NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
7
(3) Determinations of the co-efficients of the absorption of the nitrogen
of the food-materials in use.
(4) Chemical examination of the excreta.
(5) Determination of the average level of nitrogenous interchange per-
mitted. by the jail dietaries.
(6) The suitability of the diet scales at present in force with suggestions
for their modification.
(7) The evidence afforded by the physical development of the people on
the effects of the level of nitrogenous interchange.
The estimation of the nutritive value of the dietaries and the determina-
tion of the co-efficient of the nitrogen absorption of the food-stuffs have again
taken up the greater portion of the time that could be spared to the enquiry
from official duties. Owing to the composition of the diets in the United Pro-
vinces being more or less similar to vegetarian diets in Europe, and owing to
the fact that they did not present the huge bulk of the Bengal diets, we had
not the same difficulties to contend with as in the work in Bengal. We did
not find the bulk interfering as in Bengal, and were therefore able to make use
of the ordinary methods of procedure for the determinations of the percentages
of nitrogen absorption from the food-stuffs entering into the composition of the
dietaries.
The investigations that have been made in Europe and America would
appear to show that the food-materials in use in these countries have a high
percentage of absorption for the several proximate principles. Thus Rubner
and Atwater's1 f i g u r e s g i v e : —
Meats
.
.
.
.
.
. 91-95% of protein absorbed.
Fish
Milk
Maize .
.
.
.
.
.
.
89% „
„
„
Rice
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
84% „
„
„
Peas
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
82½% „
„
„
Beans .
.
.
.
.
.
.
70% „
„
„
Whole wheat bread .
.
.
.
.
69½% „
„
„
Potatoes
.
.
.
.
. 61-81½% „
„
„
Cabbagges
Carrots
Later figures by Atwater place the average absorption of the protein of
legumes at 76 % and of cereals from 83-85%.
Of the food-stuffs entering into the composition of the dietaries of the
United Provinces, peas, beans, wheat and vegetables are the only materials
1 Food and the Principles of Dietetics.—R. Hutchison, M.D.
likely to be included in European diets. The results of our investigations show
percentages of protein absorption for these food-materials approximately
similar to what has been obtained in Europe and America. The food-stuffs
peculiar to the dietaries of the United Provinces, on the other hand, show very
poor co-efficients of nitrogen absorption. It will be found that few of them
exceed 60 per cent., most being between 50 and 60 per cent. What the ex-
planation of this is we are unable to say, but, as suggested by Lewis, in all
probability the method of cooking has a considerable influence on the absorp-
tion of their nitrogenous constituent.
The results of observations where the diet included considerable amounts
of the pulses confirm the opinion expressed by Lewis as to the doubtful advan-
tage of the addition of an undue proportion of pulses to make up dietaries to a
given standard of protein intake.
In connection with this work on metabolism there is nothing more strik-
ing in observations on the urine and fæces of Europeans and natives of India,
respectively, than the low percentage of nitrogen in the urine of the latter as
compared with the former, and the small quantity of fæces in the case of the
European, giving at most an average of 2 grms. of nitrogen per day compared
with the large mass of fæces in the case of the native of India, giving quantities
of nitrogen varying from 4 to 7 grms. per day. Later on we shall discuss the
framing of suitable dietaries for the jails of the United Provinces, but it will
readily be admitted that no diet could be accepted as anything approaching
suitable that entailed such waste of precious material as that represented by 6
or 7 grms. of nitrogen daily in the fæces.
The work carried out on the analyses of the excreta includes estimations
of the absorption of carbohydrates which we shall discuss later in connection
with suitability of the present diet scales. ' At present all we need say is that
the dietaries in the jails of the United. Provinces do not present the excessive
quantities of carbohydrates which form an outstanding feature of the Bengal
Jail dietaries. Neither do we see such manifest signs of intestinal fermentation
amongst the prisoners of the United Provinces as met with in the Bengali so
that the loss of potential energy Of the dietaries, through the conversion
of carbohydrates into carbon dioxide, acetic acid, lactic acid, etc., within the
intestinal canal, is probably much less than is the case with prisoners on
diets of the Bengal type.
No examination of the absorption of fat was carried out. The amount of
fat entering into the composition of the jail dietaries of the United Provinces
is very small, only a few grms. being added to that already contained in the
food-materials. As fat forms so unimportant an element in the composition
of the diets it was not considered necessary to lessen the time - that could be
9
spared to other more important parts of the enquiry, by carrying out numerous
investigations of a tedious nature on. the fat in the fæces We shall conclude-
what we have to say regarding the scope of the present enquiry by giving a.
short, concise
Account of the work done.
1. All the different food-materials in use in the dietaries of the -United
Provinces have been analysed. The method adopted was to analyse the food-
materials entering into the composition of the dietaries whose nutritive value
was being examined. It will be found in the tables giving the results of these
analyses that considerable differences were met with in the values of the proxi-
mate principles of the same food-material in different jails, or even in the same
jail with different samples of the same food-stuff. This is probably due to
several different causes such as difference in moisture, degrees of cleanness, state
of preservation of the seeds, locality of growth, etc., but the most important
element in determining differences in chemical composition appeared to be the
degree of contamination with foreign grains. It was practically impossible to
get anything approaching pure samples of the different cereals, or even pulses
in the different jails visited. A. sample of wheat would be found to contain
plenty of barley, usually different pulses and millets. Similarly, a sample of
arhar dal might contain juar, bajra and other seeds. As the jail authorities.
make use of second quality of food-stuffs, the materials obtained in jails are
never pure. Our analyses present the percentages of proximate principles as
found in the jail samples and as actually used by the prisoners, and, except
where otherwise stated, are analyses of second quality material or even of a
quality more inferior still. This contamination, looked on from one point
of view, may not be altogether an unmixed evil, as it may happen that the
foreign grain or pulse may have the effect of raising the protein content and
also to some extent the co-efficient of nitrogen absorption. Thus, for example,
a pure sample of barley would show about 8 per cent. of protein and an absorp-
tion of about 54 per cent., while a sample of barley contaminated with wheat.
may show up to 9 . 50 per cent. of protein and an absorption of 58 per cent.
The draw-back is that wheat, being the most expensive of the food-stuffs in use,.
contamination of wheat by any of the other materials means a dead loss to the
State in cash and a lowering of the nutritive value of the diets to the prisoners,
This part of the work required. about
100 Kjeldahl's estimations off nitrogen
60 determinations of carbohydrate
50 determinations of fat.
10
In all 35 different samples of food-stuffs, obtained from five different jails.
in the United Provinces, were analysed.
2. Investigations were carried out in the following jails :—
Benares Central jail ; Agra Central jail ; Naini Central jail, Allah-
abad; Lucknow Central jail ; Mainpuri District jail.
3. The number of prisoners in the different jails who were under observa-
tion in the investigations were
Benares Central Jail.
18 prisoners under observation for 33 days.
20
,,
16, ,
Total
38 prisoners under observation for 49 days.
Agra Central Jail.
30 prisoners under observation for 38 days.
25
”
“
”
14
,,
Total
55 prisoners under observation for 52 days.
Naini Central Jail, Allahabad.
20 prisoners under observation for 38 days.
15 ” ” ,,16 ,,
Total
35 prisoners under observation for 54 days.
Lucknow Central Jail.
Total
20 prisoners under observation for 22 days.
Mainpuri District Jail.
Total
20 prisoners under observation for 24 days.
In the investigations on the Jail Dietaries of the United Provinces we had
168 prisoners under observation for over 200 days. During this time the
prisoners were isolated, their dietaries arranged, cooked, and distributed by us
and their excreta collected for analysis.
4. Chemical analyses
(a) Determinations of the total nitrogen._
1,100 Kjeldahl's determinations of nitrogen in connection with
the urine and fæces.
100 Kjeldahl's determination of nitrogen in connection with
analyses of food-stuffs.
11
The estimations of the nitrogen of the urine and fæces were usually done in
duplicate, those connected with food analyses were usually in triplicate.
(b) The total chlorides were estimated in all samples of urine
analysed for total nitrogen, about 300 estimations.
(c) Examinations of the fæces for carbohydrates were carried out
with 80 samples—the prisoners being on different diets.
Besides this 60 determinations of the carbohydrates of food-stuffs were made
and 50 fat estimations.
Methods of work.
5. The methods made use of in the investigations were the same as those
found satisfactory in the inquiry on Bengal Jail Dietaries.
1
(a) Analyses of food-stuffs and excreta. The protein estimations were all
carried out by Dyer's Modification of Kjeldahl's method, using in
addition a few drops of weak solution of phenolphthalein in the cross
tube leading from the distillation flask. This re-agent turns red as
soon as the ammonia begins to come over and remains red until the
last trace has been expelled by the heat, when the colour disappears.
The analyses and estimations or other constituents of the urine, fæces
and food-stuffs were carried out by the ordinary methods described in text
-books and call for no comment.
(b)The method of procedure in carrying out the investigations on prisoners
was the same as that followed in the enquiry on Bengal Jail Dietaries.
Batches of healthy picked prisoners —usually five, six or ten men—were
isolated during the period of observation. The excreta from the individuals
of the batch were pooled, two samples each of the urine and fæces were
put up for nitrogen. The procedure with regard to the fæces was as follows :
— The batches of prisoners were put on the diets under investigation for
two or three days before any col l ecti on of fæces was made. After thi s
interval to accustom them to the diet, a large dose of powdered charcoal was
given the first thing in the morning on an empty stomach, the diet to be
investigated was then continued for the period—usually six, seven or ten
days—when charcoal was agai n admi ni stered. The fæces passed duri ng the
period were collected and pooled daily, the pooled fæ ces were thoroughly mixed
by stirring with a large iron spoon for an hour continuously. Then
t w o s a m p l e s w e r e a c c u r a t e l y w e i g h e d a n d p u t u p w i t h s t r o n g s u l p h u r i c a c i d i n
glass-stoppered bottles and packed for transit to the laboratory. We collected
the blackened faces at the beginning of the experiments and left out
those blackened at the end of the period: this gave us exactly the fæces
1
Sci enti fi c Memoi rs, No. 37.
c2
12
corresponding with the food taken during the period of observation. An
example will make this clear. Supposing an observation had been begun
on the first of October by placing a batch of five prisoners on a known
diet. They are kept on this diet during the 1st and 2nd of October ;
on the morning of the 3rd of October each prisoner in the batch is given
charcoal, and the same diet continued to the end of the observations. Now
on the 4th of October a certain number of the prisoners will pass blackened
stools, these will be collected and only these (except any passed after
the blackening has disappeared). On the 5th October the remaining
prisoners will pass blackened fæces and afterwards uncoloured fæces, all
will be collected, mixed, weighed and samples taken. Shortly, at the
beginning of the experiment we begin the collection of the fæces with
the blackened stools, which correspond with the food taken on the 3rd
of October. At the end of the experiment, say on the morning of the
10th October, we again give charcoal : now the process is reversed and the
fæces are collected up to the time the blackening begins—the blackened not
being included. This method gave very good results in our hands : the
prisoners soon learned what was required of them and were able to give a
considerable amount of assistance.
The stirring for an hour had the effect of allowing for a great deal of
evaporation of moisture, besides mixing the pooled fæces very thoroughly.
This permitted us to obtain reliable samples of the pooled material, and the
evaporation of moisture made it easier for accuracy in their weighment.
On analysis the two samples were found to give practically identical figures
for the amount of nitrogen in the stools passed per batch daily.
(c) The feeding of the prisoners was carried out on the following plan :—
The food-materials to be used in the complete investigations in a jail were
obtained from the store in bulk and kept privately by us. This was necessary
in order that the same quality of food-stuffs should be given throughout a
series of experiments : so that having found, for instance, the co-efficient
of absorption of the nitrogen of the wheat in use at the beginning of a series,
we should not discover half-way through that a new consignment-of wheat was
to be used as the old had been consumed. From our store each day the
ration for each man was carefully weighed out ; this was cooked in a room or
cook-house set apart for our use alone and under the eye of the officer in
charge of the feeding of the prisoners. After being cooked the rations were
weighed again and then distributed to the prisoners. Anything over was
weighed, its value in a dry form calculated and deducted from the total
intake. The total value in proximate principles of the daily intake was
,determined by analyses of the food-stuffs actually used in the experiments,
13
In the work on the nutritive value of the dietaries of the United Pro-
vinces we have relied almost entirely on the accurate determination of the
nitrogen intake and the output of nitrogen in the fæces—the difference between
these being the amount absorbed and undergoing metabolism. Although
the amount of fæces passed by the prisoners in the United Provinces is very
large, we did not experience the same difficulty in separating the fæces
corresponding to the diet given, as with Bengal prisoners. In Bengal Jails—
at least in those where rice, dal, and vegetables form the diet—the prisoners
pass exceedingly fluid stools ; this was not the case to anything like the same
extent in the United Provinces, so that separation of the fæces with charcoal
was quite easy.
This concludes all we have to say of an introductory nature, and completes
our short sketch of the history of the dietaries in jails of the United
Provinces. Before proceeding to give an account of the practical work we
desire to offer our best thanks to those officers of the Jail Department in
the United Provinces with whom we have come into contact during the
investigations.
The Inspector-General of Jails, Lieutenant-Colonel MacTaggart,
I M S h a s a s s i s t e d u s g r e a t l y b y s h o w i n g a n i n t e r e s t i n t h e w o r k a n d g i v i n g u s a
free hand in making whatever use of the jails found necessary. The
Superintendents of the different jails, where the investigations were carried
out, could not have done more to assist us than they did. To them—Lieutenant-
Colonel Henderson, Agra ; Lieutenant-Colonel Gray, Benares ; Major Prawl,
Lucknow ;Capt ai n R St een, Mai npuri , and Capt ai n Pal mer, Nai ni , —we are
deeply indebted for their many kindnesses and for their everwillingness to
comply with our many demands on their time and energy. Without their
active co-operation no possible hope of success could have been entertained.
To the late Lieutenant-Colonel Leslie, C.I.E., I.M.S., Sanitary Commis-
sioner with the Government of India, the originator of the present enquiry, we
owe a deep debt of gratitude for valuable advice and assistance not only
during the practical investigations but also with the production of the reports
connected therewith. His critical examination of the text of our first report
and verification of the results as worked out, demand from us complete
acknowledgment.
In the production of the present report we have had the able assistance of
the Acting Sanitary Commissioner with the Government of India, The Hon'ble
Surgeon-General C. P. Lukis, C.S.I., I.M.S., to whom we tender our grateful
thanks for a careful and thorough reading and correction of the text.
29
CHAPTER II
The Values of the Dietaries of the Jails of the United Provinces
in proximate principles.
We have given the tables, extracted from the United Provinces' Jail Code,
showing the different diets sanctioned for prisoners. The dietaries are different
for different classes of prisoners, but it will do all we require if we study the
maximum diets laid down for adult labouring prisoners. These diets consist
in a cereal pulse combination of 14 chittacks with 1 chittack of dal, 3 chit-
tacks of vegetables, 4/25of a chittack of oil, etc., the cereal pulse combina-
tion to be made up according to a fixed scale. These diets are supposed to
have been so arranged as to offer in each a practically identical amount of
nitrogen and carbon, which indicates the principle on which the diets have been
founded, viz., to arrange the several food-stuffs in such relative quantities that
a certain standard of nitrogen and carbon intake shall be maintained. The
Jail Code states that this standard should be 280 grains of nitrogen and 5268-7
grains of carbon.
We shall have to discuss the suitability of these diets in the light of the
experimental work carried out to ascertain the respective degrees of nitrogen
absorption shown by the food-stuffs entering into them ; at present we shall rest
content with drawing attention to the fact that, in the framing of these scales,
no attention was paid to the differences in absorbability of protein presented
by the several food-materials. One food-stuff was looked upon as being as good
as another so long as the respective quantities of each were so arranged that
identical amounts of carbon and nitrogen were provided for in the dietaries.
Thus it seems that the different food-materials appear to be able to replace each
other if only the quantities be so arranged that the proper standard be main-
tained. As would be expected this is by no means the case, the absorption of the
most important element--protein—of the several food-materials is not identi-
cal; so that, while Several diets composed of different food-stuffs can be arranged
to offer practically identical quantities of protein, the level of nitrogenous
interchange may be very different with the respective diets. This we shall show
to be the case. The protein of the different food-materials will be shown to .
vary considerably in the percentage absorbed, so that the protein of one food-
stuff cannot be substituted for that of another, and therefore one food-stuff
cannot be substituted for another, on the principle of offering identical quanti-
ties, without serious changes being brought about in the level of nitrogenous
absorption and in the nutritive value of the diet. Therefore dietaries framed
on this method are wrong in principle, as it deals entirely with the gross intake
14
CHAPTER I.
The Food-Stuffs of the Jail Dietaries of the United Provinces.
The dietaries in force since 1877, and probably earlier, are derived entirely
from the vegetable kingdom. The food-materials consist of Wheat, Bajra,
Juar, Barley, Makka, Marua, Rice, Gram and the pulses, vegetables and oil.
We extract from the Jail Code the different diet scales laid down for native
prisoners, with the notes and explanations attached thereto.
Diet scales for Native Prisoners.
SCALE No. I.
Nitrogen, 280. Carbon, 5,268.7.
Days of week.
Cereal
Pulse
combi-
nation.
Dal. Vege-
tables. Oil. Chilli. Salt. Fire-
wood. Antiscorbutic.
Chtks. Chtks. Chtks. Chtks. No. Grains. Chtks.
Sunday . . . 14
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5 From 1st April
to 1st Novem-
ber a daily
ration of either
½ oz. lime-juice,
70 grains
Amchur, 70
grains Putwa,
or 140 grains
tamarind pulp
should be given.
Monday
. . 14
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
Tuesday . . . 14
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
Wednesday . . 14
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
Thursday
. . 14
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
Friday . . . 14
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
Saturday
. . 14
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
15
The 14 chittacks Cereal pulse combination is invariably to be made up
according to the subjoined table :—
Combination
letter.
PRINCIPAL.
ADJUVANT.
Grain.
Quantity.
Grain.
Quantity.
TOTAL.
A
.
. Wheat
. 11 Chittacks Barley
. 3 Chittacks 14 Chittacks.
B
.
. Bajra
. 12 „
Pulse
. 2 „
14 „
C
.
. Makka
. 12 „
„
. 2 „
14 „
Highest Nitrogen
282.3.
D
.
. Marua
. 11½ „
„
. 2½ „
14 „
Lowest Nitrogen
277.8.
E
.
. Wheat
. 11½ „
Gram
. 2½ „
14 „
Carbon Constant . F
.
. Juar .
. 11 „
Pulse
. 3 „
14 „
G
.
. Barley
. 11 „
Wheat
. 3 ”
14 „
H
.
. Rice .
. 10¼ „
„
. 3¾ „
14 „
NOTE.—Any two of the above may be combined by taking half of each principal and half of each adjuvant ; thus,
B+C/2 will give Bajra 6 chittacks + Makka 6 chittacks + Pulse 2 chittacks equals 14, or A+G/2 will give Wheat 5
½ chittacks + Barley 7 + Pulse l½ =14. If rice is cheap it may be used in the form of bread or boiled as Khichri, in
either case the combination should be A+H/2 that is, Rice 5 ⅛ + Wheat 7⅜ + Barley 1½=14. When the Rice is given
as Khichri the Wheat and Barley are to be given as bread.
SCALE No. II.
Nitrogen, 210. Carbon, 4,588.7.
Days of week.
Cereal
combi-
nation.
Dal.
Vege-
tables.
Oil.
Chilli.
Salt.
Fire-
wood.
Antiscorbutic.
Chtks. Chtks. Chtks. Chtks.
No. Grains. Chtks.
Sunday .
.
.
12
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
From 1st April to
1st November a
daily ration of
either ½ ounce
lime-juice, 70
grains
Am-
chur, 70 grains
Putwa,
or
140 grains
tamarind pulp
should be given.
Monday .
.
.
12
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
Tuesday .
.
.
12
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
Wednesday
.
.
12
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
Thursday
.
.
12
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
Friday .
.
.
12
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
Saturday
.
.
12
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
16
The 12 chittacks Cereal combinations is invariably to be made up according
to the subjoined table :—
Combination
letter.
PRINCIPAL.
ADJUVANT.
TOTAL.
Grain.
Quantity.
Grain.
Quantity.
A
. . ...
. . .
...
...
. . .
B
.
. Bajra
. 12 Chittacks None
. Required . 12 Chittacks.
Highest Nitrogen
210.8.
C
. . Makka
. 12
„ „
.
„
. 12
„
Lowest Nitrogen
209.5.
D
.
. Marua
8
„
Wheat
. 4 Chittacks . 12
„
Carbon Constant . E
.
. Wheat
. 12
„
None
. Required . 12
„
F
Juar .
7
„
Wheat
. 5 Chittacks 12
„
G
.
. Barley
. 7
„
,,
. 5
„
. 12
„
H
Rice .
. 6½ „
„
.
5½ „
.
1 2
„
NOTE.—Any two of the above may be combined as in the case of scale No. I. With regard to combination " H "
the rice and wheat may be baked together as bread or the rice may be given as Khichri and the wheat as bread.
SCALE No. III.
Nitrogen, 180. Carbon, 3,908.7.
Days of week.
Cereal
combina-
tion.
Dal.
Vege-
tables.
Oil.
Chilli.
Salt.
Fire-
wood.
Antiscorbutic.
Chtks. Chtks. Chtks. Chtks.
No.
Grains. Chtks.
Sunday .
.
. 10
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
From 1st April to
1st November a
daily ration of
either ½ ounce
lime-juice, 70
grains
Amchur,
70
grains Putwa,
or 140 grains
tamarind pulp
should be given.
Monday .
.
.
10
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
Tuesday .
.
.
10
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
Wednesday
.
.
10
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
Thursday
.
.
10
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
Friday
. .
.
10
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5
Saturday
.
.
10
1
3
4 / 2 5
1
150
5