NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
PLATE XXVII.
FIG. 1.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
PLATE XXVIII.
FIG.
1
(a).
FIG. 1
(b).
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
FIG. 4.
PLATE XXIX.
FIG. 1.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
FIG. 4 × 33.
PLATE XXX.
FIG. 1 (a).
FIG. 2.
FIG. 1 (b).
FIG. 3.
PLATE XXXI.
FIG. 1.
FIG. 2.
PLATE XXXII
FIG. 1.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
AN UNUSUAL CASE OF CHRONIC RINDERPEST WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CARRIER
PROBLEM IN THIS DISEASE
BY
CAPT. S. C. A. DATTA, B.Sc, M.R.C.V.S.,
Temporary Veterinary Research Officer,
AND
V. R. RAJAGOPALAN, G.M.V.C.,
Veterinary Inspector,
Imperial Institute of Veterinary Research, Muktesar.
(Received for publication on 31st August 1932.)
[(With five charts.)
INTRODUCTION.
Since the earliest times rinderpest has exercised the resources of the scientist
and has formed the subject of extensive investigations in many countries on account
of the very severe economic loss that it inflicts. Some workers have gone so far as
to state that an outbreak " may even result in the almost complete extinction of
animals in large territories ". However, great uncertainty still exists with regard
to several important aspects of its incidence, causation and control. Among the
many problems that still await the verdict of the future, the question of the nature
of the virus, the seat of its multiplication and the duration of its viability in the
various organs of a recovered animal are by no means settled. When one studies
the text-book description of the disease one is liable to gather the impression that
this affection occurs invariably as an acute, fulminating type of febrile infecting
disease, which is capable of being spread over distances in almost every imaginable
manner, as will be seen from a statement of Law [ 1902 ]. " All the secretions of
the diseased animal are apparently infecting, and the virus possesses great vitality
so that the channels of infection are almost endless. It is carried in the manure,
washed in streams and drains, dried up on hay, straw, feathers and other light
objects, or in dust, and blown about by the winds, left in stables, in feeding and
watering troughs, in railroad cars, steamboats and ferryboats, loading banks and
yards; it is carried in the fresh bristles, in hides and bones, in halters and harness,
on waggon shafts and poles, on goads, on boots and coats of men and the feet of
dogs, birds and other animals, on the wheels or vehicles, various infected products,
the runners of sleighs and by vermin and wild animals". On the other hand,
( 357 )
358 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [II, IV
the more recent periodical literature contains references which throw light on the
real nature of the virus, on its fragility and consequent inability to be transported
over long distances through natural agencies such as enumerated above. Further,
quite a number of reports are available to show that rinderpest occasionally
assumes a mild type becoming very difficult to recognize. This latter fact is worthy
of being fully realized since it has certain very important bearings in the control
of the disease in such a country as India, where rinderpest is known to be enzootic
as a result of the indigenous breeds having attained some degree of racial natural
immunity through centuries of exposure to it.
The primary object of this article is to record a rather remarkable case of a
bull as an example of the persistence of rinderpest lesions with accompanying
infectivity over a very long period, but the mere reporting of this case can be of
but little value unless the full implications involved are properly appreciated. It
is desirable, therefore, in the first place, to review the present position with regard
to the tenacity of the virus, insect vectors, role of wild animals, carriers among
other animals such as sheep and goats, etc. Another reason why a review of the
position seems indicated is that the literature on the subject is replete with a
considerable amount of unnecessary reduplication of experimental investigations
apparently as a result of lack of information as to how much had been achieved
by previous workers. Dieckerhoff [ 1890 ] and du Toit [ 1916 ] have reviewed the
literature but the position since their articles were published has not been surveyed.
Although it is not the intention in this article to attempt any such elaborate or
complete review, recent papers concerning some of the connected aspects of the
problem must needs be touched upon in passing.
In the past, workers in several countries have encountered a number of apparent-
ly spontaneous outbreaks of rinderpest, in which a clear scientific explanation of
the origin of such outbreaks is not easily found. Again it will be recalled that at
one time it was strongly believed that the disease in reality had a spontaneous
origin and that its appearance was not dependent upon the introduction of an
infected case from the outside. Amongst Indian workers also, there are several
responsible authorities who have expressed such views. For instance, McLeod
[ 1871 ], a highly qualified medical man of Bengal, remarks "My own impression,
derived from a close study of all that has hitherto come to light on the subject is
that these diseases (cattle plagues) are enzootic in this country, spontaneously
generated by conditions of air and water and not owing to importation from
without ". A similar conclusion was arrived at by Veterinary Surgeon Farrel
[1869] in the same province "from the fact of the disease being present in all
months and seasons in this district (24 Parganas), no trace of its importation from
other countries being discovered ". Of the several workers in other countries who
UNUSUAL CASE OF CHRONIC RINDERPEST.
359
have expressed the same opinion a reference to Littlewood [ 1905 ] of Egypt will
be made later in this paper.
TENACITY OF THE VIRUS.
Very conflicting results have been recorded by different workers with regard
to the tenacity of the rinderpest virus in blood when kept in vitro and yet it is a
question that cannot be left in this unsatisfactory state in view of the practical
application such information has in the serum-simultaneous method of inoculation.
Even prior to the achievement of Nicolle and Adil Bey [ 1902 ] in establishing the
filterability of the causal agent, Koch [ 1897 ] found that the virulence of rinderpest
blood is destroyed by prolonged exposure (of 4 hours) to a temperature of 30° C.,
and that blood so treated produced no " protective action " on being injected into
cattle. On the other hand, Theiler [ 1898 ] found that blood when subjected to a
higher temperature of 37° C. for 2 or 3 days became avirulent. In testing the
practical applicability of the serum-simultaneous method of inoculation, Stockman
[ 1905 ] experienced difficulty in maintaining blood from a sick ox virulent for more
than 48 hours even when kept in the ice chest under field conditions in both India
and South Africa. Again Todd & White [ 1914 ] claimed that virulent blood taken
in citrate solution and kept in sealed tubes at —6° to —7° C. retained its virulence up
to 22 weeks. Results indicating the retention of virulence by rinderpest blood for
prolonged periods such as the above have been obtained by Shilston [1917]. Al-
though the virus in blood, meat and bone marrow was found to survive at air
temperature ordinarily from 2 to 9 days, he quotes instances from his experience in
which blood stored under aseptic conditions at room temperature remained virulent
for periods of 30-40 days and in one instance up to 51 days. Further in another
case blood at 0° C. was virulent even after 90 days. Recently Malanidi and
Stylianopoulo [ 1927 ] found that 2 c.c. of blood kept in cold store for nine days
produced a mild thermal reaction only in a calf.
Leaving aside reports of prolonged viability of the virus under artificial
conditions, our ideas in regard to the conservation of the virus in blood at ordinary
air temperature for 51 days would appear to require revision, as will be noticed
from the later findings of Edwards [1924] who states :—
" Experiments with virluent blood stored at body temperature, however,
showed that the infective agent became inert usually within three days
when it was exposed to air, but that it survived very considerably
longer, ten days or more, when it was covered with a seal of liquid
paraffin. The factor of greatest importance appeared to be the trans-
formation that took place in the blood owing to the escape of carbon
dioxide gas and destruction of the virus was rapid during this transforma-
tion ".
360 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [II, IV
It has been known for a long time that the virus rapidly becomes inert on
dilution with water, as shown by Koch [1897] and Nencki [1898], and Edwards
[1924] believes that the most destructive agency is an unfavourable hydrogen-ion
concentration of the diluting fluid. It is gratifying to note that the experience
gained during the last few years has confirmed the above-mentioned statement of
Edwards in that successful serum-simultaneous inoculations have been carried out
in very distant field stations in India with blood withdrawn and bottled several
days earlier at Muktesar.
From the epizootiological point of view, the information concerning the period
during which the natural excretions of a diseased animal remain virulent outside
the body under various conditions obtainable in nature is of the utmost importance
and it is obvious that the success of control measures in the field must be largely
dependent upon the correct data. Earlier workers [Müller, Heubner, Dieckerhoff,
Friedbergher and Fröhner] held that the infectivity could persist in stables, on hay
and in manure for four months or more. Controlled experiments carried out by
Ward, "Wood and Boynton [1914] with a view to determine the nature of the
rinderpest virus have shown that it is very fragile and perishes soon after being
discharged by the infected animal, and it will be seen that this result is contrary
to the older view regarding the tenacity of the virus. These workers found that
the virus did not survive beyond 24 hours in corrals bare of vegetations but
containing water, that animals became infected in such corrals within half an hour,
12 hours and 17½ hours after removal of the sick but not longer, that virus in
urine diluted with water and sprinkled on grass survives for 36 hours in some
instances but not always, that faeces mixed with water and sprinkled on grass
infected 24 hours later, that faeces and urine mixed with water and kept in the
shade remain infective for 36 hours only, and that the virus is not harboured for
long periods in contaminated soil. The experiments of Shilston [1917], the results
of which agree with those of Ward and his collaboratois, showed that in buildings
and on areas infected by the natural discharges of sick animals, the rinderpest
virus is unable to survive for more than two or three days and when air and
sunlight are admitted its destruction is more rapid.
INSECT VECTORS.
Attempts have been made by several workers to demonstrate if vectors can be
responsible for the spread of rinderpest. Following upon transmission experiments
with leeches, carried out by Nicolle and Adil Bey [1899], Boynton [1913] has
shown that blood taken from an infected animal by the ordinary water leech may
remain virulent for at least 25 days, and that if it were crushed in water so that the
blood content of its stomach escaped, the surrounding water was capable of infect-
UNUSUAL CASE OF CHRONIC RINDERPEST.
361
ing cattle five days after it had sucked blood from the diseased cattle, but the living
leech itself was not infective to healthy cattle by its bite. Although observations
such as these may be invoked sometimes to explain the recrudescence of outbreaks
in certain areas starting about a month or so after an apparent disappearance, it
will be realised that the establishment of a fresh outbreak at some distance from
the previous ones can scarcely be explained on this basis. Curasson [1922], working
in Poland found that crushed ticks (Ixodes ricinus) when injected immediately after
removal from an animal at the height of fever produced rinderpest but when
injected quarter to one hour after removal they were innocuous. Similar experi-
ments with a fly (Tabanus) gave him only negative results. De Souza [1924] found
that a specimen of Margaropus bovis which had engorged itself upon an animal
infected with rinderpest maintained the virus at full virulence for 7 days. In his
experiments at Muktesar, Sen [1925] was unable to demonstrate the possible rôle
of mosquitos, house flies and lice as vectors of the disease under natural circums-
tances, but he was able to record some positive results when crushed material
(Musca domestica) was used subcutaneously. The experience of Hornby [1926]
shows that Glossina morsitans can transmit the infection, for he obtained a positive
result in one out of two cases. It will be seen from the above that the only report
which points to the possibility of infection being transmitted through vectors under
natural conditions is the report of Hornby. Since this species of flies is not existent
in India, it is apparent from available evidence that there is no real danger in India
from insect vectors.
THE ROLE OF WILD ANIMALS.
The improbability of rinderpest infection being transmitted through the medium
of intermediary agents, such as insects, flies, ticks, etc., has been seen. There
is a danger nevertheless of the disease being spread by direct contact with diseased
wild animals. Evidence is available in the Report on Indian Cattle Plagues [ 1871 ]
of the occurrence of rinderpest in deer, wild buffaloes, sheep, goats, yaks and zebus
in Assam, Bengal and Central Provinces. Information collected by Mr. Cooper of
this Institute from Provincial Veterinary Departments for submission to the
Royal Commission on Agriculture in India shows that the Bison, Sambhar, Spotted
dear and small deer are all affected. Pease [ 1894 ] states:—" I have seen it in the
Kakur or barking deer in the hills, and large numbers perished from it in 1891
beyond Simla. It has been seen in the Gaur or Indian Bison, so called; in the
wild buffalo, Tsain, etc.". A black buck was seen at Muktesar [ Lingard, 1905 ] to
contract rinderpest and succumb to it. Recently Ono and Kondo [ 1923 ] found
that the deer (Cervus sika) is susceptible to rinderpest and that the virus disappears
362 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [II, IV
from the circulation within six days of recovery and Jacotot [ 1927 ] has also trans-
mitted rinderpest to a deer (Cervus aristotelis). It is a well-known fact that wild
buffaloes often mix freely at night with the herds of village buffaloes in certain
jungli tracts in India.
It is to be remembered that in South Africa the game was almost entirely
exterminated in the great rinderpest epizootic which raged among cattle during the
years 1896-1898. Hutchins [ 1915 ] incriminated game as a spreader of the disease
in Africa and pointed out that quarantine measures for the eradication of the disease
in such neighbourhoods is not wholly effective and he gave an example [ 1920 ] of
the appearance of cattle plague in certain parts of the Uganda Protectorate due to
the movement of rinderpest-infected game. Zonchello [ 1917 ] also incriminated
game as a factor in the spread of the disease and held that sero-vaccination should
not be practised in such areas, as the game was likely to take the disease from the
vaccinated animals and re-introduce the disease into populated land at a later
period. McCall [ 1920 ] implicated such game as bush buck, wild pig and eland in
the spread of rinderpest in Tanganyika. Edwards [ 1924 ] and Jacotot [ 1930,
1932 ] failed to demonstrate that the rabbit could become naturally infected, hence
the rôle of these and other rodents can be safely ignored. Inowe, Harade and Shi¬
mazu [ 1930 ] proved that susliks (Citellus mangolicus ramosus, Thos.) are susceptible
to rinderpest and that occasionally these can become " virus carriers ", and their
experiments showed that blood from an inoculated suslik showing no symptoms may
be infective to cattle.
Although it sounds improbable Gilchrist [ 1848 ], from his personal experience
in the Madras Presidency, was of the opinion that the circumstance " of a tiger
having urined in the vicinity of the herd " of cattle can be productive of rinderpest.
When rinderpest gets freshly introduced into a country to which it is alien, the
danger of the spread of the disease to the wild game may be of paramount import-
ance. For, while it may be easy to eradicate the disease from the domestic animals
by an efficient veterinary police through registration of cattle, destruction of the
affected and enforcement of standstill orders, the uncontrolled movement of infected
game may render all these methods valueless. But in a country like India where
rinderpest has established a strong foothold and where the existence of numerous
extensive territories without any natural boundary renders the adoption of similar
methods impossible from political and other grounds, the importance of game as a
spreader of the infection may be said to be insignificant or unimportant. As will
be shown later, the factor that counts here most is the unsuspected cattle themsel-
ves and perhaps also some of the other domesticated animals which move among
cattle.
UNUSUAL CASE OF CHRONIC RINDERPEST.
363
" CARRIERS" AMONG DOMESTICATED ANIMALS OTHER THAN CATTLE
This brings us to the question of " carriers ", which is by no means a settled
one. The case of the domesticated animals other than cattle may be considered
first. Galambos [ 1861 ] was apparently the first to establish the susceptibility of
sheep to rinderpest. Of the many early workers who have proved the susceptibility
of goats to this affection, Nicolle and Adil Bey, Koch, Memo and Rogers may be
mentioned. Rogers [ 1900 ] refers to an outbreak of cattle plague in the Hima-
layas which was introduced into two villages by infected goats with most deplorable
results. In a more recent paper Zonchello [ 1917 ] observed that goats living in
the scene of an outbreak did not get the disease naturally and were unable to trans-
mit it to transport cattle housed with them. Gartner [ 1920 ] considered goats of
such importance that he headed a full chapter on them as " virus carriers " of
rinderpest in spite of a little earlier statement by Angeloff [ 1917 ] to the effect that
sheep and goats, although susceptible by artificial inoculation did not contract the
disease naturally. Bliss [ 1922 ] working in China suggested that goats could be
used as virus-producers in preference to cattle as the former are cheaper, withstand
the disease better and recover from the mild attack after furnishing the required
amount of virulent blood. Schein [ 1924 ] of Indo-China kept goat virus infective
to cattle during 172 passages from goat to goat. Topacio [ 1927 ] working in the
Philippines conceived the idea of utilising the lesser susceptibility of goats to a
great practical end, similar to the employment of calves in the production of small-
pox vaccine. He had the vision that it might be possible to obtain a virus by a
single passage from cattle to goats that was sufficiently potent to infect Philippine
cattle and carabaos and be sufficiently attenuated so that the quantity of serum
necessary for simultaneous inoculation could be materially reduced. Edwards [1928]
reported that after artificial intravenous inoculations of large quantities of virulent
rinderpest blood, the virus was detectable in sheep up to one month (the longest
time was not determined) but opined that this species of animal was not likely to
act as " carriers " under natural circumstances. Robertson [ 1925 ] gave an ac-
count of rinderpest in Western Australia and stated that the evidence appeared to
indicate that sheep brought to Fremantle as live ship's stores and which were pur-
chased by local butchers for slaughter were the source of an outbreak. Beaton
[ 1931 ] working in Nigeria, proved that goats are susceptible to rinderpest by
contact. That contact infection takes place from cattle to goat and vice versâ has
been proved by Hall [ 1930 ].
It is, therefore, definite now that goats do get infected with rinderpest, but the
disease is very mild and passes off unnoticed in most cases. With the knowledge
we now possess of the degree of attenuation of the virus that takes place within the
364 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [II, IV
body of the goat [Bliss, Topacio, Edwards, 1930 and Stirling, 1932 ] and from the
recorded evidence quoted above, it is probably safe to conclude that such goats may
infect cattle in their midst with the attenuated virus, the result of which would
appear to depend upon whether the cattle concerned do or do not possess a degree
of immunity and upon whether they are in robust health or are weak, debilitated
and predisposed to infection. The two extreme experiences of Zonchello [ 1917 ]
and Robertson [ 1925 ], referred to above, are suggestive of the view now expressed.
Carré and Fraimbault [1898] proved the susceptibility of pigs to infection
with virulent blood and Penning obtained the same results with wild hogs and was
able later to reinfect calves from them. In the description of an outbreak of
rinderpest which occurred in the Island of Romblon, where the disease had never
occurred before and into which island no cattle had been imported for a long time,
Boynton [ 1916 ] produced evidence to show that pigs played a rôle in the spread
of rinderpest in this constituent of the Philippine Islands. It was found on en-
quiry that pigs had been imported from another island where rinderpest was pre-
valent and that first of all local pigs began to die in considerable numbers and later
the cattle and carabaos fell victims to it. Nicolas and Rinjard [ 1921 ] proved
that pigs are of importance in the spread of the disease and sanitary police mea-
sures, therefore, should be adopted against these animals if rinderpest has to be
controlled. Bliss [ 1922 ] also found that hogs were susceptible and thought that
these might act as carriers but did not attempt to obtain any experimental proof
to confirm this. Experimental proof has, however, been put forward by Molinie
[ 1931 ], who showed that swine can play an important rôle in the epizootiology of
the disease, since in his experiments, the pigs contracted the infection as readily as
cattle and further they could infect cattle by contact or by the artificial inoculation
of infected blood or urine. He believed that passage through the body of this
animal increased the virulence of an attenuated virus but he did not entertain any
definite idea as to whether the pig could act as a reservoir of the virus. Conti and
Van Dac [ 1929 ] have maintained the virus in series in young pigs through 174
passages.
With regard to India, only scanty reports are available. The Indian Cattle
Plagues Commission [ 1871 ] collected evidence to show that pigs died of rinderpest
in Bengal, and Jackson and Cabot [ 1930 ] refer to authentic reports of occasional
natural outbreaks amongst pigs in the Nilgiris in Southern India.
There seems to be little doubt that rinderpest occurs amongst camels in this
country. Apart from the experience of Gilchrist [ 1848 ] who states:—" That the
camel is subject to a similar disease (rinderpest) has been satisfactorily determined
and indeed it has prevailed to a considerable extent amongst the camels of the