NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
ZAL R. KOTHAVALLA AND N. S. DOCTOR. 157
Second lot.—The sample tins on receipt were kept exposed on table and
not preserved in cold store as in the case of the first lot, for twenty-four
hours before grading.
Jersey butter.—Colour the same deep yellow—body very soft on opening
and turned pasty with a little exposure. Flavour very impressive
on opening but gradually vanished on exposure. Taste appetis-
ing and butter melted quickly in mouth. It had, however, no
' standing up ' quality.
Sindhi butter.—Colour same light straw. Body firm on opening and
remained so on exposure. Flavour milky and pleasant and al-
though not so nice as Jersey butter on opening, scored better
in the long run. Butter did not melt easily in mouth and felt
very slightly oily to the palate. Good ' standing up ' quality.
Buffalo butter.—Colour same creamy white, body was found to be the
softest of the lot on opening (perhaps this was due to the tin being
exposed to direct rays of the sun). Flavour strong and different
from the other two and inclined to be like ghee. Taste flat and
very oily to the palate.
General remarks.—Taking everything into consideration, when main-
tained under ordinary atmospheric conditions, the flavour of
Sindhi butter was as good as Jersey butter, but in the former
the good points continued to be maintained for a longer time than
in the Jersey. In firmness of body Sindhi butter was far superior
to Jersey. Buffalo butter scored poorly on both those counts,
but this may perhaps be due to its being accidentally exposed to
direct sunlight.
Third lot.—The sample tins were left exposed on the table on receipt for
ten days before grading.
The same difference in colour was observed in the three samples, e.g.,
Jersey very yellow like turmeric, Sindhi pale straw yellow and
buffalo ivory white. In hardness, Sindhi was harder than Jer-
sey and buffalo the hardest of the lot. In flavour and aroma,
Jersey was found slightly better than Sindhi but soon lost its
superiority on exposure. Buffalo flavour in the long run was as
good as Sindhi, although on opening it showed a distinctly strong
aroma. In taste the scoring was more or less the same as in the
above two cases. Jersey melted the quickest in mouth without
leaving that oily feel to the palate, which was more marked in
the buffalo than in the Sindhi butter. In ' standing up ' quality
both Sindhi and buffalo were equally good. Jersey butter be-
came soft and pasty quickly on exposure.
Taking all the three lots of samples into consideration, it could be said
that in colour each class of animal had its own peculiarity. In body and firm-
ness under ordinary working conditions Sindhis gave the most satisfactory re-
sults. Buffalo butter was equally good in this respect. Jersey kept best
158
Quality of Indian and Western Table Butters
when maintained under cold store conditions but soon became soft and bodiless
on exposure. In flavour and aroma Jersey scored the best as long as the but-
ter was kept under covered and cool conditions. The aroma in particular fast
disappeared under ordinary atmospheric conditions. Sindhi scored second
best but maintained its flavour more vigorously and for a longer time than the
Jersey. In all cases that oily feel to the palate was absent in the case of Jer-
sey and it was more pronounced in the case of buffaloes than in the Sindhis.
It can be generally concluded that when kept under refrigerated conditions
Jersey and Sindhi butters were more or less equally good in flavour and body,
but when exposed to ordinary working conditions, Sindhi butter was found to
be superior in flavour, body and hardness to Jersey butter. Under these
conditions the buffalo butter came very near to Sindhi in quality.
The Jersey butter was found to be slightly richer in aroma as compared
to the Sindhi and the buffalo immediately on opening the samples. As dia-
cetyl is the chief ingredient responsible for this aroma it was fully dealt with.
Quantitative determination of diacetyl was carried out with 400 grm. of butter
in an all glass apparatus. The method of C. R. Barnicoat [1935] was adopted
for estimation of diacetyl as it was found to give consistent value over other
(gravimetric) recommended procedures. On examination diacetyl content
was found to be absent in all samples. Citric acid content of cream
before churning was also estimated (by courtesy of Dr. Daji). This
was found to be in traces in all samples without any appreciable variation
between the three samples.
All these samples were then subjected to critical physical and chemical
examination. The physical constants of butter samples were determined
according to British standard methods [1936].
Jersey butter
Sample
1.
.
.
.
.
Sample 2
.
.
.
.
.
Sample 3
.
.
.
.
.
Sindhi butter
Sample 1
.
.
.
.
.
Sample 2
.
.
.
.
.
Sample 3
.
.
.
.
.
Buffalo butter
Sample 1
.
.
.
.
.
Sample 2 . . . . .
Sample 3 . . . . .
Moisture
per cent
17.58
17.38
17.50
16.44
16.50
16.48
16.97
17.00
16.92
Fat
per cent
81.17
81.26
81.21
80.48
80.77
80.75
80.37
80.36
80.48
Curd and
salt
per cent
1.25
1.36
1.29
2.79
2.75
2.81
2.66
2.64
2.60
Acidity
(acid
value)
1.23
1.24
1.22
2.82
2.70
2.78
1.34
1.35
1.34
ZAL R. KOTHAVALLA AND N. S. DOCTOR. 159
Sampling of butterfat.—All butter samples were first melted in an electric
air oven at 100°C. until the aqueous layer collected at the bottom, leaving clear
uniform layer of fat above. The aqueous layer was removed with a pipette
and the liquid fat filtered (while still hot) through cotton wool to make it free
from the scum. The clear molten fat was again heated very carefully
(temperature not exceeding 110°C.) for about 5 to 10 minutes to remove last
traces of moisture. All fat samples were then bottled in brown glass stoppered
bottles and stored at —4°C.
Just after preparation these samples of butter-fat were also judged as
shown in Table III.
TABLE III
Examination of melted butter-fat samples
N. B.—Butter samples were melted to liquid form by heating them in an oven, for
about an hour. Thus the butter was partially turned into ghee.
Colour—
Jersey—orange yellow
Sindhi—yellow
Buffalo—greenish white.
Flavour.—Jersey had the strongest flavour, Sindhi and buffalo coming
second and third respectively. Jersey melted butter had a peculiar foreign
flavour resembling the yolk of an egg—rather unpleasant. Sindhi had also
slight indications of such a flavour. Buffalo had a pleasant and more typical
ghee flavour of all samples.
Body and consistency.—Buffalo melted butter had good substance and feel
about it. Sindhi melted butter came second. Jersey melted butter came
last. It was very thin and was lacking in substance.
Taste.—Buffalo taste was the best with that typical ghee flavour about it.
Sindhi came very near to it in this respect but Jersey's taste was very different
and foreign to ghee, although strong.
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL DETERMINATIONS
These samples of butter-fat were then examined chemically for their speci-
fic values including melting point, refractive index, vitamin and carotene
contents. Determinations of Reichert Meissel, Polenske, Kirshchner numbers
160
Quality of Indian and Western Table Butters
were carried out by the latest procedure recommended [Analyst, 1936]. Re-
fractive index measurements were taken on Abbe's Refractometer at 40°C.
and converted to butyro-refractometer reading at 40°C. Carotene content was
determined by Ferguson and Bishop [1936] method. Vitamin—A determina-
tions were made colorimetrically on B. D. H. Lovibond Tintometer with Carr
and Price reagent (SbCl 3 saturated solution in CHC1 3 ) via., unsaponifiable
matter [Banerjee, 1936]. Wij's method was adopted for Iodine number and
Thiocyanogen number determinations were made according to a method re-
commended in Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Analytical Edition
[1936]. Regarding M. P. determinations it was very difficult to judge the
stage at which the reading should be taken. There is a difference of 3° to 5°C.
(depending on the conditions under which the determination is made) be-
tween the point at which the fat is liquid enough to be poured and the point at
which it is clear. However, the method recommended by Mohr [1925] and
adopted by Lyons [1936] was followed in this determination.
The results of the various determinations for each sample of butter-fat
were average and are given below in Table IV.
DISCUSSION
In this study butter samples were prepared without the addition of any
external aroma producing culture or ' starter '. Ruehe and Ramsey [1935]
have shown that the typical diacetyl odour obtained by ripening the cream with
citrate fermenting bacteria (cf. Introduction) could not be incorporated in
butter by adding standardised butter culture distillates. Further it was found
that direct addition of butter culture distillate to the butter itself produced
a result which is indistinguishable from butter produced from the same cream,
previously ripened with the butter culture itself. Obviously, this method of
flavouring butter has many advantages over the practice of using butter cul-
tures for ripening the cream before churning. The necessity of a well controlled
pure culture fermentation in cream ripening and the possibility of contaminat-
ing micro-organisms influencing the quality of butter are thus eliminated. Even
the kind and intensity of flavour in butter can also be regulated by this butter
culture distillate method [Parker and Shadvik Jr., 1937]. Therefore, the
natural difference in quality, that is, flavour, body, etc., was studied on butter
samples prepared under controlled conditions without ripening with any special
aroma producing culture or starter.
On examination of these samples of butter there was found a characteristic
difference in the flavour of butter from the three classes of animals. Jersey
butter aroma compared to Sindhi was slightly better in the beginning but dimi-
nished as butter was left exposed. Buffalo butter has aroma of its own but
by no means unpleasant.
As diacetyl, one of the important ingredients responsible for fine butter
flavour, was found absent in all the three samples this difference in flavour can
be attributed to other factors such as breed, feed, climatic and environmental
conditions, preparation of butter, chemical composition of butter-fats etc.
ZAL R. KOTHAVALLA AND N. S. DOCTOR. 161
TABLE IV
Butter-fat
Samples
Jersey
1. .
2. .
3. .
Sindhi
1. .
2. .
3. .
Buffaloes
1. .
2. .
3. .
M. P.
O°C.
36.20
36.00
36.40
37.40
37.20
37.20
36.80
37.00
86.60
R. Index
at 40° C.
1.4541
1.4541
1.4541
1.4532
1.4532
1.4532
1.4541
1.4541
1.4541
B. R.
Reading
at 40° C.
42.5
41.1
42.5
R.M.
Value
26.3
26.0
26.9
29.1
29.3
29.2
30.6
30.6
30.7
Pol.
Value
2
2
2
2.5
2.8
2.6
1.5
1.5
1.58
Kir.
Value
21.8
21.4
22.0
23.9
24.8
24.0
26.7
26.8
26.8
Sap.
No.
224.2
225
225.6
229
228.8
226.4
229.8
231.6
229.6
Iodine
No.
35.2
35.0
34.9
29.0
29.8
30.0
33.9
34.0
34.9
Thiocy-
anogen
No.
31.3
28.5
33.1
Per cent Fatty
acids calculated
as glycerides
unsat.
Sat.—
linoleic-oleic
63.6
4.2 32.2
66.9
1.8 31.3
61.5
2.1 36.4
Acidity
(Acid
value)
0.79
0.97
0.78
2.4
2.3
2.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
Carotene
mgm per
100 gms.
1.7
1.8
1.8
0.79
0.76
0.80
0.05
0.05
0.05
Vitamin A.
B. V.
per gm.
29.6
28.8
30.0
22.1
22.8
23.0
15.4
15.9
16.2
ZAL R. KOTHAVALLA AND N. S. DOCTOR. 163
Ruehe and Ramsey (loc. cit.) to remedy it by adding butter-culture distillate, to
give it a flavour required by a particular class of customers. It may, however,
be pointed out that a preference for a particular type of flavour is dependent
more upon the habitual association of the consumer with that flavour rather
than any distinctive merit of the same. For instance, although buffalo fat
(ghee) is poorer in its nutritive value, i.e., carotene and vitamin A-content,
than the Jersey or the Sindhi, yet the Indian consumer has a distinct
preference for the former on account of its typical ghee flavour and taste. It
may therefore be concluded that under ordinary working conditions in India,
Sindhi butter proved superior to Jersey in firmness and flavour in the long run.
SUMMARY
An experimental investigation to study the difference in quality of the
Indian and the Western table butter is described.
The butter samples were prepared under identical and ideal hygienic con-
ditions from selected Jersey (English), Sindhi and Surti buffalo (Indian) herds
kept on uniform and identical treatment with regard to feed, environmental
conditions, etc. English butter scored slightly higher over Indian butter in
flavour on opening the tins, but this was short-lived. In body, firmness and
standing up quality, the Indian butter scored higher.
These differences in quality might be attributed to component fatty acids
as well as to carotene content, and these in turn are to be attributed to
differences in breed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to express their thanks to Professor V. Subrahmanyan,
D.Sc., F.I.C. and Mr. B. N. Banerjee, M.Sc. of the Department of Biochemistry,
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, for their interest and advice in the
course of this investigation. They are also thankful to the Livestock Expert,
Bombay Presidency, Mr. E. P. Little of the Government House, Ganeshkhind
and to the Principal, Agricultural College, Poona, for very kindly helping to
obtain the samples of butter.
REFERENCES
Banerjee, B. N. (1936). Agric. and Livestock in Ind. 6, 274.
Barnicoat, C. R. (1935). Analyst, 60, 653.
Blaisse, J. and Martin, R. (1938). Lait 16, 9, 243.
Bockhout, F. W. J. and de Vries, J. J. (1919). Centralbel f. Bakteriol. II Abt. 49, 373.
British Standard Methods for the Sampling and Chemical analysis of butter (draft) 1936
Davies, W. L. (1936). The Chemistry of Milk.
Eckles, C H., Combs, W. B. and Macy, H. (1929). Milk and Milk Products.
Ferguson, W. S. and Bishop, G. (1936). Analyst, 61, 515.
164
Quality of Indian and Western Table Butters
Hammer, B. W. (1936). Proc. Am. Assoc. Creamery Butter Manufacturers.
Hammer, B. W. and Bailey, D. E. (1919). Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bul. 55., 223.
Ind. and Eng. Chem. (Analytical Edition) (1936). 8, 4, 234.
Lyons, J. (1936). Economic Proc. Royal Dublin Society, 3, 2, 19.
Michaelian, M. B., Farmer, R. S. and Hammer, B. W. (1933). Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Res
Bul. 155.
Michaelian, M. B. and Hammer, B. W. (1935). Ibid, 179.
Mohr, W. (1925). Milchwirtschaftl. Forsch, 2, 24.
Parker, E. M. and Shadvik (Jr.) G. W. (1937). Food Research, 2, 3, 227.
Pien, J., Blaisse, J. and Martin, R. (1936). Ann.falsif, 29, 204.
Raven, H. C. (1937). Proc. 10th Ann. State Coll. Wash. Inst. Dairying 12-13.
Report of the Analytical Methods Committee, (1936). Analyst, 61, 404.
Ruehe, H. A. and Ramsey, R. J. (1935). Proc. Dairy Manufacturers Conf. Univ., of Ill.
Van Niel, C. B., Kluyver, A. J. and Derx, H. G. (1929). Biochem. Ztschr. 210, 234.
Ind. Jour. Vety. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. IX, Part II ]
PLATE VII
Ventral view of Polyorchitrema piscicola Gen el. sp. nov.
KEY TO LETTERING
Act. ..
Gt. ..
I. c. ..
Mt. ..
0. ..
0. s. ..
Ph. ..
P.p.
..
R. m. ..
T. ..
Ut. ..
Vt. ..
V. s. ..
.. Acetabulum
.. Gonotyl
.. Intestinal caecum
.. Metraterm
.. Ovary
.. Oral sucker
.. Pharynx
.. Pars prostatica
,. Retractor muscle
.. Testes
.. Uterus
.. Vitellaria
.. Vesciula seminalis
STUDIES ON THE FAMILY HETEROPHYIDAE ODHNER,
1914
PART III—PARASITES BELONGING TO A NEW
SUBFAMILY
POLYORCHITREMINAE FROM AN INDIAN FRESH-WATER FISH 1
BY
HAR DAYAL SRIVASTAVA, D.Sc.
Helminthologist (On special duty)
Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar-Kumaun
(Received for publication on 7th May 1938)
(With Plate VII)
THE family Heterophyidae comprises a number of subfamilies and genera
of comparatively small flukes which are usually parasitic in fish-eating verte-
brates. On account of their occurrence in birds and mammals and their
normal or potential infestation of man, the heterophyids are of considerable
interest in human and veterinary medicine. While pointing out the identity
between the genera Haplorchis Looss, 1899, and Monorchotrema Nishigori, 1924,
Witenberg [1930] suggested the removal of H. cahirinus Looss, 1896, from the
genus Haplorchis and even advocated its exclusion from the family, consider-
ing ' its occurrence in a fish unnatural among the Heterophyidae '. The
recent works of Mueller and Cleave [1932], Tubangui [1933], Manter
[1934] and Srivastava [1935], have clearly shown that the occurrence of the
members of the family Heterophyidae in fish is as natural as in birds and
mammals. In this paper the author describes an interesting trematode para-
sitic in a fresh-water fish at Allahabad.
Polyorchitrema piscicola, Gen. et. Sp. Nov.
Host.—Eutropicthys vacha Day.
Habitat.—Intestine.
Locality.—Allahabad, rivers Ganges and Jumna.
A large number of specimens of this species was collected at Allahabad
in .1934 from the intestine of a common fresh-water fish found in the rivers
Ganges and Jumna. In the living state the worms are light brown in colour
and possess considerable power of contraction and expansion. The highly
muscular and subcylindrical body is broad in the middle and bluntly pointed
at the ends. In the contracted state the lateral margins of the body often
present a fringed appearance. The parasite measures 4.5—7.8* in length
and 2.0—2.8 in maximum breadth which occurs across the basal part of
the acetabulum. It is completely devoid of any kind of scales or spines.
1 Presented to the Section of Medical and Veterinary Research of the Indian Science
Congress, 1937.
*A11 measurements are in mm.
( 165 )
168 Studies on the Family Heterophyidae Odhner, 1914
blindly near hinder end. Excretory bladder Y-shaped, with cornua extend-
ing to the level of pharynx. Testes composed of a mass of thirty-five to fifty
follicles situated in the posterior third of body and overlapping the caeca
laterally ; vesicula seminalis tubular ; pars prostatica and ductus ejaculatorius
well developed ; ductus hermaphroditicus small. Ventro-genital sinus encloses
acetabulum, gonotyl and genital pore and opens to the outside through a small,
triangular pore close behind the intestinal bifurcation. Ovary pre-testicular,
median, compact or lobed ; receptaculum seminis well developed ; Laurer's
canal present. Vitellaria lateral, follicular, follicles arranged in bunches,
extending from a little behind ventro-genital sinus to hinder end. Uterus
mostly pre-testicular, rarely extending a little on the sides of the testicular
mass ; eggs small, numerous and operculate. Parasitic in the intestine of
fresh-water fishes.
Type genus.—Polyorchitrema.
Type species.—P. piscicola.
The author is grateful to the Director and the Pathologist, Imperial
Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar, for their kind encouragement.
REFERENCES
Linton, E. (1900). Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1899, 267-304.
——————(1910).
Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 133. Papers Tortugas
Laboratory 4, 15-98.
Looss, A. (1896). Mem. l'Inst. Egypt. 3, 1-252.
——————(1899).
Zool. Jahrb., Syst. 12, 521-784.
Manter, H. W. (1934). Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 435, Papers Tortugas
Lab. 28, 257-345.
Mueller, J. F. and Cleave, H. J. van. (1932). Roosevelt Wild Life Ann. 3, No.
2, 79-137.
Nishigori, M. (1924). J. Med. Res. Formosa No. 237, 569-570.
Odhner, T. (1914). Zool. Bidr. Uppsala 3, 247-255.
Srivastava, H. D. (1935). Proc. Acad. Sci. U. P. 4, 1, 269-278.
——————(1935).
Ibid 5, 1, 75-85.
——————(1936).
Proc. Ind. Sci. Cong. Med. & Vet. Sec. Abstr. No. 56.
Tubangui, M. A. (1933). Phil. J. Sci. 52. 2, 167-197.
Witenberg, G. (1929). Ann. Trop. Med. and Parasitol. 23, 131-239.
——————(1930).
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 10th series, 5. 412-414.
THE MORPHOLOGY AND SYSTEMATIC RELATIONSHIPS
OF A NEW PARASITE, WARETREMA PISCICOLA,
GEN. ET. SP. NOV., REFERABLE TO A
NEW FAMILY—WARETREMATIDAE—
OF DIGENETIC TREMATODES.*
BY
HAR DAYAL SRIVASTAVA, D.Sc.
Helminthologist (On special duty)
Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar-Kumaun
(Received for publication on 26th May 1938)
(With Plates VIII and IX)
OUR knowledge of the trematode parasites of Indian food fishes is much
too scattered and meagre. In recent years they have been studied to some
extent, but our knowledge of Indian forms and their distribution is in no
way comparable with that of other countries. In view of the economic im-
portance of the helminths of Indian food-fishes, both fresh-water and marine,
the author undertook a study of their trematode parasites. In this paper
is described a very unusual and interesting trematode, for which it is neces-
sary to create not only a new genus but also a new family. It is a very
common parasite infesting a food-fish found in the Arabian Sea. The new
genus and the family are named in honour of Mr. F. Ware, C.I.E., F.R.C.V.S.,
I.V.S., Director, Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar, to whom
the author is deeply grateful for much kind help and encouragement.
WARETREMA PISCICOLA GEN. ET. SP. NOV.
Host.—Mugil waigiensis Quoy and Gaim.
Habitat.—Intestine.
Locality.—Karachi, Arabian Sea.
It is a very common parasite in the intestine of a food-fish in the Arabian
Sea. The infestation is, however, never very heavy. About a hundred
specimens were collected from the intestine of twenty out of nearly two dozen
hosts examined at Karachi in June 1936. In the living state the parasite
is light brown in colour and exhibits considerable power of contraction and
expansion. Its anterior part is highly retractile and may be withdrawn
into the body to the extent that the oral sucker may come to lie posterior
to the acetabulum. In normal saline the worms cannot live for more than
*Presented to the Section of Medical and Veterinary Research of the Indian
Science Congress, 1937, Hyderabad.
( 169 )
E