NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
CONTROL OF BLOOD-SUCKING INSECTS
37
The general disadvantages of trapping have been stressed by more than one
worker. These have been well summarized in the Report of the Special Blow-fly
Committee of Queensland [1922], and their remarks, although specifically intended
for blow-flies, may be regarded as applicable to traps in general. The Report
observes that trapping does not cause any appreciable reduction in the number of
flies in a paddock, that owing to the cost, it is not possible to have recourse to it
on a large scale and that the labour needed for attending traps is considerable.
In this connection, it is of interest that, in the article in the Times Weekly
Edition, cited earlier in this note, the Harris trap for tsetse-flies is stated to cost
about 30 s., and in a paper by Harris [1930] himself, the cost is estimated at 32 s.
6 d. per trap, and it is further stated: " Although this might be reduced by
employing cheaper materials, the ultimate cost would probably be greater owing
to the need of repairs and replacements, and the more constant supervision
required ". Furthermore, as pointed out in the Report of the activities of the
Agricultural Department of the Union of South Africa for 1924, traps are liable
to be broken by animals and damaged by rain, whilst the. possibility has also to
be reckoned of their being " pinched" by human bipeds. But, perhaps, the
chief difficulty that confronts the working of traps, designed to combat biting flies
is the question of the appropriate bait, although, judging from the results claimed
to have been obtained with the Harris trap in combating tsetse-flies, it is possible
that, at any rate, certain species of biting flies are attracted to an animal by
sight rather than by scent. Harris's own findings in the case of tsetses would
appear to lend support to this view, for this worker is stated to have observed that
when a dummy was tested side by side with a living ox, the latter attracted more
than double the number of flies, but when a tame zebra was substituted for the
ox, the majority of flies were attracted to the dummy (Journ. Dept. Agric. Union S.
Africa, 7, 389—390; 1923).
IV. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF BLOOD-SUCKING INSECTS.
It would seem that an adequate control of biting insects can hardly be
secured by any of the measures enumerated above, except, perhaps, by methods
devised with especial reference to the " tropic" responses* of the species of
insect which it is being sought to combat. In the great majority of cases, however,
the precise nature of the stimuli which call forth these responses still remains to
be worked out, and, pending this, measures, however empirical, have to be
devised whereby, at any rate, the more important insect pests of animals may
* A brief exposition of the subject of " Tropisims " is contained in The Principles of Insect Control,
by R. A. Wardle and P. Buckle (Messrs. Longmans, Green and Co., 1923).
38 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ II, I
be kept down to a negligible minimum. Of such measures, the one which, at the
present moment, would seem to be regarded with much favour by certain entomolo
gical workers is the so-called " biological method of control ". Writing about the
Tabanidæ in Java, Nieschulz [1927] states that experience having shown that it
is impossible (" unmoglich ") to control these flies by artificial means, he made a
study of their natural enemies, which included birds (e.g., Bubulculus coromandus),
poultry, a predaceous wasp, a Libellulid, and Proctotrupids of the genus Phanurus,
which last were the only ones found by him to be of importance, having parasi-
tized 60 per cent. of a total of 1,216 egg-masses, in the course of two months.
Similar observations have also been recorded by several other workers, including
Neave [1914-15], in Nyasaland; Girault [1916], in U. S. A.; Nicholls [1920],
in Australia ; and, more recently, by Fischer [1929], in Brazil. At Pusa, species
of Phanurus have been repeatedly observed to parasitize a considerable proportion
of Tabanid egg-masses deposited on vegetation along banks of a river (Pusa
Reports, 1920, et seq.).
Perhaps, an effective means of controlling, at any rate, certain of the blood-
sucking species of insects might ultimately be found in the discovery of methods
whereby their natural enemies, such as those mentioned above, might be
numerically increased—possibly, by improved breeding technique or by the importa-
tion of new parasitic forms from other countries or by both. The superiority of
the " biological " over other methods of control is illustrated in the case of the
blow-fly pest of sheep, for, according to the Report of the Queensland Blowfly
Committee [1922], to which reference has already been made, " the best measure
against the fly is the use of Chalcid parasites of which Nosonia brevicornis is the
commonest". It is further stated in the Report: "It was found that towards
the end of a fly attack, 80 per cent. of the pupæ had been parasitized by this
species, and it was therefore thought that its breeding and distribution would be
an important factor in control".
REFERENCES.
Adams, H. A. (1918). The Blow-fly Pest. Another Fly-trap. Queensland Agric. Journ., 9, 136.
Babcock, O. G., and Bennett, D. M. (1921). The Screw Worm and the Wool Maggot. Texas Agric.
Expt. College Sta., Cir. 27, 15 pp.
Beach, W. H. (n. d. ? 1916). The Sheep Maggot-fly and how to Control it. 16 pp. Published by the
Beach Chemical Co., Bridgnorth
Burnett, J. E. (1918). Methods of Combating Flies. Quarterly Bull. Michigan Agric. Coll. Expt. Sta.,
East Lansin, 1, 18—19.
Cameron, A. E. (1926). Bionomics of the Tabanidæ (Diptera) of the Canadian Prairies. Bull. Ent.
Res., 17, 1—42.
CONTROL OF BLOOD-SUCKING INSECTS
39
Cathcart, G. E. (1923). Notes on the Use of Artificial Light in Sandfly Destruction. Journ. Roy. Army
Med. Corps., 41, 447—450.
Cross, H. E. (1917) Experiments with Emulsions for protecting Camels against the Attacks of Blood-
sucking Flies. Agric. Res. Inst. Pusa Bull., No. 76, 12 pp.
Cross, H. E., and Abdulla Khan (1924). Surra Transmission Experiments with Tabanus albimedius and
Ticks. Dept. Agric., Punjab Vet. Bull., No. 12, 11 pp.
Cross, H. E., and Patel, P. G. (1922). Camel Surra. Dept. Agric., Punjab Vet. Bull., No. 8, 19 pp.
Crumb, S. E. (1922). A mosquito Attractant. Science, 4, No. 1428, 446—447.
Delanoe, P. (1922). Au sujet d'un Piége á Puces. Bull. Soc. Path. Exot., 15, 39—41.
Delanoe, P. (1922). Le Mouton Piége á Puces. Bull. Soc. Path., 15, 416—418.
Fischer, C. R. (1929). A New Hymenopterous Destroyer of Tabanids. Bol. biol., No. 15, 43—46.
Froggatt, J. L. (1917). A Simple Type of Blow-fly Trap. Agric. Gaz. N. S. W., Sydney, 28, 628.
Galli-Valerio, B. (1921). Beobachtungen über Culiciden. Centralbl. Bact. Paras. Infekt., I te Abt. Orig.,
86, 31—33.
Girault, A. A. (1916). A new Phanurus from the United States, with Notes on Allied Species.
Canad. Entom., 48, 149—150.
Graybill, H. W. (1914). Repellents for protecting Animals from the Attacks of Flies. U. S. Dept.
Agric., Bull. No. 131, 26 pp.
Harris, R. H. T. P. (1930). Report on the Trapping of Tsetse Flies. Fol., 8 pp. Pietermaritzburg.
Natal Witness Ltd.
Harris, R. H. T. P. (1931). Trapping Tsetse as a Means for the Control of Trypanosomiasis (Nagana).
Journ. South African Vet. Med. Assoc., 2, 27—30.
Haseman, L. (1927). Controlling Horn and Stable Flies. Bull. Missouri Agri. Expt. Sta., No. 254,
10 pp.
Hewitt, C. G. (1920). Insects affecting Live stock and other Animals. Rep. Dominion Ent. and Consult-
ing Zool., 1917-18, Canad. Dept. Agric., p. 17.
Howlett, F. M. (1910). The Influence of Temperature upon the Biting of Mosquitoes. Parasitology, 3,
479—484.
Hughens, H. V. (1919). A useful and inexpensive Fly-trap. U. S. Naval Med. Bull., 13, 80—82.
Keane, P. M. (1926). A Light-trap for Flies. Journ. Roy. Army Med. Corps., 46, 450—452.
Lefroy, H. M. (1911). Insecticides. Mixtures and Recipes for Use against Insects in the Field, the
Orchard, the Garden and the House. Agric. Res. Inst., Pusa, Bull. No. 23. [ Revised with many
additions, by T. Bainbrigge Fletcher (1912), 123 pp.]
Metz, C. W. (1920). On the Possibilities of using Mosquito Traps in Antimalaria work. U. S. Public
Health Reports, 25, 1974—1977.
Mitzmain, M. B. (1913). The Surra-conveying Fly of the Philippines and some Factors concerned in
Control Measures. Philipp. Agric. Rev., 6, 371—379.
Moutia, A. (1928-29). Surra in Mauritius and its Principal Vector, Stomoxys nigra. Bull. Ent. Res., 19,
211—216.
Neave, S. A. (1914-15). The Tabanidæ of Southern Nyasaland with Notes on their Life-histories. Bull.
Ent. Res., 5, 287—320.
Nicholls, H. M. (1920). A Chalcid Parasite of Diptera. Science and Industry, Melbourne, 2, 607—609.
Nieschulz, O. (1927). Über Schlupfwespen als Parasiten von Tabanideneiren auf Java. Centralbl. Bakt.,
II to Abt., 62, 399—410.
40 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ II, I
Nieschulz, O. (1928). Wietere Surraübertragungsversuche mit Tabanus rubidus, Wied. Arch. Protistenk.,
61, 92—118.
Nieschulz, O. (1929). Wietere Surraübertragungsversuche mit Tabanus striatus, Fabr. und T. rubidus,
Wied. Arch. Protistenk., 65, 78-96.
Patton, W. S. (1920). Some Notes on the Arthropods of Medical and Veterinary Importance in Meso-
potamia, and on their Relation to Disease. Part II. Mesopotamian House Flies and their Allies.
Ind. Journ. Med. Res., 7, 351—377.
Place, F. E. (1922). Blow-flies and Sheep. Journ. Dept. Agric., S. Australia, 25, 700—705.
Portchinsky, L. (1915). Tabanidæ and the simplest methods of destroying them. Memoirs of the
Bureau of Entomology of the Scientific Committee of the Central Board of Land Administration and
Agriculture, Petrograd. 2, 58 pp.
Shiroore, J. O. (1920). Traps for Glossina; Correspondence. Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. and Hyg.,
14, 30.
Wahl, R. O., & du Plessis, S. (1923). Combating Sheep-Maggot Flies. Journ. Dept. Agric. Union S.
Africa, 7, 428—432.
Zupitza, M. (1914). Versuche and Verschläge zur Verbesserung von Glossinenfangmethoden. Arch. f.
Schiffs-u. Trop. Hyg., 18, 367—375.
N.B.—The majority of the articles cited above have only been seen in abstract in Rev. App. Entom.,
Series B, as the originals were not available for consultation.
TUBERCULOSIS IN GOATS IN INDIA.
BY
P. R. KRISHNA IYER, G.M.V.C.,
Veterinary Inspector, Imperial Institute of Veterinary Research, Muktesar.
(Received for publication on 21st September 1931.)
(With Plates I and II.)
A perusal of the available literature shows that tuberculosis in goats has never
been recorded in India, although it is by no means unknown in other countries.
Thus, according to Karl Hertha, cited by Calmette, [ 1923 ], 0.77 per cent. of goats
killed for meat in Germany are found tuberculous, whilst Morel, cited by Calmette,
[ 1923 ], found 5 (0.17 per cent.) tuberculous goats out of a total of 2,843 slaughter-
ed at the abattoir of Saint-Etienne (France) during the first eight months of the
year 1911. Morel's findings are of especial interest from the view-point of the
hygiene of milk in that four out of the five tuberculous goats showed generalized
lesions with infection of one or several retro-mammary glands. In Great Britain,
the first fully authenticated instance of tuberculosis in the goat was recorded by
Edgar [ 1892 ], and it has since been shown by the Royal Commission on Human
and Animal Tuberculosis [ 1907 ] that goats are very susceptible to inoculation in
small doses of the bacillus of bovine tuberculosis. In view of the findings, as cited
above, of workers in other countries, it would seem remarkable that not one case
of the disease in goats has till now been recorded in India. On the other hand, it
would appear to be even held by some people that the goat is a species of animal
which is not only immune to tuberculosis but that its products can be used as a
remedy for human tuberculosis. Quacks have widely advocated the use of goat's
milk for children affected with tuberculosis and even a " goaty " smell has been
regarded as being endowed with therapeutic properties against human tuberculosis.
At first sight the absence of the disease in goats in India would seem to be attribut-
able to the outdoor life led by these animals in this country, as compared with
what obtains in European countries where they are maintained in a state of more
or less intensive domestication. This was at one time also considered to be a pos-
sible explanation for the relative freedom enjoyed by bovines in India from the
same disease [ Agric. Jour. India, 18, 394, 1923 ], but, as was revealed by the
results of later inquiries, the incidence of bovine tuberculosis in India is by no
means as low as was originally supposed to be, for, according to Edwards [ 1927 ], the
examination of cattle slaughtered in a certain abattoir in India showed the inci-
dence to be as high as 16 per cent. As regards tuberculosis in goats, six cases were
( 41 )
42 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ II, I
encountered by the writer of the present note in 1928, in the course of his routine
post-mortem duties at this Institute, out of a total of 943 goats (about 0.64 per
cent.) examined by him during the same year. It is of interest that all these six
cases were female goats, and this would seem to be in conformity with what has
been recorded by previous workers, for, as already mentioned, at least 4 out of the
5 tuberculous goats mentioned by Morel were females, whilst the case described by
Edgar [ 1892 ] was also of the same sex. Similarly Lydtin, Detroye and Konig,
cited by Nocard [ 1895 ], have all recorded the occurrence of tuberculosis in milch
goats, the disease in some cases causing a diminution in the milk supply. None of
the authors just quoted, however, records having examined male goats for evidence
of tuberculosis, whilst the very few male goats, which the present writer has had
an opportunity to examine, were all found free from the infection. The observa-
tions recorded in the present note and those of previous workers can therefore
hardly be regarded as of any significance in regard to the question of the relative
incidence of the disease in the two sexes. Nevertheless, that a proportion of
females do develop the disease is of importance in view of the traditional belief
prevalent in India that goat's milk is pre-eminently adapted for use in the treat-
ment of tuberculosis in human beings.
The writer takes this opportunity to express his gratitude to Mr. Hugh
Cooper, Veterinary Research Officer at this Institute, for helpful guidance and
eucouragement in making these observations.
I. PROTOCOLS OF NATURALLY INFECTED GOATS AND OF SMALL ANIMALS AND
BIRDS SUBINOCULATED FROM THEM.
Case 1.
She-goat No. 121. Age—1 year. Hill-breed.
History. Inoculated with 5 c.c. of rinderpest virus on 24th May 1928. On
27th May 1928, the temperature went up to 107° F. and the animal died on the
night of the same day.
Post-mortem findings. Sticky mucous discharge from both the nostrils.
Pharyngeal lymphatic glands enlarged and of the size of pigeon's eggs and found to
consist of yellowish-white, cheesy, caseated mass, when cut into. Mediastinal
glands enlarged and congested and presented caseating lesions with calcareous depo-
sits. Bronchial glands enlarged, congested and entirely caseated. Both lungs
presented numerous advanced caseating lesions varying from the size of a pin's head
to that of a pigeon's egg. Some of the pulmonary lesions showed cavities inside
TUBERCULOSIS IN GOATS IN INDIA
43
them, the tuberculous material not completely filling them up. Hepatic lymph
glands much enlarged and entirely caseated with calcareous changes. The liver
parenchyma itself showed a few caseating lesions, varying in size from that of a pea
to that of a play-marble. Spleen with a play-marble-sized tough nodular lesion,
with calcareous changes. Left atlantal lymph gland with a gram-sized tubercle
partly calcified. In addition to the tubercle lesions, the anterior halves of both
the lungs were pneumonic in character.
Smears from the lungs and the other lesions showed a few acid-fast organisms
indistinguishable from tubercle bacilli.
Material from the lesions was emulsified in normal saline solution and the infec¬
tivity of the emulsions was tested on two rabbits and two fowls with the following
results :—
Rabbit No. 30. Inoculated subcutaneously with 1 c.c. gland emulsion in N. S. S.
on 29th May 1928. Destroyed 19th July 1928. At the seat of inoculation, inside
the left hind, an extensive caseating lesion was found. No other lesions present.
Smears from this local lesion showed frequent acid-fast organisms.
Rabbit No. 31. Inoculated subcutaneously with 1 c.c. of lung emulsion on 29th
May 1928. Destroyed 20th July 1928. At the seat of inoculation, inside both the
hind legs, large caseating lesions were found containing a thick yellowish white,
cheesy, pus-like material. Around these lesions there was a zone of intense conges-
tion infiltrated with very large numbers on minute tubercles. Spleen slightly en-
larged. Each of the kidneys with about half-a-dozen pin-head to millet seed-sized
greyish-white transluscent nodules. Lungs with very numerous pin-head, millet-
seed and gram-sized transluscent pearly nodules. Liver highly congested.
Smears from lungs, kidneys and the local lesion showed numerous acid-fast
organisms and successful cultures were obtained from these lesions.
Fowl No. 2. Inoculated subcutaneously with 1 c.c. of gland emulsion on 29th
May 1928. Destroyed 19th July 1928. No tuberculous lesions were found, nor any
acid-fast organisms seen in the smears.
Fowl No. 3. Inoculated subcutaneously with 1 c.c. of lung emulsion on 29th
May 1928. Destroyed 20th July 1928. No tuberculous lesions were seen, nor
any acid-fast organisms observed in the smears.
Case 2.
She-goat No. 29. Age—2½ years. Hill-breed.
History. This goat had previously been used for rinderpest and blackquarter
experiments. A short time before death, the animal contracted mange. It died on
28th May 1928.
44 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ II, I
Tuberculous lesions were found in this animal as described below:—
Posterior mediastinal glands congested and enlarged and showed a few minute
yellowish-white caseating tubercles with calcareous deposits. Anterior mediastinal
and bronchial glands entirely caseated. Lungs studded with numerous tubercles of
various sizes. In the right main lobe was present one tubercle, the size of a tennis-
ball, which had a covering of about one-inch of thick yellowish-white, curdy, pus-like
material. Both the anterior lobes pneumonic. Spleen showed a few pea-sized
caseating tubercles.
Smears from the lung lesions and affected glands showed a few acid-fast or-
ganisms.
Two rabbits and two fowls were inoculated subcutaneously with a saline emul-
sion of material from the lesions in doses of 1 c.c. The results were as follows:—
Rabbit No. 33. Inoculated with 1 c.c. of gland emulsion on 29th May 1928.
Died on 7th June 1928 (9th day) of purulent peritonitis and gave negative results
for tuberculosis.
Rabbit No. 32. Inoculated with 1 c.c. of lung emulsion on 29th May 1928.
Died the same day. Result negative for tuberculosis.
Fowl No. 4. Inoculated with 1 c.c. of gland emulsion on 29th May 1928. Des-
troyed 26th July 1928. Result negative for tuberculosis.
Fowl No. 5. Inoculated with 1 c.c. of lung emulsion on 29th May 1928. Des-
troyed 26th July 1928. Result negative for tuberculosis.
Case 3.
She-goat No. 629.
Hill-breed.
History. Discontinued from rinderpest experiments on 1st May 1928. Died
on 11th June 1928.
Post-mortem findings. Lungs with right anterior lobe entirely consolidated
with a caseating lesion, the size of a marble. No other tuberculous lesions were
found in this animal.
Smears from the lung lesion showed rare acid-fast organisms.
Rabbit No. 43 was inoculated subcutaneously with 1 c.c. of lung emulsion in
normal saline solution on 11th June 1928. Died on 13th June 1928 of hæmorrhagic
septicæmia, but gave negative results for tuberculosis.
Case 4.
She-goat No. 86.
Hill-breed.
History. Discontinued from rinderpest experiments on 29th May 1928. Died
on 15th June 1928.
PLATE I.
Fig. 1. Advanced tubercle with calcareous changes surrounded
by a zone of epitheloid cells (Goat No. 86) × 120.
Fig. 2. Young tubercle with caseating centre surrounded by a
zone of epitheloid cells and giant cells (Goat No. 364) × 60.
Fig. 3. Tubercles. Mesenteric gland (Goat No. 626) × 60.
Fig. 4. Tubercle lesion. Mesenteric gland (Goat No. 626) × 120.
PLATE II.
Fig. 1. Same as Pl. I, fig. 4 showing the central giant cell (Goat
No. 626) × 550.
Fig. 2. Miliary tubercles, Lungs of rabbit No. 78.
TUBERCULOSIS IN GOATS IN INDIA
45
Post-mortem findings. Lungs showed a large number of caseating tubercles of
various sizes. Posterior mediastinal gland congested. No other lesions found.
Smears of lesions failed to reveal the presence of any acid-fast organisms. How-
ever, histological examination confirmed tuberculosis. [ Plate I, Fig. 1. ]
Case 5.
She-goat No. 364.
Hill-breed.
History. Was not put to any experiment. Died on 7th August 1928. In
this animal, the anterior and intermediary lobes of the right lung were consolidated
with over a dozen millet-seed to pea-sized yellowish-white caseating lesions.
Smears from these lesions failed to reveal the presence of any acid-fast or-
ganisms. However, histological examination confirmed the lesions being of tubercu-
lous origin. [ Plate I, Fig. 2. ]
Case 6.
She-goat No. 626.
Hill-breed.
History. Used for rinderpest experiment since 11th August 1928. Showed a
severe temperature reaction and died on 17th August 1928.
Post-mortem findings. About half-a-dozen of the mesenteric glands enlarged
and their cortices showed caseating tubercles varying in size from a millet-seed to
a gram seed [ Plate I, Figs. 3 and 4, and Plate II, Fig. 1 ]. The portal lymphatic
glands showed a few tubercles. Mediastinal lymphatic glands enlarged and con-
gested, but without any tubercle. Smears from the affected mesenteric and portal
lymphatic glands showed very few acid-fast organisms.
II. CULTURAL CHARACTERS OF A STRAIN OF BACILLUS TUBERCULOSIS DERIVED
FROM ONE OF THE NATURALLY INFECTED CASES.
Materials from the first two goats were not submitted to cultural examination
as smears from lesions in these animals already showed acid-fast organisms.
Attempts were made unsuccessfully to obtain cultures from materials derived from
the other four goats, smears from two of which, as already mentioned, showed only
rare acid-fast organisms, while smears from the other two did not show any. How-
ever, materials obtained from the lesions of Rabbit No. 31, one of the small animals
inoculated with emulsion of lung lesion from the first goat, were submitted to cul-
tural examination and a strain of Bacillus tuberculosis was recovered. According
to Mr. Mobbs, Laboratory Assistant, (Upper Grade), at this Institute, who kindly
D