NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
THE OCCURRENCE OF AIR-SAC MITE, CYTOLEICHUS
NUDUS (VIZIOLI, 1870), IN FOWLS IN INDIA.
BY
R. L. KAURA, B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.
Assistant Serologist
AND
S. GANAPATHY IYER, G.M.V.C.
Veterinary Inspector
Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar
(Received for publication on 14th July 1937)
(With Plate XXI)
CERTAIN mites, like the depluming mite, scaly-leg mite, feather mite, etc.,
attack the superficial parts of the fowl's body whereas certain fowl mites are deep-
seated in the body like the air-sac mite and the connective tissue mite. The
deep-seated mites are in reality degraded scab mites.
A perusal of text-books on Entomology shows that the air-sac mites are known
to occur within the bones, lungs, bronchi, peritoneal cavity, etc. but in India,
the authors have neither met with the occurrence of mites within the body of fowls
except in the case under review nor have they noted any published record of its
occurrence in India.
Pillers [1921] considered that this mite is parasitic upon birds and that the
lesion resulting from its infestation rarely ends fatally. However, many writers
incriminate it as a cause of inflammatory lesions in the lungs and intestines.
Kaupp [1922] after studying a number of specimens considers that the air-sac
disease caused by minute mites is fairly widespread in Colorado, North Carolina,
New York and Pennysylvania. He records that the presence of a few parasites
may not cause any noticeable symptom, but when they severely invade the bronchi
in large numbers they cause local irritation, coughing, accumulation of mucus in
the trachea and bronchi, partial asphyxiation, broncho-pneumonia, emaciation
and death. Ward and Gallagher [1923] describe the air-sac mite as having been
observed in the trachea, lungs, air-sacs, hollow bones and the peritoneum and ex-
ceptionally in the heart, liver and kidneys. Methods of transmission and their
presence within the tissues cannot be readily explained. Small miliary tubercles
containing the parasites may be seen scattered through the affected portion of
the lung. Their exit from the body may occur through the trachea by expulsion
( 299 )
300
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [VII, IV
during coughing. Gwatkin and Glover [1931] have recorded their occurrence in
the wind-pipe, lungs, air-sacs, hollow bones and the peritoneum, the air-sacs being
the commonest site. They, however, consider that they are apparently harmless
for they may sometime be found in large number in healthy birds.
The subject of report, from which the air-sac mites were recovered, was an
ailing cock received from the Fowl Breeding Station of this Institute at Latoli,
on 8th October, 1936, for observation with a view to eliminate the possibility of any
contagious infection. The bird was kept in a cage and died on 13th October, 1936,
prior to which thermal rise, inappetence and slight respiratory distress were noticed.
On post-mortem examination the entire peritoneal and thoracic cavities along
with the viscera appeared as if sprinkled with sabulous deposits, which on micros-
copic examination were found to be accumulations of mites. They occurred in
massive numbers and were seen to be actively motile on the surface. The lungs
showed signs of consolidation, and the liver was studded with numerous pin-point
to pin-head sized cream-coloured nodules. Some of the mites were found embed-
ded superficially in the liver. The heart blood revealed no micro-organism on
microscopic and cultural examinations. The death of the fowl resulted from
pneumonia.
Pieces of the affected portions of the lungs and liver were sent to the Patholo-
gical section for a histopathological examination and report, which showed that
the lungs had suffered from a severe type of pneumonia, the sections also exhibiting
mites and their eggs along with rare groups of diphtheroids and Gram-positive
bacilli. Liver showed marked congestion with foci of myelocytes (myelocytoma)
some of which showed mitosis.
The mite on careful microscopic examination conformed in type to Cytoleichus
nudus (Vizioli, 1870) given by the authors of various text-books on Entomology
and Diseases of Poultry, referred to above. (Plate XXI, figs. 1 and 2). The
parasite is ovoid in shape, yellowish white in colour and is just visible to the naked
eye.
In view of the difficulty encountered in treating the affected fowls owing to the
peculiar location of the parasite inside the body, it is considered that the condi-
tion is serious especially when infestation becomes heavy. It is advisable to
destroy and cremate infested birds and thoroughly disinfect the premises. They
should not be restocked for several months, during which period disinfection may
be repeated.
Recently, a further consignment of dead or dying fowls has been received from
the Fowl Breeding Station, Latoli, and on post-mortem examination heavy infes-
tation with Cytoleichus nudus was found in each case. It appears that the flock
and premises at Latoli are heavily infested with this mite.
OCCURRENCE OF AIR-SAC MITE IN FOWLS IN INDIA.
301
SUMMARY
The occurrence of mites within the air-sacs of fowls is recorded, for the
first time in India. Although primarily parasitic in these sites, an extensive infes-
tation of the organs had developed.
This mite is indistinguishable from Cytoleichus nudus (Vizioli, 1870), popular-
ly known as the air-sac mite.
On account of the difficulty in treating the affected fowls it is considered to
be a serious condition.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our thanks are due to Mr. M. Y. Mangrulkar, M.Sc., M.R.C.V.S., D.T.V.M.,
Assistant Pathologist, and Mr. Ahmed Buksh, Artist, of this Institute for the histo¬
pathological examination and the illustrations, respectively.
REFERENCES
Gwatkin, R. and Glover, J. S. (1931). Diseases of Poultry, Ont. Deptt. Agri. Bull.
305, p. 43.
Kaupp, B. F. (1922). Poultry Diseases, pp. 91-92.
Pillers, A. W. N. (1921). Notes on Mange and Allied Mites, pp. 58-60.
Ward, A. R. and Gallagher, B.A. (1923). Diseases of Domesticated Birds, pp. 198-200.
A NOTE ON THE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION
OF THE CALCIUM REQUIREMENT OF MAN
BY
MD. ABDUL HYE, M.Sc.
Assistant Physiological Chemist, Bengal
(Received for publication on the 3rd September 1937)
IN a very highly interesting paper on the determination of calcium require-
ment of man by Dr. I. Leitch, published in the Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews
[ January, 1937 ], the author has applied a new method to metabolism data,
in which he divided 407 subjects into groups of negative and positive balances,
based on the difference between intake and output of calcium. Out of 407
balances, 318 were negative and 89 were positive. Two linear relations, one with
the negative and the other with the positive balance figures were obtained from
which the maintenance requirement of calcium was estimated.
It appears that no justification has been given for dividing the 407 observa-
tions on normal individuals into two groupings except on balance basis which is
the subject of investigation of the present paper.
Assuming then the data to
be normal, it is desirable to pool all the data together, neglecting the inevitable
chance fluctuations from individual to individual and obtain one straight line (i.e.
one relation) and estimate the maintenance requirement. In determining the
protein and other nutrients requirements of Bengal bullocks, I have found this
procedure to be very satisfactory.* For the application of the above method, the
data of Table I, page 555 (Nut. Abs. and Reviews., Jan. 1927) may be converted
as follows:—
TABLE A
Calcium intake and output in normal women
Intake group
0.05—0.10 . .
0.10—0.15 . .
0.15—0.20 . .
Positive and negative balances
No. of balances
16
25
11
Average intake in
gram
0.080
0.134
0.176
Average output in
gram
0.220
0.256
0.246
* Unpublished work.
( 303 )
G
304
DETERMINATION OF THE CALCIUM REQUIREMENT OF MAN
TABLE A—contd.
Intake group
0.20—0.25 . .
0.25—0.30 . .
0.30—0.35 . .
0.35—0.40 . .
0.40—0.45 . .
0.45—0.50 . .
0.50—0.55 . .
0.55—0.60 . .
0.60—0.65 . .
0.65—0.70 . .
0.70—0.75 . .
Total . .
Positive and negative balances
No. of balances
33
96
77
34
28
20
43
16
1
6
1
407
Average intake in
gram
0.225
0.272
0.316
0 366
0.438
0.478
0.518
0.566
0.630
0.663
0.742
..
Average output in
gram
0.346
0.350
0.390
0.477
0.489
0.518
0.534
0.572
0.680
0.578
0.547
..
By the application of the method of least square, we obtain a relation :
Y=0.640 X+0. 187
Where Y represents the average output in gram, and X the average intake in gram.
The high correlation coefficient (r=0.938) indicates that the relation obtained
between average output and average intake is in close agreement and that there
is very little variation from individual to individual.
From the above relation it is easy to obtain the true maintenance require-
ment, by putting Y=X=0.52 gram.
It may be added that Dr. Leitch's value is 0.55 gram.
REFERENCE
Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews 1936-37, 6, 553-578.
SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE INCIDENCE AND
INHERITANCE OF IMPERFORATE ANUS IN GANJAM
CALVES
BY
P. S. KUPPUSWAMI, G.M.V.C.
Veterinary Assistant Surgeon, Agricultural College, Coimbatore
(Received for publication on the 7th July 1937)
INTRODUCTION
THE importance of the existence of lethal and sub-lethal factors in the eco-
nomy of live-stock breeding deserves to be widely recognised. Numerous here-
ditary defects as a result of the above factors have been recorded among live-stock.
The incidence of such lethal factors results in the death of the individual some-
time between conception and a few days after birth.
Crew [ 1924 ] has given a detailed description of the condition (Achondro-
plasia congenita) or what is popularly known as the " Bulldog " calf of the Dexter
breed of cattle which results in the birth of about twenty-five per cent of calves
in a dead condition and with a monstrous appearance, their heads, limbs and ver-
tebral columns being much foreshortened. Similar lethal factors operating in
certain strains of the Scandinavian Telemark breed have been studied by Wriedt
and Mohr [ 1925-26].
A lethal factor giving the calf the appearance of being devoid of skin and hair
particularly on the muzzle and feet has been discovered by Hadley and Warwick
[ 1927 ]. A lethal factor causing the large intestine to be completely cut off in
the region of pelvic fixture of certain foals in Japan (Atresia coli) has been des-
cribed by Yamane [ 1925 and 1927 ].
Various other hereditary defects, lethal or sub-lethal in character have been
recorded by a host of workers in live-stock breeding—Loje [ 1930 ] in Red Dan sh
cattle ; Roberts [ 1926 and 1929 ] in Welsh mountain sheep ; Mohr [ 1929 ] in
pigs ; Kislovsky [ 1928 ] in rabbits, etc.
IMPERFORATE ANUS
A review of the literature on the numerous abnormalities in cattle reveals
that the incidence of imperforate anus is one of rare occurrence. Kinzelbach
( 305 )
306
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [VII, IV
[1932 ] has recorded its incidence in pigs of the " Swabian Halle breed ". Al-
though there are isolated records of this abnormality in other places its occurrence
in extenso, has been found only in the Ganjam Tract which now forms a part of
the new Orissa Province.
In the administration reports of the Civil Veterinary Department, Madras,
mention is made of the prevalence of this abnormality in the Ganjam District
and of the operations carried out. In the following paragraphs, a record is made
of the observations of the author which came to his notice in 1936-37 when he
was in charge of the Veterinary Hospital at Berhampur (Ganjam District).
OBSERVATIONS
In the year 1936-37,105 cases of imperforate anus were recorded. Of these,
thirty-three were first calvings, twenty-one second, twenty-seven third, and
twenty-four fourth calvings. The enquiry further elicited that in the case of
cows which calved second, third or the fourth time, the preceding calves were
normal. Thus it is obvious that most of the calves are produced in a normal
condition and therefore the character of ' perforate anus ' appears to be a domi-
nant one.
The ryots of this tract, in cases of this abnormality, normally pierce the
anus with a pointed red-hot iron and artificially create a faecal outlet. When
veterinary aid is available, a surgical operation is performed. Most of the treated
cases have been reported not to thrive well, but lead a lingering existence often
resulting in early death. There is no authentic record to show that operated
calves survive long enough to reach maturity. The possibility of utilising
the recessive character ' imperforate anus ' in crossing experiments may, therefore,
be ruled out.
Accurate progeny records would be of great use in analysing the mode of
inheri ance of this interesting and widely prevalent character. It seems to the
writer that a fair percentage of the cattle population of the tract may be tainted
in this respect. Of the 105 cases, seventy-two were bull calves and thirty-three
heifer calves. The higher incidence of this abnormality in bull calves is note-
worthy and whether this is mere y a chance or a phenomenon of normal occur-
rence remains to be ascertained.
Certain abnormalities such as congenital scrotal hernia, a small extra
appendage of the skin just above or below the anal region, absence of prepuce in
bull calves and hermaphroditism are found to be associated with some of the
cases having imperforate anus.
Many of the breeding bulls and some of the cows in the tract have also been
noted to possess the extra appendage of the skin in any part of the vertebral
region ; but the writer has not observed this near about the anal region as is found
in some of the calves having imperforate anus.
IMPERFORATE ANUS IN GANJAM CALVES
307
It cannot be definitely stated whether the progeny of cattle having extra
appendage of the skin in the vertebral region always exhibit greater incidence of
imperforate anus and this is one of the questions, which requires to be pur-
sued.
The fact seems to be that in the opinion of the ryots, the extra appendage
of the skin present in a bull enhances the breeding bull appearance of the animal
and the possibility of a lurking danger in perpetuating this abnormality (imper-
forate anus) does not appear to be realised.
CONCLUSIONS
It is obvious that the ultimate remedy lies in the elimination of this character
from the Ganjam stock and the study of inheritance of this character is a neces-
sary preliminary.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The observations made and recorded in this note are due to the incentive
derived from the lectures of Professor William C. Miller, M.R.C.V.S., F.R.S.E.,
at the Institute of Animal Genetics, Edinburgh University, while working
under him and the author's thanks are due to him.
REFERENCES
Annual administration Reports of the Madras Civil Veterinary Department for the
year 1928-29, pp. 34, 1930-31, pp. 48.
Crew, F. A. E. (1924). The Bulldog Calf. A Contribution to the Study of Achondro-
plasia. Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., 17 (Section of Comparative Medicines), 39-58.
Hadley, F. B. and Warwick, B. L. (1927). Inherited Defects in Live-stock. J.
Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc. 70, 492-504.
Kinzelbach, W. (1932). Studies on Atresi ani in the Pig. (Ztschr. indukt. Abst.
LX, pp. 84-124).
Kislovskey, A. D. (1928). Naked: A Recessive Mutation in the Rabbit. J.
Heredity 19, 438-439.
Loje, K. (1930). Lethal Genes in Domestic Animals and in Red Danish Dairy Cattle
in particular. Tidsskrift for Landokonomi Hefte 10, 517-549.
Mohr, O. L. (1929). Lethal Factors in Domestic Animals. Ztschr. Zuchtung. 4,
105-125.
Roberts, J. A. F. (1926). A Hereditary Lethal Deformity in New-born Lambs.
J. Min. Agr. 33, 795-801.
308
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [VII, IV
Roberts, J. A. F. (1929). The Inheritance of a Lethal Muscle Contracture in the
Sheep. J. Genetics 21, 57-69.
Wriedt, C. (1925). Lethal Factors. Ztschr. f. Tierz. u. Zucht-Biol. 3, 223-230.
Yamane, J. (1925). The Lethal Malformation of the Colon in the Horse. Trans.
6th Congress Far East. Assoc. Trop. Med., Tokyo, 1925, 815-818.
Yamane, J. (1927). On " Atresia coli", a Lethal, Heritable, Intestinal Malformation
in Horses and its Combination with Cerebral Glioma. Ztschr. ind. Abst. Vererb.
46, 188-207.
SELECTED ARTICLES
THE CONTROL OF ANIMAL DISEASES IN RELATION TO
OVERSTOCKING AND SOIL EROSION
BY
H. E. HORNBY
Director of Veterinary Services, Tanganyika Territory
(Reprinted from the Empire Journal of Experimental Agriculture, Vol. V, No. 18, April,
1937,
143-154)
SOIL erosion has been defined as ' the corrosive action of natural forces on
the surface of the earth', and a certain amount of erosion, which in most places
is more than balanced by rock decay, is a normal process. To-day, however,
the term generally implies an accelerated loss of soil so far above the normal that
it constitutes a very serious loss of the natural wealth of many countries. This
accelerated loss is almost entirely due to disturbance by man or his domestic animals
of the vegetative cover which alone can prevent the shifting of soil by rain and wind.
Throughout the world generally it is probable that injudicious cultivation is
by far the most important source of soil erosion, and especially wherever the rain-
fall is both high and well distributed. Thus Eden [ 1 ] in his small monograph
on soil erosion gave very little space to damage by stock, and the committee on
soil erosion in Ceylon [ 2] did not mention stock at all.
It is in countries where the rainfall is low, or sufficiently seasonal to permit
an annual dry season of several consecutive months, that damage by domestic
animals may equal or exceed that done by the cultivator. Thus on page 12 of
the Final Report of the Drought Investigation Commission of the Union of South
Africa [ 3 ] it is stated that ' Deterioration in the vegetal covering of the drier
parts of the Union has been brought about mainly through the practices of kraal¬
ing, herding, and overstocking, together with an insufficient number of drinking
places, and overgrazing'; and on page 15, ' Soil erosion is caused, mainly, by de-
terioration of the vegetal cover brought about by incorrect veld management.'
Also Bennett and Chapline [ 4 ] lay the blame for the appalling soil losses which
are occurring in the United States of America almost equally on the shoulders
of the cultivator and the stockman. We are not concerned, however, with appor-
tioning blame ; our present purpose is to emphasize the fact that overstocking
is an important cause of soil erosion, and that wherever it exists it calls for serious
consideration and scientific intervention. Even in those areas where there is as
yet no apparent overstocking, the possibility of its occurrence should be borne in
mind, and preventive measures be instituted when necessary.
( 309 )
THE CONTROL OF ANIMAL DISEASES
311
No one, of course, condemns the acquisition of knowledge which alone makes
disease-control possible; what is often deplored is the supposedly injudicious
application of this knowledge. This critical attitude of mind is rational, and
the challenge to veterinary departments is a fair one which must be met.
Having made this general concession, I wish now to say that I believe the
challenge is one which can be met by every veterinary department, though
naturally I am not in a position to speak for any other country than Tanganyika
Territory On behalf of the veterinary department of that country I readily ac-
cept the challenge, and as conditions there are not unique, it is probable that
conclusions of wide application may be drawn from a careful examination of
the facts relating to the one country alone.
Overstocking is prevalent in Tanganyika Territory. The area that is stocked
to saturation is about 40,000 square miles, and probably 25,000 of these are over-
stocked, including what was some of the best land of the Lake, Central, Northern
and Western Provinces. The subject has been given much attention and efforts
to deal with the problem are being made. It may be said, though, that these
efforts amount to no more than a beginning of what requires to be done if the evil
is to be removed. In this connexion the recent annual reports of the Department
of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry should be consulted, particularly
the one for 1931, in which Staples deals at length with the problem as it occurs
in the important Usukuma district of the Lake Province [8].
As more than 95 per cent of the stock of Tanganyika Territory is owned by
natives, the problem of overstocking in this country may be considered as though
it concerned native-owned stock alone.
It is important to note that overstocking is not a new thing in Tanganyika
Territory. It is probably as old as animal husbandry itself; certainly it was ob-
served by Stanley when he passed through Usukuma in September 1889. In
his In Darkest Africa [ 9 ] he wrote : ' From our camp we could see the ancient
bed of the Lake spreading out for a distance of many miles. Every half-mile or
so there was a large cluster of hamlets, each separated from the other by hedges
of milk weed. The plain separating these clusters was common pasture ground,
and had been cropped by hungry herds as low as stone moss '. On p. 402 he
wrote : ' The grass was so short that the cattle were feeding upon the roots to
obtain subsistence '.
To some people these paragraphs indicate that overstocking in Usukuma
was as bad fifty years ago as it is now. and therefore, as things are not getting worse,
there is no need for worry. That this assumption is not justified will be shown
later ; what does emerge from all the evidence at our disposal is the conclusion
that overstocking on a smaller scale existed before the days of European inter-
vention.
H