NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
H. D.
SRIVASTAVA
371
The testes, two in number, are lobed, massive structures situated one
behind the other in the intercaecal space. The anterior testis, measuring
0.7—1.04 × 1.14 in size, lies at the end of the anterior half of body length.
The posterior testis, 0.64—1.12× 1.66, is situated behind the anterior testis.
The vesicula seminalis is a fairly thick transversely coiled tube divisible into
vesicula seminalis interna and externa. The small egg-shaped cirrcus sac,
0.22—0.3×0.12—0.2 in size, encloses a small portion of the vesicula semi-
nalis, a small tubular pars prostatica surrounded by prostate gland cells and a
minute ductus ejaculatorius. The genital pore lies immediately behind the
intestinal bifurcation.
The ovary is slightly triangular in shape with a deep notch in its base
which is directed towards the blind extremity of the right caecum. It is of
0.24—0.3×0.22—0.38 in size, and is situated in the intercaecal space slightly
to the right of the median line at one-fourth to one-seventh of body length
from the hinder end. A small Laurer's canal is given off from the oviduct.
The spherical shell gland mass, 0.22—0.3 in diameter, lies a little obliquely
behind the ovary. The vitellaria consist of a number of irregular follicles
extending laterally to the caeca from the level of the anterior margin of the
acetabulum to that of the middle of the oesophageal bulb. At the posterior
end they extend a little towards the median line. The uterus consists of a
transversely coiled ascending tube containing a number of eggs 0.114—0.129
×0.064—0.076 in size. The excretory system consists of a pair of lateral
tubes which form characteristic loops round the caeca and posteriorly open
into the excretory bladder situated dorsally to the acetabulum. The lymphatic
system consists of three pairs of longitudinal tubes.
In its affinity the genus Orientodiscus stands nearest to Chiorchis (as
revised by Southwell and Kirshner, 1937). The characteristic feature of the
new genus is its excretory system. The anterior extent of the vitellaria also
is rather unusual.
GENERIC DIAGNOSIS
Body smooth, fusiform ; oral sucker with paired pouches; oesophagus,
oesophageal bulb and pouches present; caeca extend posteriorly to the level of
the ovary ; acetabulum strongly muscular, cup-shaped and subterminal.
Testes two, massive, intercaecal and tandem ; anterior testis situated at the
base of the first half of body length. Cirrus sac present; vesicula seminalis
divisible into interna and externa. Ovary situated at posterior fourth to
seventh part of body length. Laurer's canal present. Vitellaria follicular,
lateral, extracaecal, extending from the level of the oesophageal bulb to the
anterior margin of the acetabulum. Uterus intercaecal, pre-ovarian ; eggs
many and operculate. Excretory system consists of two lateral tubes which
form typical loops round the caeca ; excretory bladder dorsal to the acetabu-
lum. Lymphatic system consists of three pairs of longitudinal canals. Para-
sites of fresh-water fishes.
372
Amphistomatous Parasites of Indian Food-Fishes
Fig. 2. Excretory system of O. jumnai, n. sp
TYPE-SPECIES.—ORIENTODISCUS LOBATUM
ORIENTODISCUS JUMNAI, N. SP.
Six specimens, four mature, of this parasite were obtained from the rectum
of a fresh-water fish from the river Jumna in July 1934. The type specimen has
Ind. Jour. Vety. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. VIII, Pt. IV ]
PLATE XXX
Section of acetabulum of N. gangeticus showing acetabular papillae
H. D.
SRIVASTAVA
373
Fig. 3. O. jumnai n. sp.
a smooth, cylindrical body of 5.45 in length and 1.2 in maximum breadth in
the region of the testes. The ovoid oral sucker 0.24 × 0.26 in size, has a pair
of posterio-lateral pouches and opens to the outside through a small vestibule.
The strongly muscular, cup-shaped acetabulum of 0.66 in diameter is situated
subterminally at the hinder end of the body. The narrow oesophagus, 0.32
long, opens posteriorly into an oesophageal bulb, 0.3 × 0.16 in size. The
caeca extend in a wavy course up to the level of the ovary.
The two spherical testes are situated in tandem in the intercaecal space
in the middle of the body length. They measure 0.66—0.75 in diameter.
P
374
Amphistomatous Parasites of Indian Food-Fishes
A small cirrus sac containing vesicula seminalis interna, pars prostatica and
ductus ejaculatorious is present. The vesicula seminalis externa is fairly long
and coiled. The spherical ovary of 0.24 in diameter is situated slightly to the
left of the median line in the intercaecal space at the beginning of the last
quarter of the body length. A small, diffuse shell gland mass lies behind and
partly overlapping the ovary. Uterus as in type species and contains several
eggs of 0.114—0.12 × 0.072—0.076 in size. Vitellaria are follicular, extend-
ing laterally from the anterior level of the acetabulum to the posterior level of
the oesophageal bulb. They partly overlap the caeca. The excretory and the
lymphatic systems are as in the type species.
Orientodiscus jumnai, n. sp. resembles the type species in most of its
characters. The only important difference is the unlobed character of the
gonads which is a constant feature both in mature and immature forms.
The author is deeply grateful to the Director and the Pathologist of
the Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar-Kumaun for kind
encouragement.
REFERENCES
Fischoeder, F. (1901). Zool. Anz. 24, 367.
—(1903).
Zool. Jahrb. Abt. 1, Syst. 17, 485.
Fukui, T. (1929). Jap. J. Zool. 2, 219.
Nicoll, W. (1915). Parasitol. 8, 22.
Poche, F. (1925). Arch. f. Naturgesch. Abt. A. (1926), 1.
Srivastava H. D. (1937). Proc. Ind. Sci. Cong., Sect. Med. and Vet. Res.
Abst. No. 55.
Stiles, C. W. and Goldberger, J. (1910). Bull. U. S. Hyg. Lab. 60.
Stunkard, H. W. (1917). Illinois Biol. Monogr. 3, 285.
—(1925).
Parasitol. 17, 137.
Southwell, T. and Kirshner, A. (1937). Ann. Trop. Med. & Parasit. 31, 2, 215.
Travassos, L. (1934). Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz. 29, 19.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIONOMICS OF THE OX
WARBLE-FLY
(HYPODERMA LINEATUM DE VILLERS)
BY
B. N. SONI, B.Sc. (Pb.), B.Sc. AGRI. (EDIN.)
Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar-Kumaun
(Received for publication on 7th March 1938)
(With three text-figures)
CONTENTS
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . .
PERCENTAGE OF INFESTATION IN HILL BULLS . . . . . .
THE OESOPHAGEAL FORMS . . . . . . . . .
THE GRUBS IN THE SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUES . . . . . .
THE EFFECT OF INFESTATION ON THE CONDITION OF THE HOST . . .
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . .
PAGE.
375
375
376
377
379
379
I. INTRODUCTION
THE present inquiry on the warble-fly infestation in domesticated animals
in India was undertaken in January 1937, at the Imperial Veterinary Research
Institute, Mukteswar, under a research scheme sanctioned by the Imperial
Council of Agricultural Research.
This article deals mainly with some observations made, during a period of
about seven months, on the life-history of Hypoderma lineatum at Mukteswar,
in the Kumaun hills (altitude 7,500 ft.), and its effect on the general condition
of the host and also the incidence of infection in one particular type of cattle
(hill bulls) in India. Opportunity is also taken for embodying herein a few
incidental observations concerning the distribution of the pest in certain locali-
ties in the Punjab, in order to illustrate the diversity of habits exhibited by it
under varying conditions of topography and climate, for, as will be seen from
what has to be stated later, the seasonal occurrence of H. lineatum in these
localities is not synchronous with what has been observed in the case of this
pest in the Kumaun hills. One can hardly over-estimate the importance of
observations of this kind in formulating combative measures against the pest.
II. PERCENTAGE OF INFESTATION IN HILL BULLS
Recent observations have indicated that H. lineatum is indigenous to
Mukteswar and its neighbouring localities in the Kumaun hills. This is borne
out by the fact that during last winter warble tumours appeared in dairy cows
( 375 )
378
Bionomics of the Ox Warble-Fly
larvae, and when punctured, yield watery disintegrated tissues. What,
however, appeared to be definitely a spineless form of the larva was encoun-
tered by the present writer on two occasions in infected animals at Mukteswar.
This form shows an entire absence of spines except on the anterior and posterior
segments. The cephalopharyngeal skeleton and mouth hooks are morpholo-
gically similar to those of the oesophageal stage larva of H. lineatum. It
differs from the oesophageal larva in being club-shaped instead of torpedo-
shaped, whilst the segmentation is more pronounced and the surface less glossy
(Figs. 1-3). Unfortunately, both specimens were damaged while being
mounted in Berlese's medium.
Fig. 1.
Oesophageal larva. ×11.
Fig. 2.
Spineless larva off back
of host. ×11.
Fig. 3.
Cephalopharyngeal skeleton as
observed in both types of
larvae shown in figs. 1 and 2.
B. N.
SONI
379
V. THE EFFECT OF INFESTATION ON THE CONDITION OF THE HOST
Five heavily " warbled " and two warble-free bulls were kept under
identical conditions of housing and feeding, and their body weights were taken
weekly for nearly three months, from February to April 1937. As will be
seen from Table II, the " warbled " bulls continued to lose weight until about
the middle of March, which is about the time when the majority of the larvae
at Mukteswar escape from their warbles, and from this time onwards they
showed a progressive increase in their body weight. No appreciable loss in
weight was observed in the two control animals. These observations are in
accord with those recorded by MacDougall [1935] in Scotland, who observes
that the " condition [of animals] suffers from the presence of a number of
larvae in the subdermal tissues ".
TABLE II
Tabulated records showing the loss of body weight in "warbled" animals
The numbers marked with asterisk represent control (uninfested) bulls.
Weekly body weights in lb. commencing from 5th February 1937
Bull
1
2
3
4
5
*6
*7
1st
week
355
175
235
260
280
272
181
2nd
week
355
170
230
260
270
270
185
3rd
week
345
170
230
240
270
270
185
4th
week
333
165
225
242
265
272
182
5th
week
324
158
215
240
265
270
182
6th
week
320
152
212
235
260
275
182
7th
week
335
150
210
240
255
284
182
8th
week
348
152
214
242
260
285
186
9th
week
362
153
223
252
280
300
182
10th
week
370
160
240
270
282
304
182
11th
week
370
187
247
281
289
299
180
12th
week
371
188
248
290
287
296
182
Mean weekly loss
or gain in body
weight calculated
upto 6th week
when
larvae
began to drop off.
lb.
—7.0
—4.6
—4.6
—5.0
—4.0
+0.6
+0.2
VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Observations carried out at the Imperial Veterinary Research Institute,
Mukteswar, have shown that:—
Over fifty per cent of the hill bulls purchased for experimental purposes
are infested with warble grubs (Hypoderma lineatum) and that it takes nearly
fifty-one days for the larvae to mature after their first appearance in the sub-
cutaneous tissues of the animal's back. The mature larvae have been encoun-
tered as late as the beginning of March, and in this respect the seasonal occur-
rence of H. lineatum at Mukteswar would appear to present a feature somewhat
different from that recorded for the same species in certain other localities in
India. Thus, at Hissar (Punjab), no tumours in the back are noticed after
the middle of January.
380
Bionomics of the Ox Warble-Fly
The presence of warble tumours in dairy cows and of oesophageal larvae
in bulls born and bred at Mukteswar shows that the pest is indigenous to this
locality.
During 1937, the occurrence of oesophageal forms of H. lineatum was
noticed for the first time at Mukteswar towards the end of March and thence-
forward they were encountered continuously during an observation period of
nearly seven months. The significance of their occurrence over such a long
period is not understood and it would appear difficult to reconcile this with the
generally accepted view that there is only one annual brood of H. lineatum
in India.
Evidence has been obtained that the presence of warble tumours results in
a loss of condition of the affected animal.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer wishes to express his thanks to the Imperial Council of
Agricultural Research and to the Director, Imperial Veterinary Research
Institute, Mukteswar, for providing funds and facilities to undertake this
work. His thanks are also due to Mr. S. K. Sen, Entomologist of the
Institute, for his useful suggestions and guidance. The illustrations were
prepared by Mr. Ahmed Baksh and Mr. S. Sen Roy, artists of the Institute,
and for this the writer is indebted to them.
REFERENCES
Bishopp, F. C. and others (1926). U. S. A. Agric. Bull. 1369, pp. 1-119.
Cross, H. E. (1926). Agric. Res. Inst. Pusa Bull. 160, pp. 1-16.
Fletcher, T. Bainbrigge and Sen, S. K. (1930-31). J. of C. Bur. for Anim.
Husb. & Dairying in India, 4, 127-138.
Knipling, E. F. (1935). J. Parasit. 21, 70-82.
Laake,E. W. (1921). J. Agr. Res. 21, 439-457.
MacDougall, R. S. (1935). Vet. J. 91, 472-481.
A STUDY OF THE LIFE-HISTORY AND PATHOGENICITY
OF COTYLOPHORON COTYLOPHORUM (FISCHOEDER,
1901) STILES AND GOLDBERGER, 1910, OF INDIAN
RUMINANTS AND A BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
TO CHECK THE INFESTATION
BY
HAR DAYAL SRIVASTAVA, D.Sc.
Helminthologist (On special duty)
Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar-Kumaun
(Received for publication on 23rd March 1938)
(With Plates XXXI—XXXIV)
THOUGH a knowledge of the life-history of a parasite is necessary in de-
termining its pathogenicity and in devising means to check its infestation,
the life-histories of only a few trematodes have so far been worked out in this
country. Liston and Soparkar [1917] carried out experiments on the life-
history of Schistosoma spindalis and found that snails of the species Indoplan¬
orbis exustus and Limnaea acuminata serve as the intermediate hosts. Rao and
Ayyar [1932] discovered the molluscan hosts of two amphistomes—Param-
phistomum cervi and Fischoederius elongatus. A year later Rao established the
life-cycle of Schistosoma nasalis. Bhalerao in 1933 demonstrated that L.
acuminata serves as the intermediate host of Fasciola gigantica in the Kumaun
hills.
The occurrence of epizootics of acute amphistomiasis among sheep
and goats in the United Provinces was responsible for undertaking an investi-
gation into the life-history of a common amphistome, Cotylophoron cotylopho¬
rum, of Indian ruminants. Besides establishing experimentally the life-
history and the pathogenicity of the amphistome, a biological control to check
its infestation has been discovered. It has been observed that while adult
amphistomes are apparently non-pathogenic, they are, in their immature
stages, highly pathogenic.
Specifically determined adult specimens of the amphistome, obtained from
the rumen of goats and sheep, were first thoroughly washed with water and
then placed in small beakers containing normal saline and were kept at body
temperature in an incubator. When a sufficient number of eggs was laid, the
worms, while they were still alive, were removed and the saline was decanted.
The eggs were washed in several changes of water. It was found that any
bacterial growth in the beaker containing eggs interfered with their develop-
ment. The eggs were kept in distilled water which was changed at least thrice
( 381 )
Q.
382
Cotylophoron cotylophorum
a day. They are whitish in colour and ovoid in shape, with a slight attenua-
tion at the opercular end. They measure 0.0126—0.013 × 0. 0068—0.009*
in size. When kept at a temperature of 80° to 90°F., they hatched in eighteen
to twenty-one days. Though hatching of the eggs took place throughout the
twenty-four hours, most of them hatched between 10 A.M. to 4 P.M.
The miracidium is extremely active and is attracted towards the lighted
side of the container, showing marked heliotropism. It is pyriform in shape
and measures 0.014 to 0.02×0.003 to 0.005 in size, with the maximum
breadth occurring across the anterior fifth of body length. It is covered,
except at the apical papilla, with ciliated epidermal plates which are twenty
in number, arranged in four rows round the body. There are a flask-shaped
gland (primitive gut), two pairs of penetration glands, reproductive tissue and
the usual types of excretory and nervous systems. The miracidia were utilised
in infesting parasite-free, laboratory-raised specimens of a common snail
Indoplanorbis exustus. A few snails were placed in a dish of water containing
actively swimming specimens of the miracidia. The larvae attacked the
snails very readily and slowly penetrated into its exposed parts, specially
foot and mantle. The infested snails began to shed cercariae in thirty to
thirty-five days.
DEVELOPMENT INSIDE THE SNAIL
The miracidia retain their ciliated plates for a few hours after penetration
into the body of the mollusc. Soon they become ovoid or elongated in shape
with broadly rounded ends—sporocyst—and the miracidial organs begin to
disappear. A very thin cuticle develops round the body. In about twenty-
four to thirty hours, the germ balls break up into a number of germ cells which
fill the central cavity. The germ cells do not appear to possess cell walls.
They develop into rediae which begin to appear in three days' time and attain
their full size inside the sporocyst in about a fortnight. The number of rediae
in a single sporocyst varies from five to eight. There is no birth pore in the
sporocysts and consequently the enclosed rediae come out by rupturing the
wall at the anterior end. The pair of flame cells present in the miracidium
persist in the fully formed sporocysts which measure 0.29—0.35 × 0.12—
0.19 in size.
A fully mature redia is sausage-shaped, measuring 0.58—0.72 × 0.14—
0.16 in size, and possesses a mouth, pharynx, oesophagus and a rhabdocoel
gut, besides excretory and nervous systems. A number of unicellular bodies
are found associated with the gut. There are no lateral appendages. The
birth pore develops only after the rediae have emerged from the sporocyst.
The excretory system consists of three pairs of flame cells. The cells of the
anterior pair lie one on either side of the gut while those of the posterior pair
are situated laterally a little in front of the hind extremity. The cells of
*All measurements are in mm.
PLATE XXXI
[ Ind. Jour. Vety. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. VIII, Part IV.
FIG. 1. Miracidium of
Cotylophoron cotylophorum
FIG. 2. Sporocyst of
Cotylophoron cotylophorum
FIG, 3. Redia of
Cotylophoron cotylophorum
FIG. 4. Cercaria of Cotylophoron cotylophorum
Key to lettering
B.P. .. .. .. ..
E.S. .. .. .. ..
Ex. bl. .. .. .. ..
G.b. .. .. .. ..
G.c. .. .. .. ..
P.gl. .. .. .. ..
P.gu. .. .. .. ..
Birth pore
Excretory system
Excretory bladder
Germ ball
Germ cell
Penetration gland
Primitive gut
PLATE XXXII
[ Ind. Jour. Vety. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. VIII, Part IV
FIG. 1.
Cysts of cercariae of C. cotylophorum
FIG. 2.
A case of acute amphistomiasis due to C. cotylophorum
FIG. 3.
Section of duodenum of sheep showing young
amphistomes embedded in mucosa (after Cameron)
H. D.
SRIVASTAVA
383
the third pair lie one on either side in the equatorial region of the body. The
ducts of the third pair of flame cells open into those of the anterior pair. The
ducts of the anterior and posterior pairs of flame cells join on either side to
form a common duct which swells into a bladder. The excretory pores are
situated laterally close behind the middle of body length. The rediae after
leaving the sporocyst migrate into the liver and ovotestis of the host where
they complete their development. The formation of daughter rediae though
not common has been observed in a few cases.
The cercariae belong to the ' pigmentata group . They leave the rediae
through the birth pore in an immature stage and complete their development
in the tissues of the host. Fully developed cercariae begin to come out thirty
to thirty-five days after the infestation of the snail with miracidia. In their
internal structure the cercariae resemble closely Cercariae indicae XXIX
Sewell, 1922, but differ from it in the size of the body which is smaller and in the
presence of a feebly developed envelop of the circular muscle fibres around the
base of the oesophagus. Like the miracidia, the cercariae are also strongly
heliotropic. They begin to come out in large numbers when the aquarium
containing the infested snails is kept in the sun. The largest number of
cercariae is shed between 10 A.M. and 4 P.M. After a brief active period, the
cercaria contracts into a small, spherical mass around which a thin cyst wall
is secreted and the tail is cast off. The cysts are hemispherical in shape
and deep gray in colour. The larvae readily encyst on the sides of the con-
tainer and on suspended vegetation. In these experiments leaves of tamarind
and banian trees were provided. A number of leaves bearing large numbers of
encysted metacercariae were fed to two out of four parasite-free and laboratory-
raised goats, the other two remaining as controls. Four months after feeding
the metacercariae the animals showed symptoms of acute amphistomiasis to
which one of them succumbed. On post mortem examination numerous im-
mature amphistomes were found embedded in the wall of the duodenum and
the initial part of the intestine. The other infested and the two controls were
slaughtered six months later and adult specimens of Cotylophoron cotylophorum
were obtained from the rumen of the first, while the last two were free
from amphistomes.
Feeding experiments were carried out to determine the span of life of the
encysted metacercariae kept under suitable conditions of temperature and
moisture. A large number of leaves containing freshly encysted metacercariae
was kept in small moist chambers at room temperature for a period of five
months. Parasite-free lambs were given two, three, three and a half, four and
five months old cysts and it was found on subsequent examination that the
encysted metacercariae remain viable for a maximum period of four months.
It was observed that while most of the three months old metacercariae develop-
ed in the host only a few out of the four months old cysts could develop into
adults.