NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
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be detected in the earliest stages, when it may be rapidly cured. The
reason why "Surra" has hitherto been so uniformly fatal he believes to
be simply because its real nature was not apprehended, and the disease
allowed to run on till the vital powers were sapped by the constantly
recurring fever. Giles investigated several cases which occurred at the
latter end of an outbreak in Shillong, which from first to last resulted in
the loss of between sixty and seventy animals.
The disease described by this observer was certainly not "Surra,"
but was due to the presence of the Sclerostomum tetracanthum. As
early as 1865, Franck, and Fischer, working independently, published
papers dealing with the anæmia, hæmorrhagic enteritis, and fatal colics
produced by these nematodes.
Lieutenant J. Baldwin, R.A., has given the following information
re surra in Burma:—
A section of No. 6 Bombay Mountain Battery left Bhamo in January
1891, and took part in the Wuntha expedition. (Wuntha is noted for
the prevalence of surra.) No deaths occurred during the expedition, and
the section returned to Bhamo at the beginning of April. In May,
several of these animals which had had the hardest work during the
expedition, i.e., the baggage mules, suffered for two or three days from
high fever. They apparently recovered, but fell off slightly in condition.
In June they had another attack of greater severity. In July the same
thing occurred, the animals becoming greatly debilitated. During this
month the attacks came on once a week, and this continued through
August; all the symptoms clearly indicated surra.
In September four of the mules died, in October six, and in Novem-
ber five. This left only seven out of the original twenty-two baggage
mules; of these seven mules, three had suffered from intermittent
attacks of fever, and four appeared to be quite healthy. These seven
mules started on another expedition in December 1891, and seemed
at first to be picking up and doing well; however, in January 1892, two
of them were again attacked with disease in so virulent a form that
in the space of a week they were unable to stand, and had to be de-
stroyed. The third mule had to be destroyed on the 1st April 1892;
the remaining four mules were never sick, and are still working.
It will be seen from the above that "supposing the disease to have
been contracted in Wuntha, which appears probable, as no other animals
were attacked in Bhamo," the disease in one case lasted at least a year
before a fatal termination.
On the expedition above referred to, which started in December 1891,
the number of animals exceeded 400; there were among these only two
other fatal cases—one from tetanus, the other from an accident.
8
The same officer also states that "from August 1890 to August 1891
the Chinese traders brought 6,500 mules to Bhamo from Yunnan.
Fifteen hundred of these animals died of surra in Burma, and five
thousand were left to make the return journey. On the return of the
traders to Bhamo in the following year, and on their being questioned
as to the condition of the animals which made the journey in the pre-
vious year to Yunnan, it was elicited that all of the animals, 5,000 in
number, succumbed to disease, either whilst on the march, or on their
arrival in Chinese territory."
The traders further stated that all mules brought by them from
Yunnan on their last journey were entirely fresh animals, which had
not been over the same ground in a previous expedition.
G. H. Evans, in reply to certain queries, informed Mr. Pease that
"the popular idea regarding immunity of the indigenous ponies in
Burma is a fallacy, as they die equally with other breeds, as also do
the Panthé mules, which are bred in the Northern and Chinese Shan
States; so much so is this the case, that hardly a mule or pony escapes
in the Upper Irrawaddy, Mogaung, and Myitchna, so that all hope in the
direction of naturally acquired immunity in indigenous breeds is lost.
"There is a form of bilious fever here exactly resembling many cases
which we have had in the Poona Laboratory. Yellowness of the visible
mucous membranes, and petechiæ on the conjunctivæ, with rapid loss of
condition and occurrence of relapses; and this is no doubt very frequent-
ly confounded with surra. Evans has often been asked to destroy
cases of this description, but, from the experience gained in an outbreak
in 1890, he was led to discard all other symptoms as a proof of the
existence of surra, and base his diagnosis solely on the presence of the
hæmatozoon in the blood.
"In post-mortem examinations of surra subjects, ulcers, in various
stages are present in the majority of cases, shallow, deep, or small as
the case may be. They present the appearance which may perhaps be
conveyed best by the effect produced by a cockroach eating the surface
of a patent leather boot.
"Spiroptera nests are by no means invariably found in the stomach;
in fact they appear to be much rarer in Burma than in the Bombay
Presidency."
The Panthés, who are great mule-breeders across our frontiers,
state that surra kills a great number of their mules every season, in the
valleys between the frontier and Yunnan. The same people also state
that surra prevails in certain parts of the North and South Shan States.
In Burma the stations where the greatest mortality has occurred
are as follows:—Mogaung, Bhamo, Mogok, Katha, and the Upper
Chindwin.
9
In Lower Burma a few cases only have been observed,—viz., in Ran-
goon, Prome, and Thayetmyo.
Mr. Remington, Managing Director of the Bombay Tramway Com-
pany, kindly supplied us in August 1892 with the attached statement,
giving particulars of 14 horses belonging to the stud of the Bombay
Tramway Company, which were attacked with surra fever in the
months of November and December 1888.
Locality and description of the stable.—It will be observed that
of the 14 cases of surra, 10 cases have come from the Company's Parel
stables. These stables were constructed in 1886, with accommodation
for 174 horses, and this was the actual number kept there during the
two months when the outbreak prevailed. The stables are situated on
the Parel Road, in the northern and most inland quarter of Bombay
They are bounded on the north by an enclosure about 5,000 square
yards in area, which is used as a vegetable market, and skirted on (3)
three sides by lines of brick-built chawls; on the south by an open
space reserved for the purposes of a proposed new station by the Great
Indian Peninsula Railway Company; on the east by the Parel Road, on
the other side of which are the Victoria Gardens; and on the west by the
Great Indian Peninsula Railway track, beyond which again for some
distance there is open land. About 2,000 feet from the stables the
flats commence: open, low-lying vacant land which extends for several
miles, and the greater portion of which is under water during the
monsoon. For the two and a half years the stables have been in use,
there has, up to last November, hardly been a single case of fever in
them. The stables are splendidly ventilated, and the drainage is on
the surface system, and could not be better. The stalls and all the
stable fittings are kept most scrupulously clean, and bad smells are
unknown. The temperature at Parel generally ranges 2º lower than
at Colaba, especially at night. The Colaba stables are situated in the
Colaba Causeway. To the north is a large piece of maidan, belonging
to Government, sometimes submerged during the monsoon for a few
days at a time; to the south are goods stations and yards belonging to
the two railway companies; to the east the Colaba Causeway Road,
with the sea about 600 feet beyond; to the west open maidan with the
sea distant about 1,000 feet. The average number of horses stabled at
Colaba during November and December was 574. The drainage of the
stables is inferior to that at Parel, being on an underground system.
Great care, however, is taken in flushing the drains, and keeping the
premises scrupulously clean. The ventilation of the stables is good.
Fever has often been prevalent in these stables in October and
November, but the number of fatal cases has been few, and the disease
has usually disappeared as soon as the cold weather set in.
10
To sum up, the number of horses kept at Parel is less than, one-
third of that kept at Colaba; the interior sanitary arrangements at the
former are superior to those at the latter; the record of fever cases at
the former has up to November last compared most favourably with
that at the latter; the temperature at the former averages 2° lower
than at the latter. Notwithstanding all these facts to the credit of
Parel, 10 horses have been attacked there during the recent outbreak of
surra, against 4 horses attacked at Colaba stables.
Feed and water-supply.—(a) Feed. The Company's horses get from
12 lbs. to 15 lbs. grain per day, according to size. The majority of
horses attacked with surra fever were horses receiving 15 lbs. grain feed.
The feed in question was composed of a mixture of 8 parts, viz., 3 parts
gram, 3 parts barley, 1 part kulti (boiled), and 1 part Indian-corn. Their
hay feed was 12 lbs. per diem. The hay is grown on black soil in
Guzerat. Like all Indian hay, it is jungle hay, not raised on drained land.
The grasses we prefer and chiefly for hay are Mosi, Daroia, Zinjva (known
in the Deccan as "Sheerra"). From August to middle of October, in
accordance with our custom for many years past, the horses received
from 2 lbs. to 4 lbs. green grass daily, grown in the neighbour-
hood of Bombay. They also received daily 1 lb. bran and 1½ oz. salt.
(b) Water. The water used in the stables and everywhere on our
lines is all from the Municipal reservoirs at Vehar and Tulsi; Colaba
stable is supplied with Tulsi water, and Parel stable with Vehar water.
We had the water used at the latter stable, and the watering stations
on the line near there, analysed by the Government Analyst, Dr.
Lyon. The following is his report upon it:—
"Statement showing the results obtained on examination of four
samples of water forwarded on December 18th, 1888, by the Superin-
tendent, Parel Stables, Bombay Tramway Company:—
"Samples labelled—
No. 1.
No. 2.
No. 3.
No. 4.
Parel Terminus.
Parel Stable.
Byculla Bridge, N. Side.
Byculla Bridge, S. Side.
GRAINS PER GALLON.
Total solids .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Chlorine . . . . .
PARTS PER MILLION.
Free ammonia
.
.
.
.
.
.
Albumenoid ammonia . . . . . .
1
7.70
.91
.04
.19
2
8.40
.91
.02
.18
3
6.30
.84
.02
.21
4
4.20
.84
.02
.17
11
"Sediments.—In all, scanty, chiefly vegetable débris.
"A few paramonia in No. 1.
"From these results, all four appear to be samples of water very
similar in quality to the ordinary Vehar supply of Bombay. The
albumenoid ammonia results are perhaps very slightly higher, indicat-
ing slightly more organic contamination. Were the case one of an
outbreak of fever among human beings, I should say that it was very
improbable that any connection existed between the outbreak and the
water-supply."
Climatic conditions last year (1888).—The monsoon last year was
an unusually light one, the aggregate rainfall being 59 inches, against
an average of 75 inches. In September scarcely any rain fell, the total
fall registered that month amounting to 3½ inches only. There was
no rain in October, and the temperature, which throughout the month
was unusually high, touched a maximum of 93° in the shade. Early in
October, portions of the city were visited with a mosquito plague. The
innumerable quantity of these insects in the air indicated something
unusual in the climatic conditions, or in conditions of the marshes
which skirt Bombay. The weather commenced to get cooler in Novem-
ber, and in the middle of December cold north-east and north-west
winds set in, and have since continued, the former blowing during the
night, and the latter during the day.
Breed of the horses attacked.—The Company had last October a
stud of 739 horses; of these 570 were Australians, and 169 of
Asiatic breeds. Of the 14 horses attacked with surra in November and
December, 13 were Australians, and 1 was a Persian. The majority
were young horses, well bred, and in excellent condition.
Preventive measures adopted.—As soon as we were satisfied that
"Surra" had appeared amongst our horses, and that the causes pro-
ducing it seemed in especial force at our Parel stables, we carried
out a most careful and thorough examination of the watering and
drainage arrangements at that stable. The results of the examina-
tion of the water have been given above. The stable drainage was
found in good order, no stoppage anywhere; all drains clean and free
from smell. A drain in the neighbouring property to the north was, we
found, not working well, and we had it attended to. We disinfected
the stables throughout on more than one occasion with phenyle and
water, 1 part to 50, sending showers of it through the air in every
direction from a manual fire-engine, and thoroughly drenching the roof
and stable fittings. Carbolic powder was also sprinkled in all the stalls
and sulphur and tar burnt in braziers in the passage-ways. We noticed
that the majority of the horses attacked had been standing in portions
of the stable most exposed to the north-west and north-west winds, and
12
that it was since those winds had turned cold in the evening and at
night that the outbreak of "Surra" had occurred. With a view to
obtaining thorough ventilation in the hot weather, our stables at Parel
are very open in their construction, and although the Venetians, with
which the sides are fitted, are closed at night, it occurred to us that at
certain places the horses were more exposed than they should be to the
night winds. To provide against this, we effectually protected the
horses from all apertures whence these winds could enter and blow upon
them, and considerably increased the warmth of the stables at night,
by the erection of bamboo and matting screens across the principal
entrances. We also gave all the horses standing at Parel a light course
of antiseptic medicine. For three days each horse had daily two drachms
hyposulphite of soda, and one drachm nitrate of potash, mixed with his
evening grain feed. These preventive measures were carried out the
latter part of December. It was during the last week of that month
that we set up the screens, etc., which effectually protected the horses at
Parel from cold winds. Simultaneously we introduced stringent regu-
lations at Colaba for the complete protection of the horses there, and
maintenance of a more even temperature in the stables at night. Since
the 1st January we have so far had no fresh case of surra.
Possible causes of the outbreak.—The professional opinion as to
the source of "Surra" expressed by the Government Veterinary Officers,
Mr. Burke, Mr. Evans, and Mr. Steel, in their treatises on this disease,
is, that the parasites which give rise to it enter the horse's system either
with his food or his water. In the Company's stables, the water-supply,
pronounced a pure and wholesome one by the Government Analyst, is
the same as has been in use for several years past, and no alteration has
been introduced into the character of the grain and hay feed. The
drainage of the Parel stable, where two-thirds of the "Surra" cases
occurred, is exceptionally good, much better than the drainage at Colaba
stables. Immediately to the rear of the stables at Parel, there is a depôt
for manure. The dung both from Colaba and Parel is transported there.
Thence it is daily removed by carts. A portion of it remains there
throughout the night, but none of it remains there longer than the
morning subsequent to the day of its receipt. At our old stables at
Byculla a similar depôt existed, but the manure remained there for three
days before removal. At neither stables has the existence of this depôt
heretofore been a cause of unhealthiness. The fever record of the Parel
stables for the two years of their existence prior to last autumn has been
an extremely satisfactory one, very much more favourable than the
record at Colaba. We cannot, therefore, find anything in the feeding
of the horses, their watering, or the drainage of their stables which
would account for the outbreak. All these conditions, in so far as they
13
affect the horse's health, have been, to the best of our belief, precisely
the same these last four months, as during the many past years when
"Surra" was unknown to us. We, therefore, seem directed to seek in
some special climatic and atmospheric conditions for the explanation of
the outbreak. October and November last were notoriously exception-
ally unhealthy months in Bombay. Malarial and typhoid fevers were
prevalent, and many cases ended fatally. Unusually unhealthy months
for human beings, they would appear to have been unusually unhealthy
for horses also. The outbreak of "Surra" fever was not confined to the
Company's stables. Several horses attacked with it were sent to the
Government Veterinary Hospital, and others to the private veterinary
establishment in the city. Probably, a far larger number died in their
owners' stables. Amongst the cases observed, we have not heard of a
single recovery. Taking all the above facts into consideration, the
opinion we have been led to form is, that there was some specially
unhealthy influence in the atmospheric conditions this last autumn, which
predisposed horses to this particular blood-poisoning fever, and that the
specific cause which developed the disease into activity, in the horses
attacked with it, was getting chilled from exposure to the cold northerly
winds, which during the latter half of November and the month of
December blew in the evening and at night. This is the conclusion to
which we have been led as the result of our own experience of the
disease. In support of this opinion we have the following facts:—(1)
That the horses attacked were found to have been especially exposed to
cold night winds by their position in the stables or nature of their work.
At Parel stables, where the majority of cases occurred, alterations in the
buildings were in progress. The south wall of the stable had been taken
down in order to increase the number of stalls in that direction. This
open condition of the premises on that side, while it did not expose the
horses to any unwholesome wind (the south wind only blowing in the
monsoon time, and being a warm one), tended, no doubt, to increase the
draught through the stables from the north, and to lower their tempera-
ture at night. (2) That since the time when we introduced measures
for protecting the stables from the northerly winds (a period of five
weeks), no fresh case of "Surra" has occurred. The last case at Parel
stables appeared on the 29th December. It was on the 30th of that
month that we completed the arrangements for excluding cold winds.
(3) That the Parel stables, where nearly three fourths of the cases
occurred, were, until recently, in consequence of their system of con-
struction, more open and considerably colder than the stables at Colaba.
(4) That there is nothing ascertainable in the feeding or watering of the
horses, differing from the feeding or watering during previous years
14
when surra was unknown to us, or which can, in our opinion, in any
way account for the outbreak.
In connection with the exposure of the horses to cold winds, and our
opinion that the chill to the system therefrom resulting was the imme-
diate factor producing activity in the disease, we may mention that out
of 8 horses working as "helping" horses on the Byculla Bridge, no less
than 3 were attacked with 'Surra,' and of these, 2 were attacked upon
the same day. Compared with the work most of our horses do, the
work of these particular horses was light, and they were in specially
good condition and of exceptionally fine physique. These horses are
attached as additional horses to help in pulling cars up the inclines on
the bridge. After pulling up a car, they return to the little waiting
sheds provided for them at either end of the bridge, and stand usually
about five minutes, until another car approaches.
On examining these sheds, we found them a good deal exposed to
the north wind. We have now protected them, but it is easy to under-
stand how in the early morning, or between 7 P.M. and 11 P.M. at
night, these horses, after getting warm at their work, would be specially
liable to chill when standing waiting in sheds, until recently not very
well protected from cold winds.
In the plains of America it has been noticed that in certain thinly-
populated districts, where fever was prevalent, the introduction of rail-
way tracks and the passage of trains has modified the sanitary conditions.
The theory in explanation of this fact is that the displacement of air
caused by the rapid passage of the train creates a vacuum and consequent
draught, and that a rush of fresh air is, in this way, introduced. In
other words, the train produces a sort of artificial wind. The track of
the Great Indian Peninsula Bailway passes immediately behind our
Parel premises, distant only 75 feet from the stables. About 2,000 feet
further to the north, the flats commence and are crossed by the trains.
In this memorandum we are anxious to enumerate all possible influences
which may have served in the production of the recent outbreak of surra.
It is perhaps worthy of consideration whether the Great Indian Penin-
sula Railway track, which very shortly after leaving the marshy land of
the flats passes our Parel stables on their north-western side, does not
act as an air-channel from the one to the other. The line of horses
standing next to the railway was the line in which the "Surra" was by
far the most prevalent.
A conjecture has been put forward by some veterinary authorities
in India that there is a connection between "Surra" and rats. A para-
site has been found in the intestines of rats, which is similar to the para-
site noticed in the blood of horses suffering from surra. It is suggested
that where rats have access to grain, it becomes contaminated with their