NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
12
The percentage of mononuclear cells in my dogs has been very low, possibly
a result of poor nutrition. In some instances infected dogs have exhibited
marked leucocytosis, but parasites are often abundant when no such change is
to be observed, and, since leucocytosis is rather common in native dogs, one
must be careful in drawing conclusions as to its significance.
Any very marked alteration in the proportion of leucocytes is absent and
though there is, in severe infections, usually some increase in the number of
the polymorphonuclear and transitional cells, yet there is nothing at all sugges-
tive of the profound changes which occur in leucocythæmia.
Turning from the discussion of the influence of the parasite on the tissues,
we have still to consider the means by which it reproduces itself in the body of
its host.
In 1898 Laveran (10) described in the cells of the liver reproduction forms
of H. stepanovi a hæmogregarine of the tortoise. This parasite, in the liver
cells, forms cysts containing from 12 to 20 sporozoits. Since then, several
hæmogregarines of cold-blooded animals have been found to reproduce them-
selves by encystment in the cells of the viscera, and the formation of sporozoits.
Similar cysts have lately been described by Balfour (3), and Laveran (11), in
the mammalian form H. balfouri. The cysts of H. balfouri are circular or oval and
reach 21µ to 23µ in diameter. According to Laveran they usually contain 16
sporozoits. But Balfour figures cysts containing over 30 sporozoits. Balfour
states that the cyst wall is formed only by the cell substance of the liver cell, but
Laveran notes that, though not present in other hæmogregarines, there seems
in this case to be a true cyst membrane.
The encysted stage of L. canis I have found in the bone marrow. It is very
doubtful if it occurs in either the liver or the spleen, for in dogs in which cysts
were quite common in the bone marrow, they were not found in these organs.
Mature cysts are oval or circular, measuring up to 48 µ in diameter. They
possess a wellmarked and thick hyaline cyst wall, around which are the flattened
remains of cells. Within the cyst lie at least 30 sporozoits. These are
sausage shape and contain a central rather irregular dark staining chromatin
mass. (Fig. 11.)
Less mature cysts are correspondingly smaller. They are exceedingly
resistant to stain, and are filled with round or oval clear refractile granules of large
size. As the cyst matures, the granules become less in number and sporozoits
are seen lying among them. Later on the refractile granules all disappear, and
the cyst contains only sporozoits and a little granular matter. Still younger
stages are brilliantly clear and refractile. They are oval in shape and lie in an
altered cell. The cysts appear to arise from ordinary encapsuled forms, which
become swollen so that they are more broadly oval. Such forms are extremely
13
difficult to stain. The contained parasite, when stained, is seen as a short
vermicule lying against one side of the capsule. The chromatin mass is situated
in the centre of the vermicule, and is much broader than in the ordinary forms.
It is not uncommon to find parasites, whose capsules are of normal shape, lying
against one wall of the capsule and having the chromatin mass in the centre.
Such forms are narrow and the chromatin mass is elongated. It is possible that
these forms are about to become encysted. (Fig. 9 a.)
The method of transmission from dog to dog I have been unable to ascertain.
Several of the hæmogregarines of cold-blooded vertebrates have been suspected
by different observers to be carried by blood-sucking annulata. Durham (11)
states that the carrier of a species of drepandium, discovered by him in the toad,
is a tick. He describes, in the tick, conjugation and the formation of large
cysts. Siegel (12) believes H. stepanovi to be carried by a leach (placobdella)
and describes in the gut of this blood-sucker the formation of gametocytes,
fertilisation and further development. The carrier of Karyolysus lacertarum,
according to Schaudinn, is the tick Ixodes ricinus. Laveran and Negre (13)
describe in Hyalomma Aëgyptium a protozoon parasite, which they think may be
the extra corporeal form of a hæmogregarine.
In the case of hæmogregarines of mammals, I have described in a former
publication (14) the development of H. gerbilli in the louse [ Hæmatopinus
stephensi (Newstead and Christophersi)] which infests gerbillus indicus. Vermi-
cules swarm in the gut and large cysts are found in the body cavity of lice fed
on infected field rats.
I have already noted that liberation of the vermicules of L. canis takes place
in the gut of the tick (R. Sanguineus) both in the nymph and in the adult stage,
but I have been unable to trace any further development. The dissection of adult
ticks which have hatched from nymphs fed on heavily infected dogs has always
yielded negative results, and not even vermicules in such cases have been
recovered from the gut.
Other possible carriers than the tick have to be considered. In addition
to ticks, all my dogs have been infested with fleas ( P. serraticeps). A species
of menopon is extremely common. This insect, which resembles a louse
in its habits, is extremely apt to be conveyed from animal to animal, and
often swarms upon sickly dogs, or dogs kept in close confinement. The
species, though a false louse, feeds upon blood. A constant ecto-parasite
of neglected dogs is a species of spider-fly ( hippobosca), peculiar to the dog,
which frequents especially the inside of the ear, and the folds of the groin and
the bite of which frequently causes large pustular vescicles. Mosquitoes also
feed freely on dogs. If L. canis be transmitted by a blood-sucker, it is
probably by one of the above mentioned, since dogs, found by repeated
14
examination to be free from infection, have in many cases become infected
after being some weeks in the laboratory where, so far as one could see, only
the above species of blood-suckers were present.
The zoological position of L. canis, in so far that it comes within the
division hæmogregarina as defined by Laveran, is quite clear. Its exact position
in this group requires further discussion. Of mammalian hæmogregarines six
have been so far described, namely, L. canis (Fames), H. balfouri (Laveran),
H. gerbilli (Christophers), L. funambuli (Patton), L. felis domestici (Patton)
and the parasite of the Norway rat (Balfour). Of these, I have been able to
study side by side all but the parasite of the Norway rat.
Of these forms H. gerbilli is so exactly similar to many cold-blooded
hæmogregarines that I have no hesitation whatever in placing it in the genus
Hæmogregarina (sensu restricto) of Danilewski.H .
b a l f o u r i
i s v e r y c l o s e l y
related to H. gerbilli, and this species, too, I place without hesitation in the same
genus. The difficulties of classification and nomenclature arise only when one
approaches the forms which are found in leucocytes.
L. canis is a very curious parasite, differing from the other species more
especially in the possession of a very thick and distinct capsule, but also in that
the chromatin mass is extremely close to one end, whilst, so far as I have been
able to make out, no semblance of a tail is ever present. L. funambuli does not
resemble L. canis so much as it does H. gerbilli or H. balfouri and the
parasite of the Norway rat from Balfour's description seems to be indistinguish-
able from L. funambuli. The similarity between this species and H. balfouri is
shown by the fact that Balfour has considered them as possibly the same species
in different hosts.
The position of L. funambuli in the genus leucocytozoon depends at present
upon the fact that it attacks the leucocytes, not to my mind in itself a sufficient
reason. The retention of James' genus leucocytozoon for the dog parasite has
the additional support that morphologically the parasite is unlike the other forms.
Whether these morphological differences are sufficiently great to make the
foundation of a new genus desirable is doubtful.
A point not to be lost sight of is that, L. funambuli in particular, and
L. canis and L. felis to a less extent attack the nucleus, pushing their way
through this in a very distinct manner. In L. funambuli it is often evident that
the parasite has again and again traversed this structure. This behaviour raises
the question whether these forms may not be related to Karyolysus (Labbe),
a conjecture which has to support it the fact that L. canis and L. felis possesses
the other character required by Labbe's definition of the genus that it is shorter
than its host cell. Even L. funambuli and the parasite of the Norway rat would
quite easily take their position in this genus.
15
Until more information is forthcoming regarding the hæmogregarines of
mammals it is perhaps as well for the present simply to retain the genus
leucocytozoon, placing in this genus L. canis, L. felis, L. funambuli and the
parasite of the Norway rat, H. gerbilli and H. balfouri being considered as
representing mammalian forms of Hæmogregarina (Danilewski).
To summarise—Leucocytozoon canis comes within the division Hœmogre-
garina of Laveran and very possibly represents the mammalian form of
Karyolysus (Labbe). Reproduction occurs by the formation of true cysts,
containing about 30 sporozoits. Encystment takes place in cells of the bone
marrow. After escaping from the cysts, the sporozoits invade mononuclear
transitional cells in the marrow, where they are seen as naked oval forms. These
undergo changes and become encapsuled, whilst the host cell is altered in a
characteristic way.
Though the parasite is essentially a parasite of the bone marrow and of
cells which give rise to leucocytes, no very great changes in the leucocyte value
are produced.
In the gut of the dog tick ( R. Sanguineus ) and more rarely in fresh pre-
parations of blood, parasites escape from their capsules as active vermicules.
Possible carriers are the dog tick, the dog flea, a species of menopon , the
mosquito and hippobosca.
NOTE.
Since writing the above account of Leucocytozoon canis (James), I have been
able to follow the complete sexual development of this parasite in the tick
( R. Sanguineus, Latreille).
In twenty-four hours after the tick has dropped from its host many of the
vermicules have lodged themselves in the large cells of the gut, especially the
younger cells near the basement membrane, and are associated in pairs. On
the second day conjugation between two similar vermicules takes place. As a
result of conjugation a globular body is formed containing a single large and
very homogenous mass of chromatin. This, after conjugation is complete,
spreads outwards to form a more and more extended reticulum and the
protoplasm, which has begun to take a deep blue stain, increases rapidly in
amount. The chromatin eventually occupies the periphery of the parasite and
collects into irregularly arranged star-shaped masses. The whole body by the
third or fourth day splits up to form from eleven to fourteen sporozoits. The
sporozoits resemble the original vermicules but are thinner. The chromatin
mass also is more globular and more compact. When set free the sporozoits are
in the lumen of the gut, the parasite having been carried gradually inwards by
the growth of the cell in which it has embedded itself.
16
Development can be followed in the nymph as far as conjugation and the
formation of the young zygote, but by the fourth or fifth day every sign of the
parasite has disappeared. No development could be traced in the larva or in
the adult male. Examination of the ova so far has also yielded negative
results, so that the method of re-entry into the dog still requires elucidation.
Ticks fed on uninfected dogs do not shew vermicules or the other stages
described.
Our knowledge of the life cycle of Leucocytozoon canis is therefore very
nearly, if not quite, complete. Reproduction in the bone marrow of the mamma-
lian host must be looked upon as schizogony, whereas sporogony takes place in
the gut of the tick.
The detailed description of the process of sporogony will form the subject
of another memoir.
REFERENCES.
1. James. On a parasite found in the white blood corpuscles of the blood of dogs.
Scientific Memoirs by Offrs. of the Med. and San. Depart. of the Gov. of
India. New Series, No. 14.
2. Bentley. Preliminary note upon a leucocytozoon of the dog. Brit. Med. Jour.,
6th May 1905.
3. Balfour. A hæmogregarine of mammals. H. balfouri. Jour. of Trop. Med.,
Vol. VIII, No. 16.
Also a third stage in the sexual cycle of the hæmogregarine of Jerboas. Brit.
Med. Jour. 17th June 1905.
4. Christophers. Hæmogregarina gerbilli.
Scientific Memoirs by Offrs. of the Med. and San. Depart. of the Gov. of
India. New Series, No. 18.
5. Laveran. Sur un hæmogregarine des gerboises. Compt. Rend. des seances de
I'academie des Sciences t. CXLI s. of 31st July 1905.
6. Patton. On a parasite found in the white corpuscles of the blood of Palm
squirrels.
Scientific Memoirs by the Offrs. of the Med. and San. Depart. of the Gov. of
India. New Series, No. 24.
7. Patton. Private communication.
8. Hintze. Lebensweise and Entwicklung von Lankesterella minima ( Chaussat).
Zool. Jahrb. Abt. f Anat. µ. Ontog. Bd. 15. Hft. 4.
9. Laveran. Contribution a l'etude de Hæmogregarina Stepanovi (Danilewski).
Compt. Rend. d. 1. Soc. de Biol. Sér 10. T. 5.
10. Durham. Drepanidium in the Toad. Memoir of the Liverpool School of Tro-
pical Medicine. No. VII.
11. Siegel. Die geschlechtliche Entwicklung von Hæmogregarina stepanovi im
Rüsselegel Placobdella catenigera. Arch. für Protistenkunde. Bd. 2 H. 3.
12. Laveran and Negré. Sur un protozoaire parasite de Hyalomma Aëgyptium.
Compt. Rend. d. 1. Soc. de Biol. T. 58. No. 21.
EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES IN THE PLATE.
Fig. 1 a. A parasite in a leucocyte. Fresh preparation.
b. Vermicules. Fresh preparation.
Fig. 2 a. A leucocyte containing a parasite which has refused to stain. Note the
edges of the nucleus overlapping the capsule.
b. A leucocyte containing a parasite which has stained. Note the layer of
condensed protoplasm around the capsule.
c. A leucocyte the nucleus of which has become much broken up by the
action of the parasite. Note the clear granule free protoplasm.
d. A leucocyte containing a parasite which has stained faintly. Note the
bridge of nuclear matter lying over the capsule.
Fig. 3. Free vermicules. Romanowski. Prep. of gut. of Tick.
a. Form in flexed position.
b. Very common posture of vermicules of L. canis.
c. Showing sharp anterior extremity.
Fig. 4. Naked form.
Fig. 5. Naked form surrounded by a layer of condensed protoplasm of the leuco-
cyte.
Fig. 6. Parasites showing commencement of capsule formation.
Fig. 7. More advanced stage of above.
Fig. 8. Unusual form of parasite.
Fig. 9. a. Long form of parasite with centrally situated elongated chromatin mass.
(?) First stage in encystment.
b. Commencing cyst formation.
c. Later stage in encystment.
Fig. 10. Nearly mature cyst in the bone marrow.
Fig. 11. Mature cyst in bone marrow containing sporozoits.
Fig. 12. Polymorphonuclear leucocyte.
Fig. 13. Transitional cell with granules.
Fig. 14. Transitional cell, usual form seen in peripheral blood.
Fig. 15. Mononuclear leucocytes with basophyllic hyaline protoplasm.
Fig. 16. Eosinophyl cell.
Fig. 17. Parasite which has attacked one limb only of the nucleus of a transitional
cell.
Fig. 18. Red marrow.
a. Transitional cell (mononuclear).
b. Transitional cell with horse-shoe-shaped nucleus.
c . M y e l o c y t e .
d. Cel l of t ype b.
Fig. 19. Red marrow.
a. Naked form of parasite in mononuclear transitional cell. Below a similar
parasite is seen in a transitional cell with dumb-bell-shaped nucleus.
b. Encapsuled parasite lying in an altered transitional cell.
c . M y e l o c y t e .
d. Cel l of t ype b.
Fig: 1.
Fig: 2.
Fig: 5.
Fig: 4.
Fig: 15.
Fig: 14.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 12.
Fig: 17.
Fig.16.
Fig: 18.
Fig: 19.
FOR PAPER ON LEUCOCYTOZOON CANIS.
Fig. 3.
Fig: 8.
Fig: 7.
Fig: 6.
Fig: 9.
Fig: 10.
Fig: 11.
P h o t o g r a v u r e
Surrey of India, Offices, Calcutta, July, 19 06.
No. 26.
(NEW SERIES. )
SCIENTIFIC MEMOIRS
BY
OFFICERS OF THE MEDICAL AND SANITARY DEPARTMENTS
OF THE
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA.
LEUCOCYTOZOON CANIS.
BY
CAPTAIN S. R. CHRISTOPHERS, M.B., I.M.S.
ISSUED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
BY THE SANITARY COMMISSIONER WITH THE GOVERNMENT
OF INDIA, SIMLA.
CALCUTTA:
OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF GOVERNMENT PRINTING, INDIA.
1906.
Price annas 12 or 1s. 2d.
ANNUAL REPORT
ON THE
Sanitation, Dispensaries and Jails in
Rajputana for 1922
AND ON
Vaccination for the year 1922-23
By Lieutenant-Colonel J. W. WATSON, C.I.E., I.M.S.,
CHIEF MEDICAL OFFICER IN RAJPUTANA.
Published by Authority
CALCUTTA: GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
CENTRAL PUBLICATION
BRANCH
1926
Price Rs. 21-8 or 33s. 9d.
ANNUAL REPORT
ON THE
Sanitation, Dispensaries and Jails in
Rajputana for 1922
AND ON
Vaccination for the year 1922-23
By Lieutenant-Colonel J. W. WATSON, C.I.E., I.M.S.,
CHIEF MEDICAL OFFICER IN RAJPUTANA.
Published by Authority
CALCUTTA: GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
CENTRAL
PUBLICATION
BRANCH
1926
REPORT
ON
SANITATION, DISPENSARIES AND JAILS IN RAJPUTANA FOR 1922
AND ON VACCINATION FOR THE YEAR 1922-23.
Section I.—Sanitation and Vaccination.
METEOROLOGY AND ITS RELATION TO FOOD SUPPLY.
Rainfall in Ajmer.
1. During the year under report 13.29 inches of rain were registered in Ajmer
against 11.51 inches in 1921, the average
for the previous six years being 21.29
inches.
2. The rainfall during the monsoon season from June to September was 12.70
inches as compared with 11.22 during the monsoon of 1921 showing an increase
of 1.48 inches.
3. Owing to the short monsoon rainfall during the last five years, i.e., since
1918, there was not sufficient water in all the Tanks and Wells throughout the
District and the ground water level in the Wells fell considerably.
Rainfall in Indian States.
4. The Rainfall recorded in Rajputana was on the whole fair. In some
States it was above the normal while in
others it was normal or below the normal.
The fodder was sufficient for requirements but the water supply was insuffi-
cient.
VITAL STATISTICS, BIRTHS AND DEATHS.
Births in Ajmer-Merwara.
5. According to the Birth Returns 14,998 births were registered in 1922
against 15,418 in the previous year.
showing a decrease of 420.
6. Of the total births registered 7,981 were males and 7,071 females. The
birth rate was 30.28 per mille of population against 31.13 per mille in 1921. The
percentage of male to female births was 113.73 as compared with 114.62 in the
previous year.
7. The birth rate exceeded the death rate by 8.09 per mille as compared with
2.72 per mille in 1921.
Deaths in Ajmer-Merwara.
8. The total number of deaths registered was 10,989 in 1922 against 14,073
in 1921 showing a decrease of 3,084. The decrease is due to low mortality from
Cholera, Small-pox, Fever and all other
causes of deaths. There was however an
increase in the number of deaths from Respiratory Diseases which was 189 against
74 in 1921.
9. The death rate per mille of population was 22.19 as compared with 25.41
in the previous year.
10. The mortality among children under five years of age was 44 per cent.
of the total deaths against 46 in the previous year.
11. There was no epidemic disease in Ajmer-Merwara throughout the year
under report except 2 deaths from Cholera, 8 from Small-pox, 2 from Influenza
and 2 from Plague against 35 from Cholera, 724 from Small-pox and 13 from In-
fluenza in the previous year.
12. 8,184 deaths from fever were reported against 9,804 in 1921 showing
a decrease of 1,620.
13. The Mortality from Bowel complaints was 256 against 294 in 1921 show-
ing a decrease of 38 deaths.
AND ON VACCINATION FOR THE YEAR 1922-23.
3
and Foy Sagar, it was possible to give four gallons per head per diem through the
hydrants. Fortunately no harm resulted from this procedure though the Budha
Pushkar water was reported as impotable.
Village Sanitation, Ajmer-Merwara.
Ajmer Sub-Division—
1. Pushkar.
2. Jaithana.
3. Harmara.
4. Srinagar.
5. Beer.
6. Ramsar.
Kekri Sub-Division—
7. Junia.
8. Mehron Kalan.
Merwara Sub-Division—
9. Beawar.
10. Jawaja.
11. Todgarh.
12. Bhim.
13. Barar.
26. The Commissioner of Ajmer-Mer¬
wara reports that the rules for the improve-
ment of village Sanitation were in force
in the same villages as last year as detailed
on the margin.
27. The Sanitary condition of the villages in all the three Sub-Divisions is
reported to have been satisfactory. The villages are kept fairly clean and the
health of the people was good.
VACCINATION.
Statement I.
28. In Ajmer-Merwara including Nasirabad Cantonment the total number
of persons vaccinated was 14,160 against 12,564 in 1921-22 an increase of 1,596.
The total number of Primary Vaccination rose from 12,700 in 1921-22 to 14,289
in 1922-23 and the number of Primary Successful Vaccination from 11,693 to
13,089.
29. The aggregate of the both Primary Vaccination and Re-Vaccination
was 14,903 showing an increase of 1,795 as compared with last year.
30. The average number of Vaccinators employed during the year under
report was 16 with one Indian Superintendent. Each Vaccinator performed an
average of 885 operations against 816 in the previous year.
31. During the working season from 1st October to 30th April the Vaccine
Calf Lymph was purchased from the Manpur Vaccine Depot in Central India
and from 1st May when the said Depot is closed it was purchased from the Punjab
Vaccine Depot, Murree.
32. The Civil Surgeon, Ajmer-Merwara, inspected 1,410 vaccinated children
in towns and villages against 861 in 1921-22 of whom 1,380 were found successful.
33. The Superintendent of Vaccination, Nasirabad, examined 55 children
against 25 in the previous year of whom 52 were successful.
34. The Indian Superintendent of Vaccination, Ajmer-Merwara, inspected
272 towns and villages against 329 in 1921-22 and examined 5,010 vaccinated
children against 4,600 in the previous year.
35. The number of persons successfully vaccinated per 1,000 of population
was 27.60 against 24.60 in 1921-22.
General Operations in Indian States.
36. The total number of Primary Vaccinations in Indian States was 222,115
of which 210,868 were successful as compared with 221,903 Primary and 206,129
successful operations in 1921-22. Re-Vac-
cination fell from 1,905 to 935 in the year
under report.
37. There were 184 Vaccinators against 183 in 1921-22. Three additional
vaccinators were employed at Sirohi, Kushalgarh and Dungarpur and 2 in Bharat¬
pur and Karauli resigned. No Vaccinator was employed in Deoli Cantonment
during the season ; vaccinations were performed by the Sub-Assistant Surgeon
attached to the Agency Hospital there.
38. 21.45 per thousand of the population in the Indian States were success-
fully vaccinated against 20.99 in 1921-22.