NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
120
Total amount
of fæces.
Carbohydrates
of fæces.
Carbohydrates
of Wheat.
Carbohydrates
of Arhar.
Carbohydrates
of Vegetables.
ozs.
Grms.
Grms.
Grms.
Grms.
17th March 1910 . . . .
45.50
28
484.48
93.93
25.50
18th March 1910 . . .
.
60.50
43
484.48
93.93
25.50
19th March 1910 .
.
. .
75.00
80
484.48
93.93
25.50
20th March 1910 . .
. .
58.00
96
484.48
93.93
25.50
21st March 1910 . . . .
80.20
59
484.48
93. 93
25.50
22nd March 1910 . . . .
24.35
34
484.48
93.93
25.50
Average intake of carbohydrates
Average output of carbohydrates
per man daily . . 603.91 grms.
in fæces per man daily
. . 17.00 grms.
Carbohydrates absorbed — 586.91 grms.= 97.1 per cent. of the carbohydrates of the diet.
SERIAL NO. 106.
By taking Nos. 104 and 105 together we learn that the difference of 1
chittack of arhar dal, or 31.31 grms. carbohydrate, causes a difference of
586.91—556.60 grms. absorption=30.31 grms.
Therefore, the carbohydrates of arhar dal show 96.8 per cent. absorbed.
VI.—The Co-efficient of Absorption of the Carbohydrates of Barley.
SERIAL NO. 107.
Five prisoners under observation for five days.
Wheat .
. .
.
.
. .
.
.
8 chittacks.
Barley
. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
5 „
Arhar
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1 chittack.
Vegetables
.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
3 c h i t t a c k s .
Total
amount of
fæces.
Carbohydrates
of
fæces.
Carbohydrates
of
Wheat.
Carbohydrates
of
Arhar.
Carbohydrate s of
Barley.
Carbohydrates
of
Vegetables.
ozs.
Grms.
Grms.
Grms.
Grms.
Grms.
10th March 1910 .
79.50
82
337.03
31.31
221.21
25.50
11th March 1910 .
81.00
91
337.03
31.31
221. 21
25.50
12th March 1910 . 104.50
93
337.03
31.31
221.21
25.50
13th March 1910 .
62. 20
86
337.03
31.31
221.21
25.50
14th March 1910 .
98. 00
124
337.03
31.31
221. 21
25.50
15th March 1910 .
22.50
18
337.03
31.31
221.21
25.50
Average intake of carbohydrates
Average output of carbohydrates
per man daily . . 615.05 grms.
in fæces per man daily . . . 19.76. grms.
Carbohydrates absorbed — 595.29 grms. = 96.8 per cent. of the carbohydrates of the diet.
121
We know from Nos. 104 and 105 that 97.2 per cent. of the carbohydrates
of a diet of wheat, arhar and vegetables is absorbed, therefore, by substituting
this value, we can obtain the percentage absorption of the carbohydrates of
barley. Thus:—
(337.03+31.31+25.50) × 97.2+221.21 grms. carbohydrates of barley
=595.29 grms.
Therefore, 221.21 grms. carbohydrates of barley=595.29—382.81 grms.
Therefore, 221.21 grms. carbohydrates of barley show 212.48 grms.
absorbed.
Therefore, the carbohydrates of barley show 96 per cent. absorbed.
VII.—The Co-efficient of Absorption of the Carbohydrates of Jaur.
SERIAL No. 108.
Five prisoners under observation for five days.
Wheat
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
6 chittacks.
Juar
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
7 „
Arhar
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2 „
Vegetable
. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
3 „
Total
amount of
fæces.
Carbohydrates
of
fæces.
Carbohydrates
of
Wheat.
Carbohydrates
of
Juar.
Carbohydrates
of
Arhar.
Carbohydrates
of
Vegetables.
ozs.
Grms.
Grms.
Grms.
Grms.
Grms.
17th March 1910
.
92.50
106
252.77
273.72
62.62
25.50
18th March 1910
.
123.50
74
252.77
273.72
62.62
25.50
19th March 1910
.
122.00
61
252.77
273.72
62.62
25.50
20th March 1910
.
96.50
52
252.77
273.72
62.62
25.50
21st March 1910
.
98.00
65
252.77
273.72
62.62
25.50
22nd March 1910
.
25.50
25
252.77
273.72
62.62
25.50
Average intake of carbohydrates
Average output of carbohydrates
per man daily .
.
614.61 grms.
in fæces per man daily .
.
15.32 grms.
Carbohydrates absorbed — 599.29 grms. = 97.5 per cent. of the carbohydrates of the diet.
Now substitute, as in No. 107, for the known absorption of the carbohy-
drates of wheat, arhar and vegetables and we obtain the percentage of absorp-
tion of the carbohydrates of juar. Thus:—
(252.77+62.62+25.50) × 97.2+273.72 grms. carbohydrates of juar
=599.29 grms. absorbed. R
122
Therefore, 273.72 grms. carbohydrates of juar=599.29—331.34 grms.
=267.95 grms.
Therefore, the carbohydrates of juar show 97.8 per cent. absorbed.
This completes the observations we are able to publish on the estimations
of the carbohydrates eliminated in the fæces. Many other batches of prisoners
on different diets were investigated from this standpoint, but owing usually to
breakages of the flasks during hydrolysis and consequent loss of the sample of
fæces, the period of observation was broken and the work done rendered practi-
cally useless. In no series of observations, however, did we ever find any large
proportion of carbohydrates passed in the fæces; the ordinary run of the
figures working out, for the absorption of the carbohydrates of the different
food-stuffs, at 96 to 98 per cent., even with those food-materials whose co-effici-
ent of protein absorption had been found to be very low. It may, therefore, be
accepted that the absorption of the carbohydrates of the different food-materials
in use in the jail dietaries of the United Provinces ranges round 96 to 98 per
cent., a figure very similar to the absorption obtained with European types of
dietaries. Thus Hutchison 1 gives the absorption of the carbohydrates of cereals
and sugars, 98 per cent., vegetables and fruits, 95 per cent.
SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS OBTAINED FOR THE ABSORPTION
OF CARBOHYDRATES.
1. The average absorption of the carbohydrates of the jail dietaries of the
United Provinces is 96.4 per cent.
2. The co-efficient of absorption of the carbohydrates of wheat works out
to be 96.5 per cent.
3. The co-efficient of absorption of the carbohydrates of gram dal works
out to be 97.7 per cent.
4 The co-efficient of absorption of the carbohydrates of arhar dal plus
vegetables works out to be 92.3 per cent.
5. The co-efficient of absorption of the carbohydrates of arhar dal works
out to be 96.8 per cent.
6. The co-efficient of absorption of the carbohydrates of barley works out to
be 96 per cent.
7. The co-efficient of absorption of the carbohydrates of juar works out to
be 97.8 per cent.
1 Hutchison: Food and the Principles of Dietetics.
123
Table showing the percentage absorption of the protein and carbohydrates
of the food-materials in use in the jail dietaries of the United Provinces.
Food-stuff.
Absorption of Protein.
Absorption of Carbohydrates
Wheat
. .
.
.
67.10 per cent.
.
96.50 per cent.
Arhar dal plus vegetables
.
80.50 „ „
.
92.30 „
„
Gram dal .
.
.
.
64.20 „ „
.
97.70 „ „
Arhar dal
.
.
. 81 to 84 „ „
.
96.80 „ „
Barley
.
.
.
.
57.60 „ „
.
96.00 „ „
Juar
.
.
. .
53.00 „ „
.
97.80 „ „
Urid dal .
.
.
.
69.20 „ „
.
......
Bajra
.
.
.
.
49.40 „ „
.
. . . . . .
FATS.
We made no investigations on the absorption of the fats of the jail dieta-
ries of the United Provinces. The quantity of fat in these diets is very small
and did not appear of sufficient importance to warrant special enquiry.
R 2
124
CHAPTER VI.
The Suitability of the Jail Dietaries of the United Provinces.
Having completed the work on the chemical examination of the food-ma-
terials, and on the level of nitrogenous and carbohydrate interchange possible
from the dietaries in force, we are now in a position to discuss the suitability of
those diets and point out their weaknesses. At the same time we shall endea-
vour to lay down the principles on which a satisfactory dietary should be
founded, and the rational indications for the framing of suitable dietaries com-
posed of the ordinary food-materials in use in the jails of the United Provinces.
Physiologically a diet may be considered from two points of view, viz., its
power or capability of forming new tissues or repairing waste—this will depend.
principally on its assimilable or available nitrogenous material; its power of
yielding energy and heat—this is function of its contained protein, carbohydrate
and fat. In diets wholly vegetarian in type we have besides to take into consi-
deration the degree of waste of the most important constituent—protein—and
the usually excessive caloric value exhibited by such dietaries. From the prac-
tical standpoint of cost to the State, jail dietaries should be so framed as to
prevent undue waste, whilst providing a sufficiency of the different proximate
principles to meet the requirements of the body.
I . — T H E D I E T A R I E S O F T H E J A I L S O F T H E U N I T E D P R O V I N C E S D I S C U S S E D .
In our investigation on the level of nitrogenous metabolism shown by
prisoners on the different jail dietaries of the United Provinces, and on the
modifications of those dietaries in which the total quantities of the different
food-stuffs made up 15 chittacks, as sanctioned by the Jail Code, we learned that
on an average throughout the year, prisoners were offered 16.7292 grms. nitro-
gen daily of which 11.286 grms., or 67.4 per cent., were absorbed. Expressed
in protein this means an intake of 104.55 grms., of which 70.53 grms. undergo
metabolism.
To take up the question of the sufficiency or otherwise of this quantity
would be to discuss the framing of dietary standards and would lead us into
controversial matter which we prefer at present to avoid. The facts as we have
found them are:—
(i) Students and the fairly well-to-do classes in Bengal exist on a meta-
bolism of less than 40 grms. protein daily.1
(ii) Bengali prisoners on Lower Bengal jail diets exist on a metabolism
of 47.18 grms. protein daily. 2
1 Scientific Memoirs No. 34.
2 ,,
,,No. 37.
125
(iii) Behari prisoners on Upper Bengal jail diets exist on a metabolism
of 59.37 grms. protein daily.
(iv) United Provinces prisoners exist on a metabolism of 70.53 grms.
protein daily.
There is no doubt, therefore, but that the jail dietaries of the United Pro-
vinces are very much superior to those in use in Bengal, and seeing that the
prisoners, both in Bengal and in the United Provinces, put on weight and im-
prove physically while in jail, there can be no question of the actual sufficiency
of the Bengal or United Provinces' prison fare. So far as experience goes the
dietaries of the United Provinces have been in force for many years and the
results have been satisfactory: in fact, in all work done so far on these diets the
general opinion seems to be that the diets are excessive both in protein and
carbohydrate.
Leaving aside for the present the much discussed problem of the quantity
of available protein a diet should furnish, we know from practical experience
that the jail dietaries of the United Provinces are sufficient for all the physio-
logical requirements of labouring prisoners ; i.e., we know that dietaries furnish-
ing 11.286 grms. of available nitrogen daily throughout the year are amply
sufficient to maintain the prisoners in as good, and better, physical condition
than they show either before incarceration or after release.
We may, therefore, accept this level of nitrogenous interchange as a stan-
dard to be maintained with any new scales, and search for such combinations
of the several food-stuffs as will furnish this quantity and supply an adequate
caloric value and will, at the same time, prevent the great loss of protein material
that the present dietaries show. We have seen that on an average throughout
the year only 67.4 per cent. of the total protein of the dietaries is absorbed and
of any real service to the prisoners. It appears to us that this is the greatest
drawback and most important weakness of the present diet scales, and that it is
a rational indication to prevent as far as possible this loss to the State, while, at
the same time, greatly reducing the quantity of nitrogenous matter left over for
the intestinal tract to deal with. It cannot be for the welfare of the body that
an average quantity of 34 grms. of protein daily should remain incapable of
absorption, which, while in the bowel, provides a splendid culture medium for
the growth of putrefactive micro-organisms. Any method of reducing this loss of
protein will, therefore, be to the advantage of the State, in lessening the cost of
the jail dietaries, and to the prisoners' advantage, in decreasing the risk of intesti-
nal putrefaction with its attendant troubles, catarrh, diarrhœa, toxæmia, etc.
Our position, therefore, would be:—while accepting the present level or
nitrogenous interchange and providing for a sufficiency of all other consti-
tuents, to modify the dietaries in force in such a way that a greater percentage
126
of the protein content of the diet will be absorbed and made use of in the
economy.
We acknowledge at once that this means in reality to provide better diets
than those at present in force, and that it shirks the important question as to
whether an average level of nitrogenous metabolism of 11.286 grms. daily is not
more than sufficient to meet the physiological needs of the body. Taking the
average body-weight of the prisoner of the United Provinces at 54 to 56 kilos,
it would mean the metabolism of 0.21 grm. of nitrogen per kilo of body-weight.
Chittenden and his followers would consider anything over 0.12 grm. of
nitrogen per kilo of body-weight as excessive, but we have brought forward
evidence to show that this standard is probably insufficient. 1 However, there is
a great difference between 0.12 grm. and 0.21 grm. of nitrogenous interchange
per kilo of body-weight, and we are fully persuaded that the latter amount is a
good deal in excess of the level attained by the great majority of the inhabitants
of United Provinces. Personally we are of the opinion that the metabolism of
0.21 grm. of nitrogen daily per kilo of body-weight is not excessive, and that
it is greatly to the advantage of the prisoner in the maintenance of his physical.
condition to have an adequate supply of absorbable protein. We believe, also
it is to the advantage of the State that this level should not be lowered, as it
ensures, in all probability, the physical fitness of the prisoners for the labour
demanded and tends to lower the sickness and mortality rates.
While this is our opinion, from a physiological point of view it must be
admitted that the dietaries at present in force, or any framed in future to main-
tain the same level, are distinctly superior to those available for the great mass
of the population, and that this will tend to place a premium on crime in
periods of scarcity. This, however, is a problem with which we have no
concern; we simply point out its bearing in passing and leave the present policy
of the maintenance of the superiority of jail dietaries, over those possible to the
same classes outside the walls of the jails, to be determined by the government
of the country. What we have got to deal with are the solid facts that the
dietaries are at present superior inside the jail to those outside, that those
dietaries permit an average level of 11.286 grms. of nitrogenous metabolism
daily, and believing, as we do, that this level is not excessive, we have no
physiological arguments to advance in support of any cutting down of the
present scale of nitrogenous interchanges.
Therefore, taking the dietaries, as a whole, from our first point of view,
viz., their power or capability of forming new tissues or repairing waste, we are
prepared to accept the present level of nitrogenous metabolism as a standard to
1 Scientific Memoirs: Nos. 34 and 37.
127
be maintained in the framing of new dietaries, or in any modifications of the
present scales. Our reasons for so doing are:—
(i) We believe it is for the welfare of the prisoners and probably to the
advantage of the State that the level of nitrogenous interchanges
should be such as to provide liberally for the waste of every-day
wear and tear.
(ii) It being already the policy of the Government of the country to
provide dietaries that are superior inside the jail to those obtain-
able by the same class of people outside the jail, it is the business
of the Government to determine any change in its policy: from
a physiological standpoint we cannot defend any lowering of the
present level.
Physiologists of the Chittenden School would hold that these dietaries are
excessive and that they might be reduced all round by one-third or more with
advantage. As has been already indicated also, Lewis, Macnamara, and others,
from a comparison of their gross chemical composition, have shown them " to
exceed under every heading the "adapted" scale prepared from English Prison
Scales, and in, most cases the amount of food actually issued is more than is
given as a maximum dietary in either the Convict or Local Prisons of England
and Wales."
While acknowledging the force of the different arguments for the reduction
of the level of protein metabolism, we have had sufficient evidence in our work
in India to confirm us in the opinion that a liberal supply of absorbable protein
is the all-important element of a diet, without which, no matter how plentiful
the other constituents may be, physical fitness, capacity for work and power of
resisting disease cannot be expected.
It would, of course, be very simple for us to accept Chittenden's standard
of the nitrogenous needs of the body, viz., 0.12 grm. of nitrogen per kilo of
body-weight, and, having already determined that the protein metabolism of
the present scales provides for 0.21 grm. of nitrogen per kilo of body-weight, to
reduce the several constituents of the dietaries to such an extent that Chitten-
den's standard would be obtained. This would mean an all-round reduction of
over 40 per cent. in the food-materials offered in the present dietaries of the
United Provinces, which would be a very serious step to take in the light of
the present state of our knowledge regarding the nitrogenous requirements of
the body, and a step which, we believe, the evidence does not warrant.
We would, therefore, prefer to work with a level of protein metabolism
which has been found by practical experience to give satisfactory results, and
on which the prisoners of the jails of the United Provinces keep physically fit.
128
Taking the dietaries, as a whole, from our second point of view, viz.,
their power of yielding energy and heat, we are fully in agreement with the
condemnation attached to diets in which the caloric value is so high. We
know, of course, it is difficult to frame purely vegetarian diets which, while
offering over 100 grms. of protein, will not show an excessive quantity of
carbonaceous matter. Still no one could assert that a native of a hot climate,
doing the very minimum of work, requires on an average over 60 calories
per kilo of body-weight, while inhabitants of cold countries, like Europe and
America, doing really hard work can live easily on from 40 to 45 calories per
kilo of body-weight. It will be agreed, therefore, that there is room for
reduction in the heat value of the dietaries. In discussing the question of
how the excessive heat value of the diets of Bengal jails was dissipated, we
were driven to the conclusion that neither as a source of body heat nor as a
source for the energy of muscular contraction was it worked off. In all
probability, as we have already intimated, a considerable amount is lost
through the conversion of starch or sugar into bodies of low caloric value by
intestinal fermentation. We have shown that so far as the carbohydrates are
concerned the great proportion is broken up in the intestines, at least the
quantity recoverable in the fæces is extremely small, being only from 2 to 4 per
cent. of the total intake.
We may, therefore, conclude with regard to the heat value of the jail
dietaries of the United Provinces that they offer up to 50 per cent. more
calories per kilo of body-weight than the standard dietaries framed for Euro-
peans, that the amount of energy worked off in muscular contraction is very
much less than in Europeans, and that the climate being tropical, the heat
requisite for the maintenance of the body temperature should be considerably
less than in Europeans. In what way exactly the high potential energy of the
food is dissipated we are unable to state, but it is probably that, in addition to the
sources of waste already mentioned, a greater proportion is lost by radiation
owing to the meagre clothing worn as compared with Europeans.
However, having taken every demand of the body for fuel into considera-
tion, it must be admitted that the amount furnished in the jail dietaries is
out of all proportion to that of the generally accepted standards. It therefore
forms a weakness in the dietaries in force and will require correction, as far
as possible, in any new scales suggested.
II. THE INDIVIDUAL FOOD-MATERIALS OF THE JAIL DIETARIES OF
THE UNITED PROVINCES DISCUSSED.
Wheat is the most important of the cereals and reference to the observa-
tions on the co-efficients of absorption of its protein and carbohydrate elements
129
will show that, given a good clean sample, it is far superior to any of the
other cereals in use. We have found that first quality wheat will have over
80 per cent. of its protein and 97 per cent. of its carbohydrates absorbed: no
other cereal in use shows anything like so good results. Juar shows 53 per
cent. of its protein absorbed: barley 57.6 per cent., and bajra just under 50
per cent. absorption. Another point in its favour is the fact that the
relationship existing between its nitrogen and carbon elements approaches
in wheat much closer than in any of the other cereals to the ratio that should
hold in a satisfactory diet. For this reason good first class wheat may be
looked upon as a perfect food-stuff. It is somewhat deficient in fat, but
that is not a matter of serious importance so far as natives of India are
concerned.
We have, therefore, in wheat of good quality an ideal food, superior in
every respect to any of the other cereals of the jail dietaries of the United
Provinces, and one that presents the minimum of waste of its protein element;
so that diets composed largely of good wheat will leave the smallest residue of
nitrogenous material to be dealt with by the intestinal tract, and offer the
least opportunity for intestinal putrefaction and micro-organismal growth.
Supposing for the moment that a diet composed wholly of first quality wheat
exhibited the same degree of protein absorption as we have found, viz., 80.6 per
cent., this would mean a great superiority over the absorption attained on the
average for the dietaries at present in force, viz., 67.4 per cent. It would
mean the reduction of the waste from over 33 per cent. to under 20 per cent.;
such a reduction in the protein waste of the present diet scales would place
them, physiologically, on a very different level from that which they now
occupy. It would effectually correct the outstanding weakness of the present
dietaries from the standpoint of the percentage of protein absorption, referred
to when discussing the dietaries as a whole.
Unfortunately, when we come to analyse the results of the work on
the absorption of the protein of the different samples of wheat actually in
use in several jails, we find that the protein absorption falls far short of
the percentage absorption shown by the first quality of wheat experimented
with in Benares Jail. On an average the wheat in use in different parts of the
province exhibited a protein absorption of 67.1 per cent. While this absorp-
tion is decidedly superior to what was obtained with any of the other cereals,
juar, barley, or bajra, it is a serious falling off from the figure given for the
protein absorption of first class material. We have already discussed at length
the cause of this great difference in the protein absorption from first quality
and the ordinary jail wheat, and have shown that it is practically a question of
a pure versus a contaminated sample. It will be evident that, if it is impossible
S