NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
428
Intestinal Paramphistomiasis of Sheep in Sind
in carbon tetrachloride we have an effective drug against this disease. How-
ever, before mass treatment is undertaken, it seems advisable to select a few
animals at random in different flocks to test the effects of the drug, as there
are reasons to think that the tolerance to this drug may vary in different
flocks. Montgomerie [1937] recorded serious effect, even death in certain
cases, after so small a dose as 1 c.c. of carbon tetrachloride in sheep in the treat-
ment of liver rot.
Observations in America have shown that sheep there well tolerated this
drug and it was evident that the mountain sheep seriously affected with liver
rot showed no toxic effects even after the administration of 50 c.c. of the drug.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
1. An outbreak of disease amongst sheep was investigated and found to
be associated with immature forms of amphistomes.
2. The disease occurs after rains and floods and in inundated areas.
3. General unthriftiness, diarrhoea and swelling of sub-maxillary space,
which attains its greatest prominence in the evening, present the main clinical
picture of the disease, the death rate being 80 to 90 per cent.
4. The essential lesions on post mortem were :—
(a) Adipose tissue of the whole carcase was changed into whitish
cheese-like material.
(b) Catarrhal chronic verminous enteritis, the immature amphistomes
being intimately connected with the lesion.
5. There is no evidence to suspect that other helminth parasites recovered
were in any way connected with the disease.
6. Treatment with carbon tetrachloride and sweet oil gave encouraging
results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is greatly indebted to the Director, Imperial Veterinary
Research Institute, Mukteswar, for furnishing him with a report regarding the
identity of the parasites, histo-pathology of the involved tissue and isolation
of organisms from the lesions and to Mr. J. H. G. Jerrom, I.V.S., Director
of Veterinary Services, Sind, for the keen interest taken and for the valuable
suggestions. His thanks are also due to Rao Bahadur V. R. Phadke, Offi-
ciating Director of Veterinary Services, Sind, for going through this paper and
for making helpful suggestions. In conclusion the author greatly appreciates
the help rendered him by Mr. F. K. Solangi, Veterinary Assistant Surgeon,
Tatta.
H. S.
BAWA
429
REFERENCES
Haji, C. S. G. (1935). Ind. Vet. J. 12, 18-21
Le Roux. P. L. (1930). 16th Rept. Dir. Vet. Serv. & Anim. Ind., Union S. Africa.
243-253
Montgomerie, R F. (1937). J. Comp. Path. & Ther. 1-4, 314-6
Pande, P. G. (1935). Ind. J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb. 5, 364
Shahi, H. B. (1936-37). Ann. Adm. Rept. Vet. Invest. Officer, U. P. 7
Walker, G. K. (1906). J. Trop. Vet. Sci. 4, 410-3
FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIONOMICS OF
THE OX WARBLE-FLY (HYPODERMA LINEATUM
DE VILLERS) IN INDIA *
BY
B. N. SONI, B.Sc. (PB.), B.Sc. AGRI. (EDIN.)
Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar
(Received for publication on 26th January 1939)
(With Plate XXXVI and one text-figure)
INTRODUCTION †
THE present author [1938], in a previous article on the bionomics of
Hypoderma lineatum in India, stated that the extent of infestation with this
species in the hill bulls of Garhwal and Kumaun exceeds 50 per cent and
that, apart from punctures in the skin caused by this pest, the affected cattle
suffer from a loss of condition during such time as the larvae are in the sub-
cutaneous tissues of the back. It was also shown that the pest is indigenous
to Mukteswar (Kumaun hills ; altitude 7,000 feet) and that it takes nearly
51 days for the larvae to mature in the backs of cattle under local condi-
tions. In the same article, a reference was made to the continuous occurrence,
for a period of about seven months, of the oesophageal forms of H. lineatum
in the hill bulls at Mukteswar. In the present paper it is proposed to record
a few further observations on the bionomics of the pest which the author
has been able to make at this Institute and also during his surveys in different
parts of the country.
SEASONAL OCCURRENCE
A report published in the Veterinary Record [March 1935], under the
heading ' The Warble-fly Campaign in Scotland,' includes a review of Dr.
Stewart MacDougall's experimental work on the control of this pest. In
this review it is suggested that ' dressing for the destruction of larvae must
begin by the third week of March.' This suggestion is based on the ob-
servation that, in Scotland, as illustrated by a seasonal occurrence calendar,
the earliest larvae emerge from their hosts after the second week of March.
If the seasonal occurrence of H. lineatum at Mukteswar were presented by
means of a similar calendar for the round of the year, it would be seen that
* Presented at the Indian Science Congress, held at Lahore in January 1939.
† Since the foregoing observations were made, these larvae have been found to
occur during a continuous period of nearly 11 months in the same breed of cattle
at Mukteswar, the significance of which will be discussed in a separate article.
( 431 )
432
Bionomics of the Ox Warble-fly
the earliest emergence of the larvae from the backs of cattle occurs sharply-
after the middle of January, and that the last batch of larvae drop off by the
end of March ( fig. 1) and the schedule of dressing operations will therefore
have to be drawn up accordingly. On the other hand, at Hissar in the Punjab,
as already recorded by the present writer [ 1938 ], the larvae begin to mature
in the back by the end of November and all larvae drop off by the middle
of the following January. In the North-West Frontier Province, again,
the earliest mature larvae were observed in the middle of February in a cattle
fair at Serai Naurang. In the hills of the same province this was observed
about a fortnight later. It would thus appear necessary to draw up seasonal
occurrence calendars for the different warble-fly-infested localities in India in
order to be able to lay out a scheme of systematic campaign of control
against the pest.
FIG. 1. Calendar regarding Hypoderma lineatum in the round of the year at
Mukteswar (Kumaun Hills).
Ind. Jour. Vety. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. IX Part IV ]
PLATE XXXVI
FIG. 1.
Young larva
inside the
neural canal
FIG. 2.
Young larva in the
oesophagus of goat
FIG. 3.
Stenosis and haemorrahage
of the bull's gullet-wall
caused by young larva
FIG. 4.
Blood clots in. the
alimentary canal
of young larva
FIG. 5.
Dissected subcutaneous larva showing a large
quantity of blood in its alimentary canal
FIG. 6.
Subcutaneous fascia of a sheep showing
warble larvae in situ
FIG. 7.
'Licked' beef. Larva and
a pus cavity caused by
it in the flesh of a bull
B. N.
SONI
433
LARVAE IN THE ANIMAL'S BODY
The exact route taken by the larvae during their migration inside the
animal's body has been a matter for speculation for workers both in Europe
and America, although the occurrence' of young larvae attached to various
organs in the body cavity throws some light on the subject. Mote
[ 1928 ] cites an instance in which ' 8 larvae were observed in the pillars of
the diaphragm, indicating their probable route after leaving the oesophagus'.
Again, Bishopp and others [ 1926 ] record the finding of larvae along the ribs,
on the diaphragm and in the neural canal, and according to them this indicates
that the larvae ' pass from the gullet across the diaphragm to the ventral
ends of the ribs and thence follow the connective tissue beneath the pleura
up to the back'. The present writer has been able to locate the presence of
young larval forms of H. lineatum at the following parts of the animal's
body:—
1. under the submucosa of the oesophagus,
2. under the subcutaneous membrane of the tracheaal wall,
3. under the serous membrane of the aorta,
4. attached to the anterior surface of the diaphragm,
5. under the serous membrane of the rumen,
6. in the muscular tissues joining the fourth and fifth ribs of the
right side,
7. in the pleural membrane,
8. in the muscular tissues surrounding the vertebral column,
9. in the neural canal (Plate XXXVI, fig. 1).
In many cases young forms of larvae present in the oesophagus were found
to cause haemorrhage and stenosis of the gullet wall and traces of blood clots
were recovered in the alimentary tracts of these larvae (Plate XXXVI,
figs. 3. and 4). The injury thus caused in the oesophagus is liable to act as a
portal of entry for pathogenic organisms which would otherwise be rendered
innocuous by the action of the gastric juice. Cases of blood ingestion by
the larvae were also observed in specimens of penultimate stage larvae collected
from the subcutaneous tissues of the animal's back. These larvae on dissection
showed their alimentary canals to be full of blood (Plate XXXVI, fig. 5).
In conformity with the observations recorded by Mote [ 1928 ], Mac-
Dougall [ 1935 ] and other workers in this field, the present author has often
noticed that the warble larvae in the hypodermic stage are also responsible
for causing damage to the meat for human consumption. This is true both
for the goats and the beef animals in India. The presence of the larva is
accompanied by the formation of pus, and cases have often been observed,
in the post mortem room at Mukteswar and in the abattoirs in the Punjab,
showing pus cavities up to one inch deep, in close proximity to the boring
lava, in the lumbar muscles of the animal (Plate XXXVI, fig. 7). The
434
Bionomics of the Ox Warble-fly
presence of these cavities imparts a very repulsive appearance to the meat,
and this necessitates the trimming off of the affected parts, frequently resulting
in the loss of a fair amount of meat and leaving the carcase unattractive and
hence less saleable. This condition was given prominence during the war
by the Ministry of Food in England as ' causing serious loss of meat'.
OCCURRENCE OF H. LINEATUM IN GOATS AND SHEEP
Patton [ 1924 ], in a note on the occurrence of H. lineatum in the Punjab,
has mentioned ' Hypoderma lineatum, though mainly a parasite of cattle in
its larval stages, is also found in the skins of goats'. Bishopp and others
[ 1926 ] have recorded the details of several tests to determine the possibility
of infesting goats with Hypoderma (H. bovis and H. lineatum) larvae. In
some of these tests, the flies were made to lay eggs on goats' heels and in others
the larvae were taken from the gullets of cattle and placed under incisions
made in the skin of goats. In a few cases, the larvae reached the skin of the
back in the lumbar region, but in no case was it possible to record the occur-
rence of larvae under the submucosa of the oesophagus. The present writer,
however, encountered H. lineatum larvae in the gullets of goats in the course
of routine examination of carcases in the post mortem room at Mukteswar
(Plate XXXVI, fig. 2). This would appear to be the first record of the
occurrence of the oesophageal forms of H. lineatum larvae in goats, whether
in India or abroad.
The observation is indicative of the possibility that
the life-history of this pest is similar in the two types of hosts (cattle and
goats).
In connexion with the occurrence of hypoderma in sheep, Bishopp and
others [ 1926 ] have remarked : ' The writers have never observed a larva
of Hypoderma on a sheep in nature, nor have they seen any indication of the
attack of sheep by heel flies.' Cross [ 1926 ], working on the bot-flies of the
Punjab, has stated : ' The Hypoderma of sheep may be the same species as
that infecting goats but may not develop well in the sheep or it may be a
different species. Further observations are necessary before definite con-
clusions can be arrived at'. The present author, during his surveys in the
Punjab, observed a few cases of warble infection in sheep in Jhelum district.
Some specimens of mature larvae were collected in the local abattoirs during
December from under the subcutaneous tissues of the back of affected animals.
A piece of subcutaneous fascia taken from the back of one of these, measuring
6"×3" in size, contained 54 larvae (Plate XXXVI, fig. 6). On examination,
these larvae proved to be examples of H. lineatum.
SUMMARY
The seasonal occurrence of Hypoderma lineatum in India differs markedly
from that recorded for the British Isles. Even in India it shows a considerable
range of variation, probably depending upon the variation both in climatic
and topographical factors. Due regard will obviously have to be paid to
this fact in organizing control measures against the pest for various localities
in India.
B. N.
SONI
435
The occurrence of young larvae of H. lineatum in the animal's body has
been recorded at Mukteswar from the oesophagus trachea, aorta, pleural
membrane, diaphragm, rumen, intercostal muscles, muscular tissues of the
vertebral column and the neural canal.
The oesophageal larvae are capable of causing stenosis and haemorrhage
in the gullet walls and blood ingestion has been observed in such forms and
also in those encountered under the subcutaneous tissues of the animal's
back.
The oesophageal forms of H. lineatum have been recorded in goats at
Mukteswar and larvae of the same species have also been observed infesting
sheep in the Salt Range Area of the Punjab.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The guidance and valuable suggestions given by Mr. S. K. Sen, En-
tomologist, in this study are gratefully acknowledged. The illustrations have
been prepared with the assistance of Mr. Sen Roy, Artist, to whom the
writer is much indebted.
REFERENCES
1. Bishopp, F. C. and others (1926). U.S.Dept. Agric. Bull, 1369
2. Cross, H. E. (1926). Agric. Res. Inst. Pusa Bull. 160
3. MacDougall, R. S. (1935). Vet. J. 91, 469-472
4. Mote, Don. C.( 1928). Ohio Agric. Expt.Sta. Bull. 428
5. Patton, W. S. (1923-24). Ind. J. Med. Res., 961-2
6.—(1935). The Warble-fly campaign in Scotland. Vet. Rec. 15, 315-22.
O
A CHECK-LIST OF THE ECTOPARASITES OF THE
DOMESTICATED ANIMALS IN BURMA
BY
J. BHATTACHARJEE, B.Sc., M.R.C.V.S., F.C.S.
Veterinary Research Officer, Insein, Burma
(Received for publication on 9th April 1938.)
INTRODUCTION
THIS article is an attempt to give a systematic and an up to date record
of the ectoparasites of the domesticated animals in Burma.
All the parasites listed in this article were identified by the author from
the collections of the Veterinary Research Laboratory, Insein, Burma.
The host animals considered in this article are the following : Elephant
(Elephas indicus), cattle (Bos indicus), buffalo (Bos bubalus), sheep (Ovis
aries), goat (Capra hircus), horse (Equus caballus), dog (Canis familiaris),
cat (Felis catus var. domesticus), pig (Sus cristatus) and fowl (Gallus gallus
domesticus).
Class INSECTA
Order ANOPLURA
Sub-order MALLOPHAGA
Family PHILOPTERIDAE
Genus Lipeurus Nitzsch
Lipeurus caponis Linné.
Host. Fowl.
Locality. Insein district.
Genus Goniodes Nitzsch.
Goniodes sp.
Host. Fowl.
Locality. Insein district.
Genus Goniocotes Burmeister.
Goniocotes gigas Taschenberg.
Host. Fowl.
Locality. Insein district.
( 437 )
438
Ectoparasites of Domesticated Animals in Burma
Family TRICHODECTIDAE
Genus Bovicola Ewing
Bovicola bovis (Linné).
Host. Cattle.
Locality. Insein district.
Bovicola caprae (Gurlt).
Host. Goat.
Locality. Amherst, Insein, Kyaukpyu and Thaton districts.
Bovicola equi (Linné).
Host. Horse.
Locality. Insein district.
Bovicola ovis (Linné).
Host. Sheep.
Locality. Insein district.
Genus Trichodectes Nitzsch
Trichodectes canis (De Geer).
Host. Dog (rare).
Locality. Thaton district.
Family MENOPONIDAE
Genus Menopon Nitszch
Menopon biseriatum Piaget.
Host. Fowl.
Locality. Insein district.
Genus Heterodoxus Le Souëf and Bullen
Heterodoxus longitarsus (Piaget).
Host. Dog (very common).
Locality. Akyab, Amherst, Bassein, Insein, Kyaukse, Maubin, Myit-
kyina, Pegu and Thaton districts.
Plomley and Thompson [1937] state that ' the biting-louse, Hetero-
doxus longitarsus (Piaget) is primarily a parasite of certain didelphian
mammals (Macropodidae), but it has been found also upon non-didelphian
hosts'.
J.
BHATTACHARJEE
439
Sub-order RHYNCOPHTHIRINA
Family HAEMATOMYZIDAE
Genus Haematomyzus Piaget
Haematomyzus elephantis Piaget.
Host. Elephant.
Locality. Tharrawaddy and Yamethin districts.
Recorded previously by Evans [1910]. Gaiger [1910, 1915]. Smith
[1933].
Sub-order SIPHUNCULATA
Family HAEMATOPINIDAE
Genus Linognathus Enderlein
Linognathus stenopsis (Burmeister).
Host. Goat.
Locality. Amherst, Insein and Thaton districts.
Linognathus vituli (Linné).
Host. Cattle.
Locality. Akyab, Amherst, Katha and Pyapon districts.
Genus Haematopinus Leach
Haematopinus eurysternus (Nitzsch).
Host. Cattle.
Locality. Amherst, Bassein, Hanthawaddy, Insein, Kyaukpyu, Kyaukse,
Maubin, Myaungmya, Myitkyina, Pegu, Pyapon, Tavoy, Tharra-
waddy, Thaton and Toungoo districts.
Haematopinus suis (Linnaeus).
Host. Pig.
Locality. Rangoon Town district.
Haematopinus tuberculatus Giebel.
Host. Buffalo.
Locality. Amherst, Bassein, Bhamo, Chindwin (Upper), Hanthawaddy,
Insein, Katha, Magwe, Mandalay, Maubin, Meiktila, Mergui,
Myaungmya, Myitkyina, Pakokku, Pegu, Prome, Pyapon, Salween,
Tharrawaddy, Thaton and Toungoo districts.
Order SIPHONAPTERA
Family TUNGIDAE
Genus Echidnophaga Olliff
Echidnophaga gallinacea (Westwood).
Host. Fowl and dog (rare).
Locality. Chindwin (Lower) and Insein districts.
440
Ectoparasites of Domesticated Animals in Burma
Family PULICIDAE
Genus Ctenocephalides Stiles and Collins
Ctenocephalides canis (Curtis).
Host. Dog and goat (very rare).
Locality. Akyab, Amherst, Bassein, Chindwin (Upper and Lower),
Hanthawaddy, Henzada, Insein, Kyaukpyu, Kyaukse, Magwe,
Maubin, Myingyan, Myitkyina, Pegu, Prome, Salween and Thaton
districts.
Ctenocephalides felis (Bouché).
Host. Cat and dog.
Locality. Amherst, Bassein, Insein, Maubin, Myitkyina and Salween
districts.
Class ARACHNIDA
Order ACARIDA
Super-family IXODOIDEA
Family IXODIDAE
Genus Boophilus Curtice
Boophilus microplus (Canestrini).
Host. Cattle and buffalo (very common). Dog (very rare).
Locality. Akyab, Amherst, Bassein, Chindwin (Upper and Lower),
Hanthawaddy, Henzada, Insein, Katha, Kyaukpyu, Magwe, Maubin,
Mergui, Mayungmya, Myingyan, Myitkyina, Pegu, Prome, Pyapon,
Sagaing, Salween, Shwebo, Tavoy, Tharrawaddy, Thaton, Thayet-
myo, Toungoo and Yamethin districts.
Genus Haemaphysalis Koch
Haemaphysalis bispinosa Neumann.
Host. Cattle and goat.
Locality. Amherst, Bassein, Hanthawaddy, Henzada, Insein, Katha,
Myitkyina, Pyapon and Thaton districts.
Recorded previously by Nuttall, Warburton, Cooper and Robinson
[1915].
Genus Rhipicephalus Koch
Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides.
Host. Cattle, buffalo and dog.
Locality. Hanthawaddy, Katha, Kyaukpyu, Magwe, Shan States
(Northern), Thayetmyo and Toungoo districts.
Recorded previously by Patton and Cragg [1913].
J.
BHATTACHARJEE
441
Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille).
Host. Dog (very common), cattle (very rare).
Locality. Amherst, Bassein, Chindwin (Upper and Lower), Henzada,
Insein, Kyaukse, Magwe, Minbu, Myingyan, Myitkyina, Pegu, Prome
and Sagaing districts.
Genus Hyalomma Koch
Hyalomma aegyptium aegyptium (Linnaeus).
Host. Cattle and buffalo (very common). Dog and goat (very rare).
Locality. Amherst, Bassein, Chindwin (Lower), Hanthawaddy, Magwe,
Myitkyina, Sagaing, Shwebo and Thayetmyo districts.
Genus Amblyomma Koch
Amblyomma testudinarium Koch.
Host. Cattle, buffalo and elephant.
Locality. Bhamo and Myitkyina districts.
Recorded previously by Robinson [1926].
Super-family SARCOPTOIDEA
Family SARCOPTIDAE
Genus Sarcoptes Latreille
Sarcoptes scabei canis Gerlach.
Host. Dog.
Locality. Insein district.
Super-family PARASITOIDEA
Family DERMANYSSIDAE
Genus Liponyssus Kolenati
Liponyssus bursa Berlese.
Host. Fowl.
Locality. Amherst, Insein and Tharrawaddy districts.
Super-family DEMODICOIDEA
Family DEMODICIDAE
Genus Demodex Owen
Demodex bovis Stiles.
Host. Cattle.
Locality. Sagaing district.
Demodex canis Leydig.
Host. Dog.
Locality. Insein district.
442
Ectoparasites of Domesticated Animals in Burma
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank the Director of Veterinary Services, Burma,
Rangoon, and the Veterinary Research Officer, Insein, Burma, for providing
facilities for carrying out this work. He also wishes to thank all those who
assisted in the collection of parasites.
REFERENCES
Bedford, G. A. H. (1932). Rept. Dir. Vet. Services, Un. S. Afr. 18, 223-
Evans, G. H. (1910). Elephants and their diseases. Rangoon, xiv+343 pp.
Gaiger, S. H. (1910). J. Trop. Vet. Sc. 5, 70
—(1915).
J. Comp. Path. Therp. 28, 69-75
Monning, H. O. (1934). Veterinary Helminthology and Entomology. London, xvi+
402 pp.
Neumann, L. G. (1905). Parasites and parasitic diseases of domesticated animals
London, xvi+697 pp.
Nuttall, G. H. F., Warburton, C., Cooper, W. F., and Robinson, L. E. (1915). Ticks,
a Monograph of the Ixodoidea, Pt. III. Cambridge, xiii+550 pp. Pls. VIII-
XIII
Patton, W. S., and Cragg, F.W. (1913). A Textbook of Medical Entomology. Madras,
xxxiii+768 pp.
Plomley, N. J. B., and Thompson, G. B. (1937). Nature, 140, 199. Reprint.
Robinson, L. E. (1926). Ticks, a Monograph of the Ixodoidea, Pt. IV. Cambridge,
xii+302 pp. Pls.I-VII.
Smith, J.H. (1933). A Report on the investigation of Diseases in Elephants. Rangoon,
13-17.
SELECTED ARTICLES
THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE
IMMUNIZATION OF ANIMALS AGAINST
BACTERIAL DISEASE*
BY
REGINALD LOVELL
Research Institute in Animal Pathology, Royal Veterinary College, London
(Reprinted from the Veterinary Record, Vol. 51, No. 20, May 20, 1939)
INTRODUCTION
IT has been known for hundreds of years that human beings and animals do
not often suffer from some diseases more than once and there is a written
record of this observation in ' De Contagione', which was published in Venice
in 1546. In it, Fracastorius tells us that it is rare for people who have had
variola and measles to have them again [Bulloch, 1938]. More than 200 years
later, Jenner artificially produced this increased resistance to a disease by
taking virus from a cow-pox lesion on the hand of a milkmaid, Sarah Newlme,
vaccinating a child with it and showing that the attack of cow-pox protected
the child from small-pox. His reasoning was based on the belief that cow-pox
was a form of small-pox modified by passage through the cow. Nearly a
century later, Pasteur found that an old culture of Pasteurella—the causal
organism of fowl-cholera—failed to kill hens but that these hens were subse-
quently immune to a virulent culture of the same organism. A variation in vir-
ulence could thus be produced by varying the periods between sub-cultivation,
and this directed him to the deliberate attenuation of bacteria by other means.
At that time, Toussaint, of the Toulouse Veterinary School, was attempting
to immunize sheep against anthrax, with the defibrinated blood of sheep dead
from the disease, first after heating it at 55°C. for ten minutes and later after
treatment with carbolic acid. Although he undoubtedly produced a transitory
attenuation of the bacillus, his experiments were not satisfactory. In the
meantime, Pasteur was using a method of attenuation of B. anthracis by cul-
tivation at 42 to 43°C. instead of at 37°C. In the spring of 1881 he inoculated
24 sheep, one goat and six bovines with his vaccine and when tested later with
a virulent culture the sheep, goat and cows remained well, whereas 24 control
*Presented to the 63rd annual general meeting of the Eastern Counties Division,
N. V. M.A., at Norwich, 17 February, 1939.
( 443 )
P