NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
Explanation of Plate.
The three sclerostomes found in the equine large intestine.
1.—Sclerostomum robustum sp. n. Figs. 1—5.
FIG. 1 Female and male specimens, natural size.
,, 1a. Lines showing length of above.
,, 2. A pair in copula x 6 diams.
,, 3. Drawing of a preparation formed by splitting the anterior extremity of the
worm x 70 diams.—
t. Circlet of tubercles surrounding the mouth.
c. Coronet of chitinous denticles forming a triphine,
like that of S. equinum.
t. p. The four tactile papillæ.
f .C
i r c l e t o f f i m b r i æ s u r r o u n d i n g t h e u p p e r l i m i t o f t h e
oral cup.
o .
T h e t h r e e l a r g e b u c c a l t e e t h .
p .
P h a r y n x .
,, 4. Bursa copulatrix of male. spread out, x 30 diams.
, , 5 . O v u m f r o m u t e r u s x 4 4 0 d i a m e t e r s . T h i s f i g u r e i s d o u b t l e s s u n n e c e s s a r i l y
magnified, but is so represented for purposes of comparison with other
ova delineated in this series.
II.—Sclerostomum tetracanthum Dies. (Figs. 6—11).
FIG. 6. Two lines representing the length of female and male specimens.
,, 7. Head showing the four spines x 170 diams.
,, 8. One-half of a split preparation of the anterior extremity of the body x 440
diams.—
s.s. The four labial spines.
f. Circlet of fimbriæ surrounding upper limit of oral cup.
b. Schneider's circlet of denticles.
o1 . & o 2 . Anterior and posterior circlet of œsophageal
denticles.
p. Pharynx.
FIGS. 9 & 10. Two specimens of male bursa copulatrix showing variability of out-
line x 70 diams. g. unicellular gland.
FIG. 11. Ovum from uterus x 440 diams.
III.— Sclerostonzum equinum (Rud.) (Figs.
12—15).
FIG. 12. Lines representing the length of female and male of mature, or intestinal
stage.
, , 13. Head x 70 di ams. from a speci men taken from a vermi nous aneuri sm from
a mule.
,, 14. Split preparation of anterior extremity of the same x 70 diams.—
t External circlet of trephine denticles.
f. Circlet of fimbriæ guarding opening of oral cup.
t.p. The six tactile papillæ.
s. The great external spine.
o. The great bidendate buccal tooth.
02 . The circlet of pharyngeal denticles.
, , 1 5 . M a l e b u r s a c o p u l a t r i x x 3 0 d i a m s .
Rag. No. 698. San., I.–Mar. 92–301.
Litho., S I. 0., Calcutta.
On nodular disease of the intestine in Sheep.
BY
SURGEON G. M. GILES, M.B , F.R.C.S.,
INDIAN MEDICAL SERVICE.
IT is an unfortunate fact that the rearing or keeping of sheep is next-door to
impossible, either in Assam or Burma.
In both these localities mutton is a sort of exotic luxury, obtained at much
expense by importation from India.
The supply of Rangoon, for example, is regularly brought over in the
weekly B. I. boats, and, in Assam the butchers march sheep up from Bengal in
comparatively small batches, and dispose of them as quickly as possible. Naturally,
owing to the animals being slaughtered immediately after so severe a march,
good bazar mutton is practically unobtainable ; and hence, wherever the European
population is sufficiently numerous, "mutton clubs" are formed, which import
sheep, and fatten them up as rapidly as may be, for the table.
Not unfrequently, however, these co-operations fail owing to large losses of
their sheep.
It is needless almost to say that these losses are always ascribed to that
favourite scapegoat for hazy sanitarians—climate ; though how or why the
climate of the Indo-Chinese peninsula should be particularly prejudicial to sheep
I cannot remember any one attempting to explain.
The explanation I have now to offer refers the mortality ultimately, it is true,
to climatic conditions ; but it has the advantage of explaining how and why the
climate acts prejudicially, and therefore of showing us in what direction we may
best take preventive measures.
The fact is that the prolonged dampness of these climates is peculiarly
favourable to the welfare of the free stages of nematode parasites, many of which
are particularly fatal to cattle in general, and to sheep and solidungulates in par-
ticular. Of Burma I can say but little, and can only judge from a few reports
from others, and from the probability afforded by similar climatic conditions ;
but, with regard to Assam, I can, from personal observation, answer for the fact
that its climate forms a sort of paradise for parasites.
I examined, in connection with my investigation of Kala-azar, the carcases of
several species of animals ; and not only every species, but every individual, was
found to harbour more or fewer species of entozoa, many being perfect miniature
d
M Medical Officers of the Army of India.
33
Shillong is as badly off for mutton as other parts of Assam, the bazar
supply being often uncertain, and uniformly poor. Under these circumstances, a
mutton club of some sort is a necessity, and during the season of 1890 a sort of
Proprietary Club for the purpose was started by Mr. Fenton, the enterprising
Manager of the Shillong Hotel ; the " Club " element being, however, represent-
ed only by a number of residents undertaking to take the mutton, while he in-
curred all risks.
Grazing being abundant and excellent, he got up from Bengal a consider-
able number, and, by a liberal supply of grain, succeeded for a while in supply-
ing excellent mutton.
After about six weeks, however, the quality began to fall off, till, in another
month, he was obliged to suspend his supply, no sheep remaining in a fit condi-
tion to. kill.
Then the sheep began to die off, not in numbers at a time, but one by one.
The animals did not appear to be in any suffering, but were feeble and de-
jected looking, though they eat greedily till nearly the end. The supply of
grass was unlimited in quantity and good in quality, and, in addition to this, they
were given a liberal ration of grain. They were well housed, at night, in a large
shed, the floor of which was raised on poles several feet above the ground.
Their water-supply was above suspicion. Yet, in spite of such exceptionally
favourable conditions, the leading symptom of the epizootic that was frustrating
all Mr. Fenton's efforts to supply us with good mutton was a slow and progres-
sive wasting. In advanced cases an examination of the mucous membranes of
the conjunction and mouth showed them to be singularly bloodless, though,
perhaps, hardly so markedly so as in the case of the horses affected with sclero-
storniasis described in the preceding paper. Death was usually ushered in by
scouring ; but this symptom was characteristic only of the end of the case, and
was by no means invariably present.
Sometimes the wasted animal would Le only " off its feed " for a day or
two, and then be found dead in the morning.
My attention having been so forcibly drawn to helminthiases as a cause of
mortality among men and mules, I naturally suspected that such similar symp-
toms among sheep might be due to a similar cause, and accordingly I proceed-
ed to examine the droppings of the affected flock. The specimens were taken
at random from the floor of the hut, and, without exception, every nodule was
found to contain immense numbers of characteristic strongyle ova.
It was clear that more than one species was present ; but the dominant
species was one which produced somewhat oblong ova, intermediate in size
between those of S. tetracanthum and D. duodenalis, and measuring, in fact,
about 0.082 mm. in length by 0.047 mm. in width.
From nodules selected as containing only the ova of what I may call the
dominant parasite, I instituted some cultivations. These were conducted by
34
Scientific Memoirs by
simply breaking down and slightly damping the nodules, placed in a crystalizing
glass, and covered to prevent evaporation. I succeeded in following their de-
velopment under these conditions further than I was able to in the case of
Scierostomum tetracantlium, as they had advanced well on to the sexually
mature condition, and had developed the peculiar styliform mouth armature
before the conditions became too unfavourable for further development. It
would be a mere waste of expensive lithography to figure these, as they are
almost identical in appearance with the free stage of S. tetracanthum already
described and figured, and differ only in some minute details, which pressure of
work at that time prevented me from minutely noting. There can, however, be
no practical doubt that, in order to attain complete sexual maturity, they require
to gain access to the forage plants which supply them alike with food suitable
for their free-stage life, and the opportunity of infecting new hosts for their para-
sitic generations.
Under these circumstances I urged Mr. Fenton to send me the carcases of
some of the dead sheep for examination ; but, one way and another, it was not
until July that I obtained the opportunity I required.
I extract from my diary a brief account of the examination.
Carcase, poor; flesh, watery ; mucosa, pale. Lungs, some congestion at
bases (mainly hypostatic), freely crepitant throughout. In bronchi I found four
specimens of Strongyius fiiuria, Rud. (a number inadequate to do any parti-
cular harm). Heart, liver and spleen healthy. Intestinal canal—stomach
The rumen contained large numbers of Amphistomum conicurn, Rud. In addi-
tion to these, a few specimens were found of a fihiform nematode about 9 c. m.
long, which appears new to science. (A description is appended.) Only female
specimens were found ; but some were present in all divisions of the stomach, ex-
cept the reticular. Small intestine—dotted throughout its length with small
nodular tumours, varying in size from a pin's head to that of a large pea. The
larger tumours are full of greenish caseous matter, and mostly contain no worms
the smaller ones contain each a minute, sexually immature nematode, with cup-
shaped mouth cavity.
Throughout the entire length of the small intestine, becoming more plenti-
ful in descending, were found considerable numbers of a small strongyle. (This
appears to be hitherto undescribed, and a description is appended under the name
of S. colubriformis.) Large intestine dotted throughout its length with nodular
tumours, like those seen in the small intestine. In addition were found free,
large numbers of another strongyle, near S. tetracanthum, which I could not then
identify, but which, without doubt, was the adult stage of the tumour-producing
immature worms, and the efficient cause of the death of this sheep, and doubt-
less of the epizootic generally. Many thousands must have been present ; but
their numbers still could not approach those in which I had found S. tetracan-
thum in equines.
Medical Officers of the Army of India.
37
nearly to the vulva to form yet another loop. Ova laid as a gastrula ; length,
0.082 by 0.047 mm. (0.09 by 0.05 mm., Curtice).
Life-History. —The similarity between Œ sophagostoma columbianum and
Sclerostomum tetracanthum in anatomy and life-history, in all points that are
certainly known for both is so close that there can be no practical doubt that
the two histories are in all points identical.
The ova of the present species hatch out the first or second day after the
deposition of the dung. Shortly after their escape from the egg they can he
found in the moistened dung as immature rhabdites 0.5 mm. in length by
0.03 mm. at their greatest thickness. At this stage the digestive organs alone
are developed. The œsophagus is provided with two bulbs, the upper of which,
however, is very indistinct, while the lower is thick and globular, and provided
with a distinct chitinous armature. The tail is short, and rather abruptly tapered,
and has no long lash, such as characterizes the rhabditis of S. tetracanthum.
When first observed, I was closing up my laboratory work at Shillong and
had no time to devote to experiments which would probably last through several
months. Now that I have a fresh supply of material, the temperature of the air
appears to be inimical to their progress, as but few have hatched out. I hope,
however, to be able to follow out the subject more closely during the favourable
period of the next rains. I have, however, followed them until they were far on
to the mature rhabditis stage, the generative organs being already well outlined,
though not as yet sexually distinct, and the mouth having acquired the peculiar
hollow-style armature which I have described and figured from S. terracanthum.
After leaving the dung, like the rhabditis of that species, they doubtless climb on to
succulent forage plants, on the juices of which they feed by means of their sharp,
hollow, protrusible style. Here they attain sexual maturity and multiply for more
or fewer generations. If now some of these rhabditis progeny be swallowed by
sheep along with their food, their next step is to bore into the intestinal sub-
mucosa and there to encyst themselves. Thus situated, with an abundance of
nourishment all round them, they grow rapidly to a size many times exceeding
that of the free generations, and, when ripe to attain sexual maturity, they bore
their way back into the intestine, and, by a series of moults, gradually acquire their
peculiar mouth armature, become sexually mature and lay, with the dejecta of
their host, the immense number of eggs which are destined to start the cycle of
life afresh.
Dr. Curtice states that the worms moult at least three times during its
(parasitic stage) development, but on this point my observations have been too
desultory to be of value.
He indicates also his belief that the worms do not always encyst, but may
undergo all their changes within the intestine, basing his opinion on the fact
that large numbers of free adults were found in a lamb only a few weeks old, in
the intestine of which only a few small tumours could be found. It is, of course,
Medical Officers of the Army of India.
tremely grave. The lesions produced are practically identical with those of intes-
tinal tuberculosis, and, from our experience of human pathology, we well know
how dire a disease is that.
It must be remembered that the worm makes its puncture from a cavity full
of various septic germs, and hence that the wound so produced must always
be a septic one. Witness the foul character of all suppurations that take place in
the neighbourhood of the digestive tract. Further, the resorption of the cheesy
matter is certain to be attended with further sepsis, and recovery can only be
gained by its absorption.
In this, as in most other helminthiases, it must be remembered that the
element of number is most important. Short of some accidental septic infec-
tion of the punctures by some poison of exceptional virulence, it is inconceiv-
able that any perceptible harm should be caused by a dozen or so of encysted
worms ; but, on the other hand, it is equally impossible to imagine that any con-
siderable number can be present without gravely affecting the health of the host ;
or that, beyond a certain limit of number, determined by individual resisting
power, the continuation of its life should be possible.
The sheep I examined at Shillong, e. g., had passed that limit, while those
I have examined at Sanawar were carcases taken at random from the ration
stand, and were not affected to a fatal extent.
The ration mutton here is extremely poor, and it is by no means easy to
obtain really prime meat, even by paying a high price for so-called gram-fed
mutton. In the carcases, moreover, that I have examined, the poorness of the
carcase was distinctly proportional to the severity of the infection, while the full
maws of the animals further showed that this poorness was not to be accounted
for by scantiness of food supply ; and it is to be noted that the examinations
were made just after the end of the rains , when the grazing had been for months
plentiful. Now, as it is impossible to believe that such grave lesions can exist
without seriously affecting the health of the animals, I think it may be taken as
proved that the poorness of the meat is mainly caused by the parasite under
discussion. At the same time it must be remembered that other parasites help
in producing this wasted condition, and, in some cases, have more to say in the
causation of the leanness of the meet supply than Œsophagostoma columbianum.
A very large proportion of the carcases, e.g , show numbers of cysts (Tœnia echino-
cocus), the liver and lungs being often absolutely riddled with them. In one case
two or three minute embryos could be found in almost every section of the
viscera, the sections being not more than ¼th inch square and less than
1 / 1 0 0 0 i n c h t h i c k .
Ruminants appear to suffer much less injury than man from harbouring this
parasite ; but when matters go to such an extent, health is clearly impossible to
the host.
Intestinal (adult) tapeworms are also almost universally present, Tœnia G
41
Medical Officers of the Army of India.
43
the fodder be obtained from localities over which sheep are riot allowed to
range, without which precaution it would be obviously useless. Where expense
and trouble is not so great an object, as in the case of mutton clubs, this
expedient, combined with disinfection of the fodder by heat, might be tried, and
would be specially worthy of trial in localities like Assam, where mutton is a
nearly unobtainable luxury, as I believe, mainly owing to this disease.
Conclusion. —It will, I think, be admitted that the facts that have been
adduced in these two papers are sufficient to show that the damage to live stock
wrought by parasites is much greater than has hitherto been suspected, and that
many apparently inexplicable epizootics may be due to their ravages.
There is a strong tendency, even among professional men, to ignore the
power of mischief possessed by intestinal parasites, and to treat as " only
worms" organisms which live on the blood of their victims, and riddle their
tissues to a sieve. While it is sufficient to discover a bacterium visible only under
the best oil immersion lenses for the majority to be convinced that we have
there the causa causans of the disease with which it may be associated, it is quite
otherwise with animal parasites large enough to appeal to the naked eye, armed
though they be with fangs and borers formidable enough to conduct phlebo-
tomy, artenotomy, and other disagreeable surgical procedures to any extent that
their insatiable appetites may suggest.
Let it not be imagined that the writer undervalues the morbific powers of the
bacteria ; but in medicine, as in other things, the influence of fashion comes in,
and we live, just at present, in a bacteriological era in which it is hard to obtain
a hearing for any other source of disease.
We want no more than the now classical example of anthrax to show us
that animals, as well as men, fall victims to diseases caused by bacterial poisons,
but all cattle disease is not anthrax, nor does it follow that because we may
find micro-organisms in association with disease that they stand to each other
in the relation of cause and effect, It is a characterstic of helminthiases that
they may be combated by the most rudimentary sanitary measures ; and
hence it is that there are but few parts of the world left where the entozoa
constitute any serious danger to man. But it is quite otherwise with animals,
whose natural habit of indiscriminately fouling the soil defeat the most laborious
efforts of man in the case of domestic species to keep them in cleanly condition.
Hence, even in Europe, the losses from parasitic disease among domestic
animals are still serious ; and I am convinced that for cattle in India helmin-
thological investigation is far more urgently needed than bacteriological re-
search.
SANAWAR :
The 26th November, 1891.
G2
G. M. GILES, M.B., F.R.C.S.,
Surgeon, Indian Medical Service.
44
Scientific Memoirs by Medical Officers of the Army of India.
Post scriptum. —While the above has been in the press, I have made the further dis-
covery that encysted Œsophagostoma may be found also in by far the larger proportion of
carcases of oxen that I have been examining. The species, however, evidently does not
find itself at home in bovines, for the tumours remain for the most part small, comparatively
few going on to the caseous stage, though the total number present has been very large,
in one or two cases. The trichonemes, after escaping from encystment, however seem
quite incapable of developing within the sloppy surroundings of the bovine colon. At any
rate, the most careful search has failed to bring to light a single adult or even maturing
specimen. I hope to deal more fully with this point at some future opportunity.
G. M. GILES, M.B., F.R.C.S.,
Surgeon, Indian Medical Service.
SANAWAR :
The 30th December 1891.
Explanation of Plate.
A FIG. 1. Œs ophagostoma columbianum, Curtice.
Head x 280 diameters. The two padilke which serve as openings of
the lateral canals are seen on either side. Of the other four tubercles,
only one is shown, to avoid confusing the outlines of the armature.
, , 2 . S p l i t p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e h e a d o f t h e s a m e x 2 8 0 d i a m e t e r s s h o w i n g , f i r s t , a
ring of plates with semilunar ends, next the circlet of fimbriæ, and
lastly, the circlet of bidentate teeth, below which is the wide œsophagus.
, , 3 . B u r s a o f m a l e
Œ s o p h a g o s t o m a
partially spread x 70 diameters.
, , 4 . O v u m o f Œ
s o p h a g o s t o m a
x 4 4 0 d i a m e t e r s t a k e n f r o m t h e c l o t a d h e r i n g
to the vulva.
, , 5 . T r i c h o n e m a s t a g e o f
Œ s o p h a g o s t o m a
from tumour of intestine of sheep.
, , 6 . A p o r t i o n o f t h e l a r g e i n t e s t i n e o f a s h e e p a f f e c t e d w i t h n o d u l a r d i s e a s e
of the intestine. Natural size.
B.
Trichosomum verrucosum, sp. n.
,, 7. Trichosomum verrucosum, ♀ , natural size.
,, 8. Head of the same x 28 diameters.
,, 9. Caudal extremity of the same x 28
diameters—
a—anus.
v—vulva.
u —uterus.
i
— i n t e s t i n e .
,, 10. Ovum of above, from uterus x 440 diameters.
Reg. No. 698, San., I .– Mar. 92.–301.
Litho., S. I. O., Calcutta.
A description of two new nematode parasites found in sheep.
BY
SURGEON G. M. GILES, M.B., F.R.C.S.,
INDIAN MEDICAL SERVICE.
Strongylus colubriformis and
Trichosomum verrucosum.
sp. n.
With a note on S. ventricosus, (Rud.?)
As already noted in the preceding paper on nodular disease of the intes-
tine, during that investigation, I met with two nematodes which appear to be
new to science. It is probable that both are innocent of doing much harm,
beyond abstracting a certain amount of nourishment ; but it is nevertheless
desirable that a sufficient description of them should be placed on record.
Strongylus colubriformis, sp. n.
Description. —Male nearly 6 mm. (0.2") in length, 0.13 mm. in thickness.
Female, about 8 mm. (0.3") in length, about the same thickness.
Body dark coloured, the female usually straight, the male more usually
contorted. Both sexes have the head extremely attenuated, and become pro-
gressively thicker as the caudal extremity is approached ; but while in the
male the thickest part is quite at the caudal extremity, the female is thickest
opposite the vulva, which is placed one-fifth of the entire body's length from the
mucronate extremity of the tail. Mouth, entire ; quite unarmed. The female
is provided with a pair of semi-elliptical, situated opposite the neck, which is
markedly constricted, giving her the outline of a cobra.
Bursa of male deeply bilobed, the dorsal cleft being almost as deep as the
ventral, so that the organ looks like a mussel shell, placed transversely, and
attached to the worm at the hinge. Ventral costa small ; the lateral and ventro-
lateral costæ stout, subequal, and forming a closely packed group ; dorsal and
dorso-lateral costae small.
Ova (intra-uterine) elliptical, 0.09 mm. long by 0.046 mm. wide. A more
advanced ovum, apparently mature, measured 0.11 mm.
This small species inhabits the small intestine, and is most numerous about
the middle of its length. I have found it, both at Shillong and Sanawar, in every