric acid contents. These deter-
minations afford a means of assessing the nutritive value of silage.
By ordinary process.—46 per cent of the silages show a pH value of 4.5—5.0, 31,
per cent a pH value of 4.0—4.5, and only 4 samples had a value below 4.0. The greater
formation of volatile bases and volatile acids and an appreciable butyric fermentation
make this process decidedly inferior to the A. I. V. Process. High protein material
fares worse but with fully mature material, a good compaction of material and maximum
exclusion of air give satisfactory results.
By addition of molasses.—An addition of about 1—2 per cent of molasses suitably
diluted gives very good silages. 47 per cent of the samples show a pH value of 4.0—4.5
and 29 per cent under 4.0. But the breakdown of protein, the formation of volatile
bases, the quantity of amino-acids and the more complex nitrogeneous compounds place
this product only next in quality to the product formed by the A. I. V. Process,
although the butyrie fermentation is controlled and the lactic fermentation promoted.
By addition of whey.—These samples show an average pH value of 3.86 and give a
product comparable with that made by the addition of molasses.