NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
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may be applied around the anus to relieve pruritis, and to kill adhering eggs.
Oil of turpentine is also an effective treatment when given in a dose of 60 c.c.
for a l,000-lb. animal immediately preceded or followed by a litre of raw
linseed oil. Prophylaxis is a matter of sanitation with reference to stables,
feed and water, besides the proper disposal of manure.
STRONGYLES
Horses are infested with many kinds of strongyles, and often with large
numbers of several species. It is rare to find a horse entirely free from these
parasites, and on the other hand it is common to find them heavily infested.
Over 40 species of these worms are known to occur in horses, mules and
donkeys. Some of them are blood suckers while others are not, but the in-
festation is usually a mixed one. The general symptoms of strongylosis may
be taken to be caused by all of them collectively, though the blood sucking
species are naturally the more harmful. The equine strongyles may be
divided into two broad groups. The large strongyles which are also commonly
known as blood-worms, red-worms, sclerostomes or palisade worms and the
small strongyles which are much smaller in most cases than the red-worms,
though some of these may be almost as large.
THE LARGE STRONGYLES OR PALISADE WORMS
Three species of the large strongyles are of common occurrence in the
colon and caecum of equines. The worms are red in colour and are frequently
found firmly attached to the wall of the gut by means of a rather formidable
buccal capsule. The three-toothed strongyle—Strongylus equinus—is the
largest of the three species ; the toothless strongyle—S. edentatus—is some-
what smaller and the single-toothed strongyle—S. vulgaris—is the smallest.
The life-cycle of strongyles is direct in all known cases (Plate XXV, fig. 1).
The eggs are laid in the intestine and are passed out with the droppings. The
eggs, as well as the larvae developing in them, require oxygen, moisture and
a suitable temperature for their development to the infective stage. Under
favourable conditions embryos or larvae in the eggs develop rapidly and hatch
in a day or so. The larvae move about freely in the droppings and feed on
bacteria and other material which they find there, and grow and moult. After
the first ecdysis they resume their feeding and in due course—about a week—
moult a second time, but this time they do not cast the old cuticle but retain
it as a protective sheath. The larva is now in the infective stage. The
infective larva is extremely resistant to adverse conditions, especially dry-
ness. The infective larva does not feed but lives on the food granules stored
in its interstitial cells. As soon as these are exhausted it dies. The larva
gains entrance into the host by being ingested with food or water, its habits
are such that they increase the possibility of reaching a host. These habits
are due to response to external stimuli. The larva is negatively geotropic
and crawls up blades of grass or other objects. It is heliotropic to a mild
light, but is repelled by strong sunlight. There is a certain amount of response
H. D.
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material, but these are all rather expensive and some are even harmful to
vegetation. The addition of urine to manure heaps is, however, useful. In
America and some European countries double walled and floored insulated
containers are used in which manure is stored for at least two weeks, during
which all the larvae and eggs are destroyed by the heat of fermentation.
These are, however, expensive, and a simple method of manure disposal is
direct transport to field and broadcasting thinly. It will be better if horses
are not allowed to graze in fields on which horse manure has been used. Above
all regular treatment will do much to reduce the infestation.
THE SMALL STRONGYLES
Under this are grouped a large number of species of strongyles belonging
to the genera Triodontophorus, Oesophagodontophorus, Craterostomum, Gyalo¬
cephalus, Poteriostomum and Trichonema. The worms occur in the colon
and caecum and some of these may cause marked injuries. Triodontophorus
tenuicollis produces severe ulcers in the wall of the colon in which clusters of
worms are found ; while the larvae of Trichonema produce nodules in the
intestinal wall. The small strongyles do not ordinarily feed on blood but live
on the intestinal mucosa of the host. Horses usually have a mixed infection
of both the large and small strongyles and the latter, together with the former,
contribute to the picture of gross parasitism. The details of the life-history
of these parasites have not been studied, but the control measures against
these are the same as for the large strongyles. The same treatments as for
the large strongyles are effective for these also. However, oil of chenopodium
and normal butylidine chloride are specially effective against these worms.
Carbon-tetrachloride is less effective.
Embedded in the lining of the stomach of the horse occurs a small bursate
worm—Trichostrongylus axei—which produces irregular, circumscribed
thickenings with fine verrucose appearance or a mass of tumours. This
parasite occurs in the abomasum of ruminants and stomach of man also.
Though the worm is a blood-sucker, it is not very pathogenic. The life-
history of this parasite is not known but it simply burrows into the lining
of the stomach and is not known to migrate extensively through the body
of the host. Treatment and control are similar to those for the large
strongyles.
LUNG-WORM
One species of lung-worm—Dictyocaulus arnfieldi—occurs in the bronchi
and bronchioles of the horse and donkey. Its life-history is not completely
known but probably is similar to that of the allied species, which occurs in
sheep and goats. As a rule the parasite is not very pathogenic, but some
believe that its effects are similar to those of other species causing verminous
bronchitis and interstitial pneumonia. Like other lung-worms, it is more
serious in young animals and is specially serious in donkeys. Regarding
treatment little is known but symptomatic treatment and proper nursing
should be carried out.
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though it is not necessary. If the solution is not siphoned off, then 15
to 20 minutes should be allowed to lapse before further treatment.
Carbon-di-sulphide is then administered in capsule or by stomach tube in a
dose of 6 fluid drm. (24 c.c.) to an animal weighing 1,000 lbs. No purgative
should be used with this treatment. Prophylaxis is a matter of proper disposal
of manure and the sanitation of the stables.
In cases of cutaneous habronemiasis or ' Bursati' the following astrin-
gent powder is applied until the wounds are healed. Plaster of paris 100,
alum 20, naphthalin 10 and quinine 10 parts. Good results are reported from
the use of a caustic paste composed of arsenious oxide 1 part and flour 5
parts. Washing the sores with ether or chloroform and then painting them
with colloidin has also been recommended. Some prefer the use of 5 to 10
per cent formalin applied by means of a cotton pad which is left on the sores
for two or three hours every day. As a measure of control skin injuries should
be protected from flies ; though in view of Datta's findings, from which it
appears that the lesions are produced through the general circulation, wound
infection obviously plays an insignificant rôle.
THE NECK THREAD-WORM
The ligamentum nuchae of the horse is often infested with a long, slender,
coiled worm known as Onchocerca cervicalis. In the life-cycle of this parasite
certain biting flies, known as midges, act as intermediate host. The worms
weaken the resistance of the ligamentum nuchae by irritation and the forma-
tion of small nodules. The larval forms of this parasite are suspected to be
responsible for the production of fistulous withers and Lichen tropicus or
' Khoojlee ' in horses. Treatment and prophylaxis are obviously difficult.
THE EYE-WORMS
Two minute, whitish, slender worms belonging to two different genera
Thelazia and Setaria are often found affecting the eyes of horses. They
are most commonly found in the lachrymal ducts, or beneath the eyelids.
They may cause conjunctivitis, and the cornea may become opaque. They
can be easily removed by surgical operation after the instillation of a local
anaesthetic. The life-cycle of these parasites is unknown.
EQUINE MICROFILARIASIS
The literature on equine microfilariasis is very scanty. The occurrence
of microfilariae in equines is not common, nor are the larvae usually associated
with any definite clinical symptoms. In rare cases, when microfilariae are
present in large numbers they may produce anaemia, general lassitude and
debility. There are, however, two important conditions—Lichen tropicus
and Periodic Ophthalmia—of equines which are caused by unsheathed
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Important Helminth Parasites of Horses
microfilariae. The microfilariae in Lichen tropicus are never found in the
blood of the affected animals. The adult worms of the larvae associated
with these two conditions are not yet definitely known. No satisfactory
treatment for these two conditions is known. Sub-toxic doses of arsenious
acid; intravenous administration of neo-arseno-phenamine; potassium
antimony tartrate and sodium antimony tartrate are not beneficial in the
treatment of Lichen tropicus.
The author is grateful to the Offg. Director, Mr. J. R. Haddow, B.Sc.,
M.R.C.V.S., D.V.S.M., I.V.S., for kindly going through the manuscript and
offering some useful suggestions. He is indebted to Drs. Schwartz, Imes
and Wright for the illustrations in this article.
REPORT ON TWO UNRECORDED NEMATODE
PARASITES FROM DOMESTICATED
ANIMALS OF INDIA OR BURMA
BY
R. C. CHATTERJI
Helminthological Institute, University of .Rangoon
(Received for publication on 21st February 1939)
(With six text-figures)
THE present paper deals with two parasitic nematodes, recorded from
domesticated animals in other parts of the world but not hitherto reported from
India or Burma. The first—Acuaria (Cheilospirura) hamulosa [Diesing, 1851]—
occurs between the tunics of the gizzard of fowls and is of cosmopolitan dis-
tribution, its absence from record in Burma or India being probably due to its
peculiar location. The second—Setaria bernardi Railliet and Henry, 1911—
occurs in the peritoneal cavity of pigs and has previously been reported only
from Annam. Its presence in Burmese pigs is understandable having regard
to the close proximity of this province to Annam but, as pigs are also imported
for slaughter from India, its presence in India cannot be absolutely denied.
Both parasites are pathogenic. The description of these parasites given in text-
books on Helminthology are inadequate and sometimes full of discrepancies :
a detailed description of these parasites has, therefore, been thought advisable
to facilitate identification.
FAMILY ACUARIIDAE SEURAT,
1913
ACUARIA (CHEILOSPIRURA) HAMULOSA (DIESING, 1851)
Synonyms: hamulosa Diesing, 1851 : Acuaria, Cheilospirura, Dispharagus,
Spiroptera*.
perforans Centoscudi, 1911 : Spiroptera*.
Host. Fowl.
Location.—Between tunics of gizzard.
Locality.—Rangoon and suburbs (Tamwe, Kemmendine, Kamayut,
Insein).
Nine out of 50 fowls harboured these parasites, the number in each
varying from one to eight, usual number being three to four : in one case
24 worms were obtained from a tumour under the horny lining of the gizzard,
commonly known as " gizzard-worm ".
Head, terminating in two small lateral lips, each in form of an equilateral
triangle and provided with two lateral papillæ on conical lobes and a finger-
like median lobe. Cuticle coarsely striated and provided with four pairs
of longitudinal thickenings or " cordons", two pairs ventro-lateral and two
*Genus in which the species was originally placed.
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324
Nematode Parasites from Domesticated Animals
pairs dorso-lateral, each pair originating from the dorsal and ventral angles
of each lip and extending almost to the posterior extremity without
FIG. 1
Acuaria (Cheilospirura) hamulosa
Anterior end : Lateral view
anastomosing or recurving anteriorly.
Cordons posteriorly corrugated,
apparently comprised of a series of elongate bosses placed irregularly one behind
the other. Mouth opening into an elongate pharynx with its cuticularised wall
showing transverse striations. Oesophagus long and composed of an anterior
muscular portion and a long posterior glandular portion, its opening into intes-
tine guarded by three valves. Nerve-ring encircling muscular oesophageal
part close to its commencement.
Male.—Body much smaller than female, 8.8-11.6† long and 0.3-0.36
in maximum diameter. Pharynx 0.15-0.21 long. Anterior portion of
†All measurements in millimetres unless stated otherwise.
R. C.
CHATTERJI
325
oesophagus 0.6-0.72 and posterior portion 2-2.3 long. Nerve ring 0.27-0.35
from anterior end. Posterior end of body coiled ventrally and provided with
two well-developed caudal alae. Caudal papillæ consisting of four pairs of
preanal and six pairs of postanal papillæ; of the latter, two small pairs near
FIG. 2
Acuaria
(Cheilospirura) hamulosa
Posterior end of male ; Lateral view.
R. C.
CHATTERJI
327
such intermediate hosts. The infective larvae become free in the bird's gizzard
and within 24 hours penetrate the wall of the gizzard, grow to maturity and in a
period of approximately 90 days the gravid females lay eggs.
FAMILY FILARIIDAE (COBBOLD, 1864) CLAUS, 1885
SETARIA BERNARDI RAILLIET AND HENRY, 1911
Host.—Pig.
Location.—Peritoneal cavity.
Locality.—Kemmendine slaughter house.
In June 1911 Railliet and Henry described Setaria congolensis from
Phacochoerus porcus in the French Congo. A month later Bernard and Bauche
obtained a second species from the peritoneal cavity of a pig at Hue in Annam,
but gave neither name nor figure, only description. Subsequently Railliet
and Henry [1911,2] studied Bernard and Bauche's form, pointed out its differ-
ence from S. congolensis and finally named it as S. bernardi. Thwaite [1927]
in his useful review of the genus Setaria notes the unfortunate absence of illus-
trations of either species and voices a suspicion regarding the validity of S.
bernardi. Lately Sandground [1933] provided two figures of S. bernardi—
the head end of the parasite and the caudal end of the male and on the strength
of three male specimens obtained by him from Quangtri in Annam, he concludes
that it is identical with S. congolensis. An attempt is here made to ascertain
the specific validity of S. bernardi mainly on the basis of a more comprehensive
account and suitable diagrams. Baylis [1936] has recently shown that a num-
ber of species created in recent years fall into synonymy and the multiplication
in number is due to the ignorance of certain variable characters found within
the species. He has shown that S. buxi Bhalerao 1933, S. cervi Maplestone
1931, S. altaica Rajewsky 1928 and probably S. nudicauda Ortlepp 1924 are all
synonyms of S. labiato-papillosa or more correctly, as Baylis puts it, of S.
cervi [Rud. 1819]. S. digitata v. Linsto 1906 described from cattle in Cey-
lon and afterwards by Boulenger [1921] from cattle in Burma has also been
considered by Purvis [1931] and Baylis [1936] as a synonym of S. cervi [Rud.
1819]. The author has studied the present form and in his opinion the present
species is quite distinct from S. congolensis Railliet and Henry 1911 or S. cervi
[Rud. 1819].
Description.—Body white, filiform, cylindrical and attenuated at both
extremeties, more attenuated posteriorly than anteriorly. Head continuous
with the body without any definite demarcation and provided with two lateral
and four pairs of submedian papillae. Cuticle with fine transverse striations,
inconspicuous at head ends. Mouth enclosed by chitinous peribuccal ring,
the dorsal and ventral margins of which are indented whereas the lateral
L
328
Nematode Parasites from Domesticated Animals
margins are slightly convex, or straight or depressed antero-posteriorly, the
condition varying with different degrees of contraction of the head end. Dis-
tance between dorsal and ventral projections of peribuccal ring 0.05-0.08.
Oesophagus divided into short muscular and long glandular portions. A pair of
FIG. 3
Setaria bernardi
Anterior end of female; Lateral view
FIG. 4
Setaria bernardi
Anterior end ; Dorsal view
R.
C.
CHATTERJI
329
small lateral papillae-like apendages near tip of tail, as in many other species
of Setaria, but mentioned neither by Bernard and Bauche nor by Sandground,
is present in both sexes.
The present specimens are comparatively smaller in size than those
recorded by previous workers.
Male.—Length 9-10 cm., maximum diameter 0.5-0.6. Muscular oesopha-
gus 0.7-0.92, glandular oesophagus 8.6-9. Nerve ring at 0.24-0.26 from
anterior extremity. Tail 0.17-0.18 long, loosely coiled spirally, ending in a
pointed end and bearing eight pairs of caudal papillae: four pairs preanal,
FIG. 5
Setaria bernardi
Posterior end of female ; Lateral view
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Nematode Parasites from Domesticated Animals
one pair adanal near anterior lip of cloaca, and three postanal, the last three
being situated more or less at equal distances from one another. Bernard and
Bauche [1911] mention the presence of four pairs of postcloacal papillae, the
one nearest to cloaca (called 4th by Bernard and Bauche) being situated at
0.01-0.02 from the following one (3rd.). According to Sandground [1933]
there are three pairs of preanal and four pairs of postanal papillae though
his figure (fig. 32) of the caudal end of male shows exactly the reverse condition,
i.e., four pairs preanal and three pairs postanal. In the arrangement of the post-
anal papillae the present form agrees with the figure of Sandground and his
contention that" the two lateral rows of preanal (probably a mistake for posta-
nal) papillae are situated so close to the median line that there would sometimes
appear to be four instead of three papillae on each" however seems
correct. Sandground does not mention the presence of papillae near the cloaca,
a pair of which was present in these forms. Spicules unequal and dissimilar :
left being long with a base 0.2-0.21 long in the form of a stout curved tube to
which is attached a distal slender part appearing to consist of two lash-like
portions coiled with one another at certain points and ending in a membraneous
tip curved at an obtuse angle with the shaft: right short and stout, 0.12-0.14
long, with thickly-studed spines around its external surface and bearing a
dorsal gutter. The length of the filamentous portion of the left spicule
has been a disputed point, Bernard and Bauche recording it as 0.07 and
Sandground as 0.15 : in the present material it was seldom found to be less
than 0.22, a length that exceeds the length of the basal portion of the spicule.
Female.—Length 15-18 cm., maximum diameter 0.65-0.75. Muscular
oesophagus 0.8-1 and glandular oesophagus 9-10 long. Nerve-ring at 0.28-
0.31 from anterior end. Vulva lying very clearly under a little projection
0.46-0.53 from anterior end and provided with strong sphincter muscles.
Vagina approximately 0.3 long, running obliquely posterior and near union of
FIG. 6
Selaria bernardi
Posterior end of female ; Lateral view
332
Nematode Parasites from Domesticated Animals
Cuvillier, E. (1933). J. Parasitol. 19, 244-245
Monnig, H. O. (1934). Veterinary Helminthology and Entomology. London,
229
Purvis, G. B. (1931). Vet. Rec. 528
Railliet, A. and Henry, A. (1911, 1). Bull. Soc. Path. Exot. 4, 386-389
—(1911,
2). Bull. Soc. Path. Exot. 4, 487
Sandground, J. H. (1933). Zeit. F. Parasitenkunde. 5, 578-580
Sprehn, C. E. (1932). Lehrbuch der Helminthologie. Berlin. 615
Tubangui, M. A. (1927). Phillip. Agric. Rev. 19, 29-31
COTUGNIA BROTUGERYS, MEGGITT, 1915
(FROM GALLUS DOMESTICUS, HOSUR
CATTLE FARM, MADRAS)
BY
S. VAITHIANATHA MUDALIAR, G.M.V.C.
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Parasitology, Madras Veterinary College
(Received for publication on 25th March 1939)
The only available record of this parasite seems to be by Meggitt, from
Burma, from Platycercus eximius [quoted by Southwell, 1930] and the present
description is the first from India. The worms described now were collected
from a Leghorn cockerel and were sent to the College for identification.
The largest specimen measured 100.0 × 2.0.* The mature segments are
0.6 long and 1.8 wide. The gravid segments measure 1.2 in length and 1.8
in width. There is slight overlapping of segments both in front and behind.
The genitalia are double in each segment and the genital pores are situated
usually at the anterior third of the lateral margins of the segments but in a few
of them, their position may be at the middle of the segments.
The Scolex is roughly square in shape and measures 0.9 × 0.7. The
suckers are circular, with a diameter of 0.3. The rostellum is smaller in dia-
meter than the suckers and measures 0.22 in width. It carries a double row of
a very large number of hooks, each measuring 0.12 long.
The testes are numerous and are situated behind the middle of the seg-
ment, extending laterally on both sides beyond the excretory vessels. The
cirrus sac reaches the excretory vessels and, in a few cases, crosses the same.
The cirrus is unarmed. The ovary consists of a few thick lobes arranged in a
fanlike manner and the vitellaria are situated posterior to the ovary. The
shell-gland is not clearly seen. The uterus is not persistent but breaks up into
a number of thick-walled capsules enclosing three to five eggs in each.
This description agrees with that given by Southwell [1930] for Cotugnia
brotugerys, Meggitt, 1915, recovered from a different host, viz., Platycercus
eximius.
REFERENCE
Southwell, T. (1930). Cestoda II, Fauna of British India, 109—110
*All measurements are in millimeters.
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