NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
130
to get a better quality of wheat than the average of those we worked with, it is
hopeless to make any attempt to raise the percentage level of protein
absorption, and therefore useless to aim at a lessening of the large residue of
nitrogenous matter left over from the present dietaries. The following consi-
deration will make this clear: wheat being the cereal exhibiting the highest
degree of protein absorption, it must form a large part of the diet: if wheat
onl y shows 67. 1 per cent . of i t s pr ot ei n absor bed, t hen t he pr ot ei n absor pt i on
from the whole diet can never be much greater than 67.1 per cent., therefore,
unless the percentage absorption of the protein of wheat can be raised, no
variation in the amount of wheat in the diet can ever lessen the percentage of
waste by the bowel.
Fortunately for the prisoners it is possible to obtain a better class of wheat
than is at present accepted for consumption; so that, we may hope to be able
to decrease the large nitrogenous residue from the dietaries now in force to
smaller proportions.1
It is well-known that there is often great admixture of other cereals with
wheat when grown, but if first class wheat were demanded for jail purposes
very good samples could be obtained. The present system of accepting an
inferior quality of wheat for the feeding of prisoners, even though cleaned
afterwards in the jails, allows too much of an opportunity for the contractor to
supply material that is exceedingly dirty and mixed to an immense extent with
cheaper and inferior cereals and other grains. Some of the samples we have
analysed, taken from the jail stock, were very poor in quality and greatly
contaminated with foreign materials.
In order, therefore, to raise the percentage of protein absorption of the
jail dietaries and lessen the intestinal nitrogenous residue, the first step must
be to insist on wheat of the best quality being supplied to the jails for the
feeding of the prisoners. We shall show later that this will be more economi-
cal in the end than the present system.
1 In this connection we would draw attention to the very valuable report on Indian wheat by McDougall
Brothers. This firm working with four representative Indian wheats, viz.,
Indian, fine soft white,
, , s u p e r i o r s o f t r e d ,
,, average hard white,
, ,
„
„ r e d ,
pronounce them to be exceedingly useful wheats, in fact hardly equalled for what is deficient and wanting in the
English markets by any other wheats. Their great dryness and soundness render them invaluable for admixture
with English wheats. Added to their dryness, their thinness of skins and consequent greatness of the yield of
flour must always place them in the front rank as a " miller's " wheat. " The Indian wheats now specially under
review were delivered to us in excellent condition with freedom from dirt, barley, gram, and other impurities,
also with a freedom from weevils, rarely equalled by Indian wheats."
The yield of flour and bread from Indian wheats is unprecedented, ranging from 77.4 to 80.5 per cent.,
against English wheat 65.2 per cent. and American spring wheat 72.2 per cent.
131
With regard to the other cereals, juar, barley, bajra, which we investiga-
ted, the protein absorption from them is so poor that they are quite unsuitable
to be used alone as the chief cereal of dietaries, if the present standard of
protein metabolism shown by the prisoners is to be maintained. These three
alone are ever given in the jails of the United Provinces; the other cereals,
makka, marua and rice, laid down in the Jail Code, never seem to be used at all.
Diets such as B, F, G, and probably D as sanctioned for the jails of the United
Provinces, in which the principal cereal is bajra, juar, barley and marua, res-
pectively, exhibit so poor an absolute and relative protein absorption that they
cannot be accepted as satisfactory diets.
Thus:—
DIET B. SERIAL No. 12.
Bajra
.
. .
12 chittacks.
Intake of nitrogen 15.9798
grms.
Urid dal
. . .
2
, ,
Arhar
.
. .
1 chittack.
Vegetables
.
. .
3 chittack.
shows 9.5291 grms. of nitrogen absorption, or 59.6 per cent. of the nitrogen
value of the diet.
DIET F. SERIAL No. 11.
Juar
.
.
.
11 chittacks.
Intake of nitrogen 16.2748
grms.
Urid dal
.
.
.
3
, ,
Arhar
. . .
1 chittack.
Vegetables
.
.
3 chittacks.
shows 8.9992 grms. of nitrogen absorption, or 55.3 per cent. of the nitrogen
value of the diet.
DIET G. SERIAL Nos. 9 AND 10.
Barley
.
.
.
11 chittacks.
Intake of nitrogen 14.3793
grms.
Wheat
. . .
3
, ,
Arhar
.
. .
1 chittack.
Vegetables
.
.
.
3 chittacks.
shows 9.2264 grms. of nitrogen absorption, or 64.1 per cent. of the nitrogen
value of the diet.
These results should be contrasted with those obtained for—
DIET E. SERIAL Nos. 1—7.
Wheat
.
.
.
11½ chittacks.
Intake of nitrogen 17.09026
grms.
Gram
. . .
2½
, ,
Arhar
. . .
1 chittack.
Vegetables . .
3 chittacks.
s 2
132
which shows 11.64996 grms. of nitrogen absorption, or 68.16 per cent. of the
nitrogen value of the diet.
Even though Diet E cannot be said to have given very good results, it
is so much superior to anything presented by Diets B, F, or G, that it is
not difficult to understand the action of Jail Superintendents in practically
neglecting Diets B, F, and G, and making use almost entirely of Diet E,
which experience has proved to be so much superior. We have no doubt
but that the other neglected diets of the Jail Code, viz., Diets C, D, and H,
on investigation would have shown equally poor results.
It is evident, therefore, if the present standard of protein interchange
is to be maintained, and if an effort is to be made to lessen the percentage of
nitrogenous waste shown by the present dietaries, that juar, barley, bajra,
and probably makka, marua and rice, as the principal cereals of the dietaries
cannot be taken into consideration. In other words, it practically means
the doing away with the dietaries as laid down in the Jail Code; Diets B,
C, D, F, G, and H to disappear absolutely, and Diets A and E to be modified
in a manner we shall presently make clear.
The deletion of the above diet scales from the Jail Code is not really so
serious a step as it would appear to be, practical experience has long ago
shown them unsatisfactory and they are never used: so that, it will only
be a matter of acknowledging and endorsing officially the teachings of
experience. All we have done is to corroborate by practical investigations
the empirical knowledge of the Jail Superintendents and to explain on
a scientific basis their findings.
Juar, barley, bajra, marua, makka and rice would therefore drop from
being principals into the category of secondary food-stuffs, or could only be
mixed with wheat in suitable proportions. To this, however, we shall return.
With regard to the other food-materials entering into the jail dietaries
of the United Provinces, viz., pulse, vegetables and oil, the only one we wish
to discuss is pulse. The different pulses in use are, arhar dal, urid dal and
gram dal.
Our investigations on the protein absorption exhibited by these different
dals make it abundantly clear that arhar is by far superior to the other
two. Thus arhar dal shows well over 80 per cent. of its protein capable
of absorption, while urid at its best only gives 69.2 per cent. and gram dal
64.2 per cent. Arhar dal seems to be the favourite form of pulse with the
wheat-eating population: we found this to be true for both the inhabitants
of the United Provinces and Behar. The rice-eating Bengali and Ooriya,
on the other hand, seem to prefer the more highly nitrogenous forms, such
as mung dal and massur dal. The explanation may be a demand by the
133
system for more protein with a rice diet, while with diets composed principally
of wheat, which already contain sufficient assimilable protein, a less highly
nitrogenous form of dal seems to be more agreeable.
There can be little doubt but that the methods of cooking and prepara-
tion of the dals for consumption has a great influence on the degree of
protein absorption.1 G r a m d a l , f o r i n s t a n c e , i s u s u a l l y g i v e n a s a m o r n i n g
meal in the form of parched gram, i.e., simply fried or heated until the
greater part of the contained moisture is got rid of ; no steps whatever are
taken to break up the grains so that the digestive juices may have a proper
opportunity of carrying out their work satisfactorily. Investigations 2 on
the absorption of pea and lentil flour, properly cooked, show that the protein
is all taken up except about 8 to 9 per cent. If, however, the pulse is not
given in a state of fine division, the loss of protein has been found to rise
to 40 per cent. The following table compiled by Hutchison 3 g i v e s t h e
relative absorption of the protein of various foods :—
Meat
.
.
.
.
.
2.3 per cent. protein not absorbed.
Lentil flour
.
.
.
. 10.5 „
„
„
„
„
Dried peas
.
. .
. 17.0
„
„
„
„
„
Beans
.
.
.
.
.
30.3
„
„
„
„
„
Potatoes .
.
.
.
.
32.0
„
„
„
„
„
Lentils (soaked and boiled) .
.
40.0
„
„
„
„
„
It is not, therefore, to be wondered at that gram dal, which is not cooked
at all, should exhibit a bare 64.2 per cent. of its protein absorbed as given
to prisoners in the United Provinces. Arhar and urid dals are usually boiled
in water or ground to flour and baked into chapatties with the cereal. Arhar
dal to the extent of 1 chittack enters into the composition of all jail dietaries
of United Provinces, and it is very probable that the amount being small
a greater percentage of its protein will be absorbed than would be the case
if given in larger quantities.
Urid, on the other hand, is given in quantities of 2, 2½ and 3 chittacks
in different diets (B, C, D, and F) and that is in addition to the 1 chittack
1
with regard to the absorption of the protein of the pulses Church writes—"Another point connected with
the nitrogen of pulse must be here noted. Some of this nitrogen exists in the form of nitrogen compounds
which are not albuminoids—which are not flesh-formers, in fact, and which, for all we know, may be entirely with
- o u t n u t r i t i v e v a l u e . T h e s e b o d i e s a r e s i m p l e r i n c o n s t i t u t i o n t h a n t h e a l b u m i n o i d s , a n d a r e o f t e n o f t h e n a t u r e
of alkaloids—lupinine, a bitter basic substance from lupines, is one of these, asparagine is another. But the
quantity of nitrogen existing in the pulse in the form of non-albuminoid compounds of all kinds is small, not
exceeding 3 to 5 per cent. of the total albuminoids in the common kinds of ripe pulse ; in the seeds, stems, and
pods of the unripe plants it is very much larger." [Food-Grains of India.]
3 Strumpell, Deut. Archiv klin. med., 1876.
3 Hutchison : Food and the Principles of Dietetics.
134
of arhar dal already present in those dietaries; so that, those diets contain
3, 3½ and 4 chittacks of total pulses, quantities that are far too great to
permit of a high degree of protein absorption. We found in our work on
Bengal Jail Dietaries that it was useless to increase the pulses beyond 2½
chittacks or about 5 ounces, and the evidence afforded by the work in the
United Provinces would tend to corroborate that finding.
The large quantities of the pulses in the present jail dietaries of the
United Provinces are due to the mistaken opinion that the nutritive value
of the diets would be increased by augmenting the protein content, and the
pulses providing an easy means of doing this, without unnecessarily increasing
the carbonaceous material, the result has been to give dal in quantities in excess
of the amount from which the maximal absorption will be obtained, and far in
excess of the average amount consumed by the inhabitants of the Province in
their own homes. Except in Diets A, G, and H pulses to the extent of at least
3 chittacks will be found; and, in the majority of those diets, up to 50 per cent.
of the total protein offered will be seen to be derived from dals. We have
condemned Diets B, C, D, and F for other reasons, but they might also be
severely criticised for the excessive amount of pulse they contain.
Diet E has been shown to be much superior to any of the other diets
sanctioned for prisoners in the United Provinces. We found that, on an
average over the different jails where observations were made, this diet
permitted 68.16 per cent. of its protein to be absorbed, or 11.64996 grms. of
nitrogen per man daily. On examining the composition of this diet it will be
seen to contain 2½ chittacks of gram dal and 1 chittack of arhar, in all 3½
chittacks or over seven ounces of pulses. So that, even in this diet, the best
one of the eight laid down, the quantity of pulses is at least one chittack or
two ounces above the amount from which the best results may be expected.
We fail to see any reason for the addition of over seven ounces of pulse to a.
diet largely consisting of wheat. Wheat, as we have seen, contains practically
the proper relationship between its nitrogen and carbon, so that there can be
no necessity for the addition of a large quantity of a highly nitrogenous
material, if the quantity of wheat in the diet is already sufficient. Of course
it has been added to bring the total protein value of the diet, on chemical
analysis, up to what was considered the proper standard for labouring prisoners.
The result is that 2½ chittacks of parched gram is given daily from which
only 64.2 per cent. of the protein is absorbed, thus decreasing very considerably
the percentage of protein absorption from the diet. If the gram dal were cut
out of this diet altogether and an extra chittack of arhar dal substituted, we
should obtain an absorption of protein quite up to the desired level and have a
diet from which the percentage of nitrogenous waste was considerably lower.
135
We may, therefore, conclude this consideration of the pulses of these diet
scales, by stating that they are present in quantities much in excess of what is
required, and in far greater abundance than the people of the Province can
afford, or wish to have. Two and a half chittacks or five ounces is the maximum
amount of pulse that should enter into any diet, and, if gram is to be given
it should be properly cooked, not made use of as parched gram, and it should
never be the only pulse in the composition of the diet. The superiority of
arhar dal and the fact that it is the favourite form of pulse with natives of the
United Provinces should ensure that this pulse will be used in all diets to as
great an extent as possible. Urid dal being more suitable than other forms in
the preparation of bajra and juar for consumption, this dal should be used in
diets into the composition of which those cereals enter. One chittack of urid
dal will be found amply sufficient in the cooking of the quantities of juar or
bajra recommended in new dietaries.
SUMMARY OF THE DIFFERENT POINTS DISCUSSED WITH CON-
CLUSIONS ARRIVED AT REGARDING THE FOOD-STUFFS AND
DIETARIES OF THE JAILS OF THE UNITED PROVINCES.
1. Taking the dietaries as a whole we found that they afforded a meta-
bolism of 11.286 grms. of nitrogen per man daily on the average throughout
the year. For reasons advanced we do not consider this amount excessive,
while we do consider it quite sufficient. The physiological weaknesses of these
dietaries in general were:—
(a) The large nitrogenous residue left over in the intestinal tract
affording great opportunity for the growth of putrefactive
micro-organisms.
(b) The excessive caloric value of the dietaries, providing up to 50
per cent. more potential energy per kilo of body-weight than
the standard diets, framed for Europeans living in cold climates,
provide.
The correction of these faults will be to the advantage of both the prisoners
and the State.
A non-physiological weakness of the dietaries is that they are much
superior to those available for the great majority of the population and there-
fore tend to put a premium on crime.
2. With regard to the individual food-stuffs, wheat shows a marked
superiority over other cereals: even wheat of the quality used in the jails gives
a higher co-efficient of protein absorption than juar, bajra or barley. Good.
137
We find that the quantities of pulse entering into the composition of the
dietaries, even Diet E, are too high, and suggest that no diet should contain
more than 2½ chittacks of pulses, of which as much as possible should be in the
form of arhar dal.
This concludes all we have got to say with regard to the suitability of the
dietaries at present in force for prisoners in the United Provinces. We shall
now attempt to frame diet scales based, not on the gross chemical composition
of the different food-materials as has been done in the case of the present
dietaries, but on the real nutritive value of the food-stuffs as found by practical
investigation.
138
CHAPTER VII.
The Revision of the Jail Dietaries of the United Provinces and
suggestions for New Scales.
For the sake of ease of reference and clearness we reproduce here the table
giving the jail dietaries in force in the United Provinces.
Combination
Diet.
PRINCIPAL.
ADJUVANT.
Dal,
Quantity.
Total,
Quantity.
Grain.
Quantity.
Grain.
Quantity.
Chittacks.
Chittacks.
Chittacks.
Chittacks.
A
.
.
.
Wheat
.
11
Barley
.
3
1
15
B
.
.
. Bajra
.
12
Pulse
.
2
1
15
C
.
.
.
Makka
.
12
Do.
.
2
1
15
D
.
.
. Marua
.
11½
Do.
.
2½
1
15
E
.
.
. Wheat
.
1 1 ½
Gram
.
2½
1
15
F
.
.
. Juar
.
11
Pulse
.
3
1
15
G
.
.
. Barley
.
11
Wheat
.
3
1
15
H
.
.
. Rice
.
10¼
Do.
.
3¾
1
15
It may be accepted at once that the most important thing we have to deal
with in framing dietaries, composed of vegetable foods, is the protein element.
Any vegetable diet that permits of an absorption of protein up to the standard
attained on the average by the above diets will provide abundant carbonaceous
material, and a potential energy sufficient for the needs of the body.
The problem before us is, therefore, to devise combinations of the food-
materials of the United Provinces that will permit of a degree of protein metabo-
lism equal to the average level presented by the above dietaries and combinations
that, at the same time, will attain a higher percentage of protein absorption, so
that the waste of nitrogenous material from the bowel may be decreased to as
great an extent as possible.
The level of protein metabolism will depend on the extent to which the
protein of the several food-stuffs entering into the composition of the diets is
absorbed, and on the quantities of protein offered. We have determined the
139
percentage of protein absorption shown by the different food-materials in use
to be:—
1st class wheat
. .
.
80.6 per cent. protein absorption.
Jail „
.
.
.
.
67.1 „
„
„
„
Gram dal
.
.
.
.
64.2 „
„
„
„
Arhar „
.
.
. . 81 to 84 „
„
„
„
Arhar dal plus vegetables .
.
80.5 „
„
„
„
Urid dal
.
.
.
.
69.2 „
„
„
„
Juar
.
.
.
.
.
53.0 „
„
„
„
Barley
. .
.
.
57.6 „
„
„
„
Bajra
.
.
.
.
49.4 „
„
„
„
In working out our dietaries the protein absorption must be based on these
figures and not, as hitherto, on the gross chemical composition of the food-
stuffs. The fallacy of the method of framing a series of diets composed of
different food-materials, such as in above table, whose gross chemical composi-
tion is nearly identical and then expecting that each diet will permit of the
same degree of protein metabolism, is made very apparent when we see how
greatly one food-material differs from another in the percentage of protein ab-
sorption possible from it. When the above table of diets was framed, each
representing practically the same quantity of nitrogen (we have shown this
not to be the case), it was supposed that the diets were equally good and that
similar quantities of protein would be absorbed from each ; instead of this being
so, we find that the level of protein metabolism varies for the different diets
between 8.99 grms. and 11.65 grms. of nitrogen per man daily, or over 23 per
cent.
Looking, therefore, on the food-materials from the standpoint of the per-
centage of protein absorption possible from them, we came to the conclusion that
juar, barley and bajra could not be retained amongst the principals in the for-
mation of new dietaries ; and, therefore, that Diets B, F, and G were useless.
Marua we have not worked with, but it is a millet something like juar and
would probably show a similar co-efficient of protein absorption. It is never
used, so far as we could learn, in the jails of the United Provinces. In case of
it ever being called into requisition we shall give its co-efficient of protein ab-
sorption the same value as juar.
Rice is too expensive ever to be called on and, if ever used in future, the
quantity given in Diet H is too great. We saw in Bengal diets of the type of
Diet H that the protein metabolism possible would be well below the average
we wish to maintain, viz., 11.286 grms. of nitrogen per man daily. Diet H
may, therefore, go completely.
T 2
140
Diet C, in which the principal is makka or maize, we have not investiga-
ted. It is never used, so far as we could gather, in the dietaries of the prisoners
Maize we found in Bengal was a very good food-material, although not very
palatable as prepared in Bengal Jails. It is not suitable alone for baking into
bread or chapatti, but is very good when mixed with wheat or prepared as
porridge. We do not think it suitable as a principal, as in Diet C, but see
no reason why maize should not be given as a substitute for part of the
wheat in dietaries. Why it should never be given in the jails of the United
Provinces is difficult to understand, as, next to wheat, maize in the best cereal
on the list. It is used during its season fairly largely by the inhabitants of the
province, and the average crop being up to one million tons, there cannot be any
great scarcity of this food to enhance its price. We are strongly of the
opinion that maize has been neglected unjustly, and that, if given as we suggest,
mixed with wheat, it would be found quite satisfactory. Probably, it has
only been tried as in Diet C, which, being found unsatisfactory, no further
test was made. We have no hesitation in saying from the results obtained in
the Behar Jails that maize, given along with wheat, would show a protein
absorption up to 70 per cent.
Diet E is used practically to the exclusion of all others in the jails of
the United Provinces. We have seen that it is much superior to any on
the list, affording a metabolism of 11.64996 grms. of nitrogen per man daily.
We consider this diet faulty in that it contains too much pulse, 3½ chittacks
per man daily, and in that gram is usually given in the form of parched gram,
with the result that the protein absorption is low, 64.2 per cent. This diet,
however, could easily be transformed into a satisfactory one.
There remains Diet A, which appears to us to be of the proper type
, viz., a combination of two cereals, one to be wheat, with a pulse. The quanti-
ties of the different food-stuffs could probably be better arranged than as
given in the Jail Code. In our observations on the absorption of the protein
of this diet, serial No. 8, the wheat in use was of very poor quality, so that
it could hardly be looked on as a fair test. With good quality of wheat a
diet of this type would show a level of nitrogenous metabolism quite up to
the standard we require, and a percentage of protein absorption much higher
than that obtainable with the present dietaries.
We may conclude, therefore, that Diets A and E as types are worth retain-
ing, although requiring modification. The remaining six dietaries are unsatis-
factory and are not worth any further considerations.
There is one more point, the importance of which we cannot emphasise
too strongly, to be called to mind before proceeding to the working out of diet
scales. That is the quality of the wheat to be used. It is absolutely essential,