NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
ORIGINAL ARTICLES
CROSS-BRED AND GRADE DAIRY CATTLE IN INDIA
BY
MAJOR C. E. MACGUCKIN, M.B.E., H.D.A.
Assistant Director, Dairy Farms, Northern Circle, Lahore Cantonment
(Received for publication on 8th September 1937)
(With Plates XVII-XX)
CROSS-BREEDING
CROSS-BREEDING means the crossing of different breeds; but the term, as
generally used in India, refers to the mating of a European breed (Bos taurus)
with the indigenous cattle (Bos indicus) of the country. It is in this restricted
sense that the term is used in this article. Therefore, the cross-bred is an animal
with 50 per cent European and 50 per cent indigenous blood.
GRADING
Grading means the use of pure-bred sires either European or indigenous—
on cross-bred or grade females.
Mating with the European sire is called " grading up " and with the indi-
genous sire " grading down ".
Therefore, the grade is an animal with mixed European and indigenous blood,
but not exactly 50 per cent of each. For practical purposes, it may be assumed
that, if an animal has not less than 31/32 of the blood of one breed it is a pure bred.
F 2 , F 3 , ETC.
The use of cross-bred or grade sires is undesirable. The reason for this
warning is because the cross-bred, or grade animal, owing to its ancestry, cannot
produce a uniform set of germ cells, and therefore, cannot produce uniform progeny.
Further, heterosis exhibited by the F 1 is not passed on to the offsprings. Although
new breeds have been established by using cross-bred or grade sires, for example
the Santa Gertrudis (3/8ths Zebu and 5/8ths Shorthorn), the establishment of
such breeds requires time, skill in breeding and management, ample resources and
courage to make drastic selections.
( 263 )
B
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THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [VII, IV
DANGERS OF CROSS-BREEDING AND GRADING
Successful cross-breeding, and subsequent grading, in adverse environments,
when the difference between the milk-transmitting abilities of the parents is
marked, requires a knowledge of breeding, restraint and skill in cattle manage-
ment.
THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON MILK PRODUCTION
The influence that climate has on milk production is a subject of great interest
to the dairy farmer in India, but it is too big a subject to be discussed fully in this
article. Briefly, one of the obstacles to the production of heavy yields in tropical
and sub-tropical climates is the heat, and the detrimental influence of heat is
aggravated by increased humidity. The average annual mean atmospheric tem-
perature and humidity are not sufficient data on which to judge the influence of
these factors. The daily and seasonal deviations from these means are also
important, because animals have great powers of recuperation if given a
respite from the discomforts of unsuitable weather. Apart from the actual atmos-
pheric temperature and humidity, the comfort of an animal during hot weather
depends on the conductivity of the skin, the type of coat, the milk-yield, and the
management. The conductivity of the skin, or the efficiency with which an animal
can throw off the heat generated by its body, appears to be a breed characteristic.
As a rule, animals indigenous to hot climates have this factor well developed. As
would be expected, the heavier the coat, the greater the discomfort felt during the
hot weather. Heavy coats are due mainly to heredity, but may be caused by a
check in the growth curve due to mismanagement. The production of milk gene-
rates additional heat in the body in proportion to the yield. Generally, cross-bred
and grade cows are not so efficient in throwing off body-heat as the indigenous
animals, yet, on the average, their milk-yields are much higher. It is, therefore,
not surprising that if such animals produce large quantities of milk during the hot
weather, their constitutions, or the constitutions of their progeny, deteriorate.
Management can, to some extent, minimise the discomfort felt by milch
cattle on account of the heat, but when animal shows signs of prolonged acute
distress as indicated by a rise in temperature and rapid respiration, and receives
insufficient relief during the night, then the only remedy is to decrease the strain,
by reducing the milk-yield, or even drying off the animal.
A small amount of data collected at the Military Dairy Farms, Multan and
Jullundur, bringing out the above factors, are given in Table I.
CROSS-BRED AND GRADE DAIRY CATTLE IN INDIA
265
TABLE I
Statement showing the influence of heat on certain individual animals at the Military
Dairy Farms at Multan and Jullundur.
Temperature taken on 27th July, 1937.
Name of animal
Humidity 70
per cent
Hollyhock
Flexseed
Alacrity
Acup
Mallogat
Sumerun
Adjunctive.
Jimine
Military Dairy Farm, Multan
Breed
Buffalo
Cross-bred
Cross-bred
7/8ths Grade
Indigenous cow
Cross-bred
Buffalo
Indigenous cow
Daily
milk-
yield
26 lbs.
25 lbs.
18 lbs.
14 lbs.
8 lbs.
Dry
Dry
Dry
Tempera-
ture of
animal
100.8
103.2
103.0
103.2
101.2
101.2
100.4
101.8
Rate of
respira-
tion
Normal
Very fast
Very fast
Very fast
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Type of
coat
Atmospheric
temperature
in shed-104° F.
Time-3 P.M.
..
Fine
Heavy
Very heavy
Fine
Fine
. .
Fine
Humidity 89
Per cent
Lackey
Sheer
Inder
Kamseen
Lurgos
Mianwali
Mischief
Jenny
Military Dairy Farm, Jullundur
Cross-bred
Buffalo
3/4ths Grade
Indigenous cow
3/4ths Grade
l/4th Grade
Buffalo
Indigenous cow
40 lbs.
25 lbs.
22 lbs.
14 lbs.
Dry
Dry
Dry
Dry
102.8
101.8
102.8
101.0
101.6
103.0
100.2
101.6
Fast
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Very fast
Normal
Normal
Atmospheric
temperature
in shed 92°F.
Time-3 P.M.
Heavy
..
Fine
Fine
Normal
Very heavy
. .
Normal
NOTE.—Multan has a very hot dry summer ; at Jullundur the maximum tempera-
ture is usually lower but there is greater humidity.
Table I will be found instructive to breeders.
The buffalo is obviously the animal least influenced by atmospheric tempera-
ture and humidity. Hollyhock at Multan gave twenty-six pounds a day without
discomfort, but Flexseed, a cross-bred, giving practically the same amount of milk
in the same station, has a temperature of 103.2 and very fast respiration. Although
the highest daily yield of an indigenous cow, in this table, is only fourteen pounds,
it has been noticed that these animals are not, as a rule, distressed by heat, unless
giving over twenty-five pounds of milk a day. It will be observed that except for
Mianwali (1/4th grade) at Jullundur with an exceptionally heavy coat, all dry
animals irrespective of breed were quite comfortable.
266
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [VII, IV
Table I indicates that if the dairy farmer, on the plains of India, is cross-
breeding and grading and has to produce the same quantity of milk throughout
the year, then a mixed herd should be maintained. Services should be so control-
led that the majority of the buffaloes and average indigenous cows calve just prior
to the hot season ; and the majority of the cross-breds, grades, and high yielding
indigenous cows, just before the cold weather.
MAXIMUM LIMIT OF PRODUCTION
The production of milk imposes a certain strain on the constitution of an
animal, the greater the quantity of milk produced, the greater the strain, and this
strain is further increased in proportion to the adversity of the environment.
Although by cross-breeding and grading animals with improved milking cap-
abilities may be bred, it is essential that these animals be given skilful management
to relieve the strain on their constitution as much as possible. However, there are
limits, both economical and practical, to the extent that skilful management may
compensate for the additional strain of increased milk production. Therefore,
in a given environment, there is a maximum limit of economic production for each
animal which should not be exceeded. The more adverse the environment, the
lower the maximum limits should be fixed. Without these limitations the dangers
of cross-breeding and grading are increased in proportion to the difference between
the ancestral environments of the sire and the dam.
MILK-YIELDS THAT MAY BE ANTICIPATED BY CROSS-BREEDING AND GRADING
Provided constitution is maintained, environment remains constant and one
parent is a pure bred, it is possible to forecast the result of cross-breeding with
reasonable accuracy.
In cross-breeding and grading, it may be assumed that the sire and the dam
have potential transmitting abilities equal to the average of their respective breeds.
Further, based on the genetic theory of intermediate, or blending inheritance, and
the fact that breeds with marked dissimilar milk-producing abilities are being
mated, it may be assumed that the offspring will have milk-producing abilities
approximately half-way between the two parental breeds.
Working on the above hypothesis, the intermediate index for the cross-breds
and different grades in Table II has been compiled.
CROSS-BRED AND GRADE DAIRY CATTLE IN INDIA
267
TABLE II
Comparison of the intermediate index and the actual lactation yield of different breeds
Breeds
Pure Friesians (European)
.
.
.
.
7/8ths grade . . . . . .
3/4ths grade . . . . . .
5/8ths grade . . . . . .
Cross-bred . . . . . . .
1/4th grade . . . . . . .
1/8th grade . . . . . . .
Sahiwal (Indigenous)
.
.
.
.
.
Interme-
diate
index
lbs.
9,400
8,700
8,000
7,300
6,600
5,200
4,500
3,800
Actual
lactation
yield
lbs.
9,406
7,076
6,494
7,224
6,882
5,250
4,123
3,789
Error
±
Per cent
. .
—18.7
—18.8
—1.0
+4.3
+ 1.0
—8.1
. .
NOTE 1.—The actual yields have been taken from Table III. Lactation yields have
not been corrected for days in milk because it is considered that, with a large popula-
tion, actual yields give a true indication of a breed capabilities.
NOTE 2.—The intermediate index of the different breeds has been worked out by
rounding off the yields of the pure Friesian, and the Sahiwal to the nearest hundred and
then assuming that the intermediate index of the other breeds would be approximately
half-way between the two parental levels.
EXAMPLE 1.—The intermediate index of the 1/4th grade which is produced by
crossing a Sahiwal bull on a cross-bred cow would be 3800 + 6600 / 2 = 5200.
EXAMPLE 2.—The intermediate index of the 5/8ths grade which is produced by
crossing a Friesian bull on a 1/4th grade cow would be 9400 + 5200/2 = 7300.
A study of this table is instructive. It will be observed that in most cases the
theoretical intermediate index agrees fairly closely with the actual yield.
The larger errors are explainable. The cross-bred due to heterosis, or hybrid
vigour, shows the biggest plus error. The strain on the constitution of the cross-
bred is reflected in its graded-up progeny, and the 3/4ths have a minus error of 18.8
per cent. The graded-up progeny of the 3/4ths do not recover constitution and the
actual yield of the 7/8th still remains 18.7 per cent below the intermediate index.
By grading down from the cross-bred to the 1/4th the actual yield drops 1400 lbs.
but constitution is regained and the lower actual yield is one per cent above the
intermediate index. By grading up from the 1/4th with regained constitution,
the actual yield of the 5/8ths is only one per cent below the intermediate index.
268
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [VII, IV
The reason why the 1/8th did not do better is explained perhaps by the lack
of ability, even amongst most strictly selected indigenous bulls (which are not
genetically pure breds) of transmitting a uniform milk-producing ability. The
population is, perhaps, insufficient to disguise this lack of uniformity.
It may be taken, as a rule, that to regain constitution the breeder should grade
down, and to regain milk grade up.
CHOOSING THE SIRES
European Sires.—For economical and physiological reasons, it is the general
practice to cross-breed and grade-up by means of European bulls.
The problem of which breed of European bull to use is important. Once
having decided on a breed it is advisable—unless the choice is absolutely wrong-
not to change. The fewer the divergent characteristics in a grade, the easier it is
to arrive at accurate conclusions about the success or failure of a particular breed-
ing policy for a particular environment, and to make any alteration or modifica-
tion that may be necessary.
The main object of cross-breeding and grading in India is to improve on the
milk-producing ability of the indigenous cows. As the milk of these animals has
a comparatively high butter-fat content, the possibility of reducing this charac-
teristic is of minor immediate importance. Again to increase the yield, means
increasing the strain on the constitution, therefore, the constitution of the progeny
must be sound. Although calf-management plays no little part in the final consti-
tution of the adult animal, the average size and robustness of the European sire is
also important. The length of the coat, the quality and colour of the skin, are
factors which influence the comfort of an, animal during the hot season, especially
if producing milk. Therefore, what is required is a sire with a large frame, robust
constitution, smooth coat, dark skin, preferably, and the ability to transmit the
capacity to produce large yields to his progeny, as indicated by his breed average.
Because the European bull, again for economical and physiological reasons,
should be imported when young, preferably nine to eighteen months ; it will not
be possible to obtain any index as to his transmitting abilities. Reliance will have
to be placed on his breed, his pedigree, the average worth of the herd from which
he is purchased, and the ability and integrity of the breeder.
Although it is not economical, to pay a fancy price for a young European bull
to be used for cross-breeding, or grading, it is also not advisable to purchase a
European bull merely on price.
There is no one European breed best suited for cross-breeding and grading on
all the different indigenous breeds in India, but probably the breed giving the most
general satisfaction is the Friesian.
CROSS-BRED AND GRADE DAIRY CATTLE IN INDIA
269
Good bulls of this breed with a probable index of 9,000 to 10,000 pounds can
be purchased for Rs. 1,000 to Rs. 1,500 landed in India.
Indigenous sire.—The indigenous sire should be of the same breed as the origi-
nal indigenous dam, and the best procurable. If available, the pedigree should
be traced back to the great-grand parents to be sure of the purity of blood and that
dairy qualities are present in the ancestry. The better the indigenous bull, the
less the drop in milk-yields from grading down. If no reasonably good pure-bred
of the same breed as the indigenous dam is available, then it is better to introduce
another indigenous breed than to grade down with an inferior sire.
CHOOSING THE ORIGINAL DAMS
Because the milking capabilities of cross-breds are approximately half-way
between the two parental levels, it is advisable to start off with dams of the best
milking strains available. Due to the importance of constitution to a deep milker,
and further as constitution appears to be transmitted from the dam to its offspring,
the dam must have a good constitution. Seldom will a weedy indigenous cow pro-
duce a really successful cross-bred, and certainly not a cross-bred from which to
grade up. If the local cows have poor constitutions, it would be advisable by improv-
ed management and breeding to produce constitutionally sound indigenous dams,
before attempting to get higher yields by cross-breeding and grading.
It is preferable that the indigenous dams should belong to recognized dairy
breeds and be typical specimens of their breed, so showing signs of reasonable
purity.
ACTUAL RESULTS OBTAINED BY CROSS-BREEDING AND GRADING BY THE MILITARY
DAIRIES IN THE NORTHERN CIRCLE
The history of the importation of foreign sires by the Military Farms Depart-
ment, to cross on the indigenous country cows, dates back to about 1900. How-
ever, it is only within the past fifteen years that importations have been made in
sufficient numbers to influence, appreciably, the herds owned by this Department,
and only within the past decade that the question has been thoroughly investigated
and reliable statistics collected.
It was realized that data to be reliable must be based on sufficient population,
and to obtain comparable data on a sufficient population, the controllable environ-
mental factors must be standardized at all farms. The following factors were
standardized:—
(1) European breed to be imported.
(The Friesian was considered the most suitable).
270
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [VII, IV
(2) Feeding of—
(a) Young stock.
(b) Dry stock.
(c) Milking herd.
(3) Number of milkings.
(4) Dry periods.
(5) Service periods.
(6) Extra ration for climatic conditions.
(7) Mineral feeding.
(8) Accommodation.
There were certain factors such as climate, quality of fodder, water, etc., which could
not be made equal at all farms, but it was considered that by spreading the breeds
over different farms the variations in the above factors would be smoothed out.
The data given in Table III is based on all the lactation yields of the different
breeds noted, for the past two years.
TABLE III
Statement showing the average lactation yield of various breeds on Military Dairy
Farms in the Northern Circle dried off during the period 1st April, 1935 to 31st
March, 1937
Breed
Pure Friesian
.
.
.
.
.
.
7/8ths grade . . . . . .
3/4ths grade . . . . . .
5/8ths grade . . . . . .
Crossbred . . . . . .
1/4th grade . . . . . .
1/8th grade . . . . . .
Pure Indigenous . . . .
Population
11
30
290
86
572
225
34
429
Average
lactation
yield
lbs.
9,406.5
7,076.7
6,493.7
7,223.7
6,881.7
5,249.7
4,123.2
3,798.1
Average
days in
milk
239.1
323.4
317.9
325.5
318.2
318.5
295.7
281.0
DEATHS AND CASTINGS
In comparing the economic value of different breeds it is not sufficient to study
the milk-yields only, it is necessary also to have data on the number of castings
and deaths. Because animals are cast when it is uneconomical to keep them in the
herd, every animal cast tends to increase the average efficiency of those remaining.
In conjunction with castings, deaths must be taken into account. Unless the longe-
vity of an animal, under the strain of producing extra milk, is maintained, the pro¬
duction of this extra milk may be unsound economically.
CROSS-BRED AND GRADE DAIRY CATTLE IN INDIA
271
TABLE IV
Table showing the castings and deaths amongst the adult and young stock cows of the Military Dairies in the
Northern Circle during the years 1st April 1935 to 31st March 1937
Particulars of casualties
Population .
Cast for low yield .
Cast for old age . . .
Cast for sterility . . .
Cast for physical defects .
Cast for udder trouble . .
Cast for misc. reasons .
Deaths
Total casualties .
Percentage of
deaths to po-
pulation .
Percentage : Total casualties to
Population . .
Breeds—Adults
Friesian
12
...
...
...
...
...
..
1
1
8.3
8.3
7/8
44
...
...
...
2
...
...
6
8
13.4
18.1
Grades
3/4
279
2
3
8
5
1
6
39
64
13.9
22.5
5/8
119
...
1
2
1
...
1
12
17
10.1
14.4
Cross-
bred
479
3
14
18
6
4
15
46
106
9.6
12.1
Grades
1/4
151
11
2
7
4
3
5
10
42
6.6
27.9
1/8
32
...
...
1
...
1
2
4
8
12.5
25.0
Indi-
genous
320
38
8
59
15
7
11
21
159
6.6
49.7
Breeds—Young stock
Frie-
sian
10
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
7/8
150
...
...
...
5
...
4
31
40
20.7
26.7
Grades
3/4
346
...
...
4
4
...
5
60
73
17.3
21.1
5/8
137
...
...
4
2
...
2
18
26
13.1
19.7
Cross-
bred
283
...
...
1
5
...
2
28
36
9.9
12.4
Grades
1/4
38
...
...
1
...
...
3
4
8
10.5
21.0
1/8
18
...
...
...
...
...
1
4
5
22.2
27.8
Indi-
genous
103
...
...
10
2
...
7
9
28
8.7
27.2
NOTE.—Population figures denote the average daily number of each breed present during the period.
272
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [VII, IV
Table IV is instructive. If breeds with a population of less than 40 are
ignored—as such data may be unreliable—it will be observed that there is a
tendency for the percentage of deaths to population to increase with the increase
of European blood. However, because the lower grade and indigenous animals
have a bigger percentage of castings, the total casualties in the different breeds
indicate that the higher grades can compete with the other breeds in their length of
time in the herd, which is the important economic factor.
The castings amongst the indigenous stock is heavy, and this factor combined
with low yields (Table III) reflects on the economic worth of these animals, even
when specially selected and belonging to the best milking strains available.
A tendency to sterility is one of the most costly faults that a milking breed
can possess. Amongst indigenous animals 18.4 per cent of the adults and 9.7 per
cent of the young stock were cast for this defect. These percentages compare
unfavourably with the averages of the other breeds which work out to 3.2 per cent
and 1 per cent respectively.
Generally, Table IV indicates that, in India, the breeder need not fear excessive
losses from castings and deaths amongst cross-bred and grade cattle, provided that
other adverse environmental factors are compensated by good management.
However, it may prove more profitable to maintain indigenous stock, despite their
many uneconomic characteristics, rather than breed cross-bred and grade animals
in an environment too adverse, or with management too inadequate, to compensate
for the strain of increased efficiency.
FIGURES
Eight figures in Plates XVII-XX are photographs of some typical cows of
the different pure-breeds, cross-bred and grades mentioned in this article. The
gradual change in conformation, with the increase in European blood, is clearly
seen.
Ind. Jour. Vety. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. VII, Pt. IV ]
PLATE XVII
FIG. 1. FEROZEPORE MANIHARI
A typical Ferozepore-type Sahiwal. Yielded 6,954 lbs. of milk in 327 days in her first lactation.
in the second lactation gave 8,837 lbs. in 272 days and still yielding 23 lbs. a day.
FIG. 2. GAMBAR FURSAT
A typical one-fourth grade in conformation. Yielded 7,580 lbs. of milk in 406 days.
Ind. Jour. Vety. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. VII, Pt. IV ]
PLATE XVIII
FIG. 1. SARGODHA DODY
A cross-bred. Best yield 13,180 lbs. in 350 days.
FIG. 2. RAWALPINDI AKANDAN
A five-eighths grade. Best yield 9,430 lbs. in 317 days.
Ind. Jour. Vety. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. VII, Pt. IV ]
PLATE XIX
FIG. 1. ANOOP KALI
A three-fourths grade. Best yield 10,561 lbs. of milk in 340 days.
FIG. 2. RAWALPINDI ABBEY
A seven-eighths grade. Best yield 10,200 lbs. in 281 days.
Ind. Jour. Vety. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. VII, Pt. IV ]
PLATE XX
FIG. 1. RAWALPINDI ALLEGBAU
A Friesian cow bred in India. Gave 7,448 lbs. in 212 days at the Military Dairy Farm, Sialkot.
Dried off to prevent strain of milk production during the hot weather. Shows plenty of constitution.
FIG. 2. RAWALPINDI BERDRAGA
Another Friesian cow bred in India. Gave 10,188 lbs. milk in 211 days at the Military Dairy
Farm, Sialkot. Dried off to prevent strain of milk production during the hot weather. Shows plenty
of constitution.