NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
INDEX TO MANOMETER AND OTHER TRACINGS, ON
THE RECORDING DRUMS.
Abdomen—Pressure on
... Nos. 33, 88, 89.
Do.
Bandage applied to
... „ 96, 97.
Do.
Sudden blow On ...
...
... ,, 79, 103, 104.
Do. Incisions into ... ... ...
,, 83, 86,104, 111, 116.
Do.
Introduction of ice into ...
,,
104.
A. C. E. Mixture.—Administration of ordinary
A.—With a cloth cap
...
..
,, 52.
B.—With Junker's inh
aler—
1.—At regulated intervals
... „ 45, 46.
2.—Squeezing rapidly ...
... „ 45, 46.
3.—Through nostril lead tube
„ 43.
Do.
do. pushing of, until respiration had ceased
entirely ...
49, 52.
Do.
do. pushing until death results
„ 45, 46, 47, 52, 55, 57, 62.
Do.
do. in an asphyxiated animal...
,,
62.
Acetic acid—Application to nostril
,,
75.
Acid–Hydrochloric in saline solution introduced into
the veins
...
,,
93.
Alcohol—Inha1ation of
..
...
... ,, 161, 182.
Alkaline solution—Rapid absorption and effects of
... „ 179.
Amylintrite—Inhalation of
,, 150, 151.
Ammonia—Inhalation of strong
...
„ 35, 41, 65, 75, 76, 79, 95, 98, 99, 100,
111, 148, 162, 185.
Do.
Injection into veins
,,
111, 113, 116.
Do.
Injection of aromatic spirit of—into stomach „ 116.
Antimony—Administration of
,,
111.
Anus—Ligature of mucous membrane of ..
,, 25.
Do. Introduction of thermometer
. ,, 83, 103, 104, 119.
Do. Snipping of
...
... „ 25, 29, 31, 41, 62, 48, 104, 105, 157,
185.
Apomorphine
..
"
,, 83, 86, 104.
Artificial respiration in the ordinary way ...
„ 25, 32, 34, 36, 40, 41, 43, 48, 49, 52,
53, 60, 64, 65, 67, 70, 74, 76, 80, 81,
83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 96, 97, 103,
104, 105, 106, 107, 111, 116, 117,
119, 141, 143, 144, 148, 149, 150,
151, 159, 160, 162, 178.
Do.
do.
by bellows apparatus
,, 119, 149, 154.
19
146
Asphyxia
... ...
...
...
Nos. 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 66, 70, 87,
89, 96, 97, 104, 105, 111, 113, 115,
135, 136, 138, 140, 148, 150, 151,
156, 157, 158, 161, 183, 184, 185.
A t r o p i n e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,.
74, 76, 77, 80, 81, 86, (120), (121), 158,
183, 184.
Breath-holding of
... ...
...
.,
39, 41, 51, 61, 103,104, 164, 172, 174,
175, 176, 183, (vide also 184), 185.
Cantharides—Administration of
. . .
.,
165, 170.
Carbonic acid—Inhalation of...
... ...
.,
160, 161.
Carotid arteries, compressing both
...
...
.,
7 0 ,
71, 95, 149.
Cats—Experiments on
... ...
.,
138, 139.
Chloral
...
... ...
...
.,
135.
Chloroform—Administration of—ordinary
—
A—With cap ...
...
.,
25, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38,
40, 56, 62, 64, 65, 69, 71, 74, 75, 76,
78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87, 96,
101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 111,
113, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 133,
135, 136, 137, 139, 143, 144, 150, 151,
154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162,
164 , 167 , 168 , 169, 170, 171,172, 173,
174, 175, 177, 183, 185.
B.—With Junker
—
1.—At regulated intervals
.,
41,
43.
2.—Squeezing rapidly
...
., 43.
3.—With lead tube in nostril ...
,, 43.
Do.
Gradual administration in 8-foot box ...
,.
163, 161.
Do.
Pushing of, until respiration ceased ...
,.
25, 29, 40, 41, 49, 53, 65, 71, 76, 78,
79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 97,
104, 105, 107, 111, 113, 116, 117, 118,
133, 136, 141, 143, 144, 148, 149, 150,
151, 152, 156, 157, 158, 162, 171, 172,
177, 178, 183, 185.
Do.
Pushing, until death results...
...
25, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 40, 44,
48, 49, 53, 58, 60, 61, 63, 64, 67, 71,
74, 75, 76, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 91, 97,
101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 111, 113,
116, 117, 119, 133, 135, 136,139, 141,
145, 148, 154, 155, 157, 163, 164, 165,
168,169, 170, 173, 175, 176, 178,179,
180, 183, 184, 185.
Do.
Direct introduction of, vapour into trachea
63, 67, 71, 98, 119, 135, 148, 149, 154,
184.
147
Chloroform—Direct introduction of, vapour into trachea
through the Junker bottle
No. 149.
Do.
Direct introduction of, vapour into trachea
through a large glass bottle
Nos. 179, 181.
Do.
Throwing, into trachea
...
... „ 64, 71, 155.
Do.
Pushing, in an asphyxiated animal
.. „ 58, 60, 61, 63, 97, 135, 136, 147, 148,
156, 158, 159.
Do. Pushing, during irritation of vagus ...
„ 64, 65, 71, 103, 117, 118, 119, 137,
144, 177.
Do.
Injection of, into jugular vein
„ 72, 73, 91, 92.
Do.
Sudden inhalation of concentrated vapour
after holding the breath.
„ 61, 103, 119, 185, and many others; vide
"breath-holding."
Do.
Sudden inhalation of concentrated vapour
after artificial compression of the chest. ,, 89.
Do.
Inhalation of, with carbonic acid.
,, 161.
Cocaine—Administration of-
. ,, 173.
Cold—Application of cold cloths to the body
„ 111.
Convulsions
...
...
...
,, 105, 136, 167, 175.
Convulsive twitchings of muscles after death
... ,, 167.
Coughing, produced by stimulation of vagus
„ 78, 83, 95.
Deaths, accidental
,, 48, 50, 54, 79, 85, 109, 110, 112, 135,
142, 153, 166.
Ether—Ordinary administration-
A.—On a cloth cap or open mouth-piece ,,
34, 37, 40, 51, 55, 53, 69, 70, 95,106,
108, 115, 116, 138, 140.
B.—With Junker
...
.
,, 44.
C.—With bladder inhaler ...
... „ 43, 44, 45.
Do.
Pushing of, until respiration ceased
„ 40, 106, 108, 138, 140.
Do.
Pushing of, until death results
..
„ 33, 39, 51, 66, 70, 77, 95, 106, 108, 138,
140, 146, 182.
Do.
Pushing together with irritation of vagus
,,
119.
Do.
Failure of, to keep the animal "under"
„ 43, 44, 53, 55, 70, 89, 95, 108, 140.
Do. Direct introduction of, vapour into the trachea. „ 66, 70, 71, 89, 119, 131.
Do. do. do.
through a large glass bottle
,, 182.
Do.
In an asphyxiated animal
„ 61, 66, 70, 108, 138, 140, 148.
Do.
Throwing, into trachea
.
,,
70.
Do.
Injection, into jugular vein
.
„ 71, 72, 77, 93.
Do.
Injection, subcutaneous
... ,,
77.
Do.
Intermittent inhalation of, for its stimulant
effect ..
...
... ,, 116.
Do.
Injection into peritoneal cavity ...
„ 177.
Exhaustion of the chest by bellows
... „ 184.
Eye-ball—Operation on— ...
„ 84, 185.
148
Gasping ineffective after respiration had practically
ceased..
No, 31, 34, 35, 64, 70, 74, 75, 76, 80, 82,
86, 92,103, 104, 108,111, 138, 139, 143,
159, 160.
Goats—Experiments on
...
...
... „
136, 137, 141, 143, 175, 176.
H æ m o r r h a g e . . . . .
„
32, 41, 113, 116, 149.
Head—Severance of—
...
...
"
149.
Heat—Application of hot cloths to the body
" 111.
Heart—Temporary stoppage of, at the same time as res-
piration
..
.
" 49, 60, 178.
Do. Stoppage of, before respiratory movement had
ceased ...
...
„.
"
80, 92, 103.
Do. Electrical stimulation of—
...
"
104.
Do, Introduction of needle into
..
" 51, 52, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 63, 74,
75, 76, 86, 93, 103, 116, 141, 148.
Horses—Experiment on—
„
133,142,144,
Inflation of the chest forcibly by bellows...
"
184.
Intestine–Ligature of
2 5 .
Larynx—Irritation of, with chloroform ...
" 104.
Monkeys—Experiments on—......
" 37, 68, 75, 78, 80, 82, 83, 86, 95, 96,
97, 98, 100, 103, 110,111, 115, 116,
118, (123), (124), (125), (126),
(127), (128), 129, (130), 131, 134,
135, 140, 149, 154, 155, 162, 165 ,
168, 171, 177, 179, 180, 181, 182.
Morphine—Administration of, before anæsthetic
„ 47, 116, 162, 178.
Nails—Evulsion of—
...
...
...
25, 29, 31, 32, 37, 39,40, 41,79, 80, 164.
Nicotine—Administration of—...
...
" 167, 174.
Nipple—Excision of—
...
" 164.
Nostril—Irritation of, Electrical
,, 41.
Do.
do.
by chloroform
..
43, 75, 79, 95.
Operations—Others not specially entered
—
Jugular vein exposed-
"
40, 76, 111, 116.
Exposing femoral vessels
......
"
32, 41, 4 4, 45, 93, 103, 113, 116, 135.
Phymosis
...
...
,, 43, 79.
Castration
...
...
...
,, 103.
Tracheotomy ...
...
...
" 64, 70, 71, 89, 119, 135, 148.
Phosphorus—Feeding with, previous to experiments
„
31, 81, 84,104, 105, 106, 107, 108,109,
119, 146, 147, 148, 156, 157, 158,
159, 160, 161, 163, 164, 183, 184,
Physostigmine—Use of
...
..
"
39, 40
Position of body—Change of—to vertical...
...
„ 31, 32, 79, 81, 83, 104.
Do.
do
to inverse, .... "
33, 40, 79, 81, 106
33, 40, 79 , 81, 106.
Rabbits—Experiments on— ...
...
...
„
99, 101, 102, (114), (120), (121),
(122), 152, 171, 172.
149
Saline—Injection of, solution into veins ...
... Nos. 93, 103, 113, 116.
Sciatic nerve—Irritation of—
...
...
„
40, 67, 69, 70, 71, 95.
Skin-Snipping off a piece of—
...
...
„
164.
Soda bicarbonate introduced into the vessels accidentally.
„
91, 107, 136, 179.
Spinal cord-Severance of—(see Head) ...
...
„
154.
Splanchnic-Section of—
...
... ...
„
80, 103, 111, 115.
Spermatic cord-Division and irritation of—
„
103.
Stays-Imitation of—by plaster of Paris bandage
...
„
96, 97.
Stomach—Opening of—through abdominal wall
...
,,
83, 104.
Do.
Distension with air
...
...
„
83, 104.
Do.
do.
hot water ... ...
„
83.
Do.
do.
iced water...
„
83.
Do.
Palling at—to imitate retching
...
,,
104.
Du.
Injection of spirits of ammonia into—
...
„
116
Struggling
...
...
...
...
,,
74, 78, 80, 21, 82, 83, 84, 86, 88, 91,
97, 103, 104, 111, 113, 118, 119,
135, 138, 140, 143, 149, 157, 161,
164, 168, 171, 172, 174, 175, 177,
183, 185.
Sutures
...
...
,,
83.
Teeth-Extraction of—...
„
31, 40, 41, 79, 83, 95, 103, 104.
Testicles—Injury to—...
„
80, 81, 84, 104.
Tetanus
...
...
...
„
167.
Tongue—Allowed to drop back
...
„
86.
Do.
Pulling forward forcibly
...
...
„
185.
Ulna nerve-Irritation of— ...
...
...
„
83.
Ure-thra-Passages of instruments into—..
„
79, 103.
Vagus, Right— Irritation of the entire—
Mechanical
... „
69, 70, 71, 78.
Electrical
„
35, 36, 39, 69, 74, 75, 76, 78, 80, 81,
87, 95, 103, 107, 108, 117,118,119,
148, 158, 183, 184.
By sodæ bicarbonas...
„
81.
By sodæ carbonas ...
„
36.
Vagns, Right—Irritation of the peripheral
„
36, 39, 64, 65, 69, 70, 71, 78, 95, 107,
135, 157.
Do.
do.
central ...
...
„
36, 41, 64, 65, 95, 135.
Do.
Ligature of ...
„
36, 39, 41, 64, 65, 69, 70, 71, 78, 84,
95, 107, 108, 135.
Do.
Division of
...
..
...
„
36, 39, 41, 64, 65, 69, 70, 71, 78, 82,
84, 88, 89, 95, 107, 108, 113, 115,
135, 150, 151, 156, 157.
150
Vagus, Left—Irritation of the entire
—
Mechanical
... Nos. 39, 103.
Electrical
... „ 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 69, 80, 95, 103,
118, 137, 144, 177, 183.
By sodæ bicarbonas... ,, 35, 81.
By sodæ carbonas ... „ 36, 39.
Vagus, Left—Irritation of the peripheral ...
... "
36, 95.
Do.
do.
central
...
... „ 36, 95.
Do.
Ligature of ...
...
...
" 36, 64, 65, 69, 84, 95.
Do.
Division of ...
...
...
" 36, 39, 64, 65, 82, 84, 88, 89, 95,
113, 150, 151, 156, 157.
Do.
Peripheral—Irritation of both vagi simul-
taneously ...
...
... „ 64, 65.
Vomiting
...
...
...
...
" 104.
PART VI.
181
PART VIL.—METHOD OF EXPERIMENTATION.
Administration of Anæ sthetics.
FOR experiments on the general action of chloroform the animal was
usually placed upon a table and held by several assistants. An inhaler,
consisting of a conical bag of cloth containing a sponge or absorbent cotton-
wool with the anæ sthetic, was then placed over the animal's mouth and
nostrils, and kept there as long as necessary. While one observer watched for
the loss of reflex from the cornea, the cessation of respiration, stoppage of the
pulse, and arrest of the heart, another seated at an adjoining table with a
watch before him noted down the times at which each event occurred. The
corneal reflex was ascertained by simply touching the cornea with the finger
or a blunt instrument, such as the point of an aneurism needle. The cessation
of breathing was ascertained by simple ocular inspection of the thorax
and diaphragm, the presence or absence of the pulse by feeling the femoral
artery with the finger, and the entire stoppage of the heart's action by watch-
ing the movements of a needle pushed through the thoracic walls into the heart.
The movements of this needle were rendered more evident by a straw bearing
a small paper flag being fixed to the end which projected outside the thorax.
Animals anæsthetised by this method struggled while they were held until the
anæ sthetic had had time to take effect. In order to avoid struggling another
method was adopted. This consisted in simply lifting the animal into a wooden
box 3 ft. 10 in. long by 1 ft. 5 in. broad, and 1. ft. 7 n. deep, and putting on
the lid in which was an opening. Through this opening was passed a large
piece of blotting-paper on which half an ounce or more of chloroform had been
poured. A piece of wood or glass was then placed over the opening in the lid,
and in a short time the an æ sthetic took effect. To prevent too large admixture
of air a strip of spongiopiline was nailed round the edges of the box and cover-
-ed with vaseline, so that the lid shut, down air-tight. Even when a piece of
wood was used to close the aperture in the lid at first it was usually replaced
by glass, when the chloroform began to take effect, as the movements of the
182
animal could thus be watched. When it fell down insensible it was taken out
at once, and if prolonged an æ sthesia was required, as for blood-pressure experi-
ments, an additional quantity of the anæ sthetic was administered on a cap.
Administration of Definite Proportions of Chloroform Vapour.
In order to make animals respire air charged with definite proportions
of chloroform vapour, the following methods were used :—
(a) A certain quantity, e.g., ½ oz., 1 oz., or 2 oz. of chloroform was
poured on blotting paper in the box already described, and when it was seen
through the glass in the lid that evaporation was complete, the lid was lifted,
the animal introduced, and the lid quickly replaced. The box contained almost
exactly eight cubic feet of air, so that the proportion of chloroform vapour in it
was easily reckoned. As the whole of the chloroform was evaporated before
the animal was introduced, the alteration which its bulk produced in the air-
content of the box did not affect the proportion of vapour.
(b
) Put in the process of opening the box and introducing the animal
there was almost inevitably some disturbance of the air charged with chloro-
form which the box contained. In order to avoid this, a box of tin-plate, the
same size as the last, was taken, and a round opening 5 in. in diameter was
made in one end near the bottom. Round this a collar of tin plate ½ in. in
depth was soldered, and on the top of the box was another opening 8 in. long
by 5½ in. broad covered by a tin lid. The chloroform was introduced by the
opening on the top, and allowed to evaporate as before, and the animal's head
was then introduced through the opening at the end, and made as nearly as
possible air-tight by a piece of Mackintosh fastened to the tin collar surround-
ing the opening, and tied round the animal's neck.
(c
) When it was thought. desirable to make the animal inspire a definite
proportion of chloroform vapour through a tracheal canula, the same apparatus
as above described was used, but in one end of the box two tin tubes were
fixed each¾ in. in diameter. These were connected by India-rubber tubing of
a similar bore to the arms of a tin Y tube. The leg of this tube was connected
with India-rubber tubing to a glass candela tightly tied into the trachea. By
means of India-rubber valves the current of air was made to circulate always
in one direction.
(d)When
it was desired to insufflate the animal's lungs with air con-
taining a definite proportion of chloroform vapour, the apparatus just described
183
was employed with the addition of a bellows, which drew the air from the box.
In the valve-hole of the bellows a ¾ in. tube was fixed by means of a large cork
bung. This tube was connected by a ¾ in. India-rubber tubing with one of the
tubes in the end of the box already described, and by the Y tube with the
tracheal canula. A valve over the nozzle of the bellows and another on one
arm of the Y tube regulated the direction of the current of air. These valves
consisted simply of a piece of dentists' sheet rubber tied loosely over the end
of the nozzle or tube and then cut across. When the air passed in one direc-
tion, eg.,from the bellows, it blew open the edges of the cut rubber, but when
it tried to pass in the opposite direction the edges of the rubber fell together
and presented a considerable obstacle.
Administration of Definite Quantities of Chloroform.
For the purpose of giving a definite quantity of chlororrn with
unlimited quantity of air another apparatus was used. It consisted of a wide-
necked jar 7 in. deep by 5½ in. internal diameter. The top was closed by a
tightly-hitting bung. in which there were three apertures. In two of these were
fixed ¾ in. glass tubes, and the third was closed by a small stopper, which could
be withdrawn at will for the purpose of introducing chloroform into the bottle.
To one of these tubes a valve was attached which oney allowed the air to enter
the bottle, but prevented its exit. The other tube was connected by wide rubber
tubing with a tin inhaler. This inhaler was in the form of a truncated cone,
and had two ¾ in. tubes opening into it. One of these was at the apical
end, and the other at the side of the inhaler. The apical tube was con-
nected with the bottle just described. The side tube was closed by a
simple valve consisting of a perforated cork, over which a strip of thin sheet
rubber was loosely fastened. At each expiration the rubber allowed the air
to escape freely, but at each inspiration it closed completely. The muzzle of
the animal was inserted in the inhaler, and a piece of Mackintosh was tied
round the inhaler and the head of the animal by means of an elastic bandage,
so that the inhaler was nearly air-tight. On inspiration the air passed through
the glass cylinder, becoming partially charged with chloroform on its way, and
during expiration it passed out through the side tube of the inhaler.
For the purpose of keeping up artificial respiration an ordinary bellows
was employed, but to the nozzle of it was fixed a valve which closed when the
bellows was pressed, and thus directed the air into the lungs, but opened as
the bellows expanded, and thus allowed the air to escape from the lungs.
184
This valve consisted of a T tin tube ¾ in. in diameter. One end of its trans-
verse limb was connected with the nozzle of the bellows, the other with the
tracheal canula. The opening of the perpendicular limb was covered by a
piece of tin plate mounted on a hinge in such a way that when the bellows
was pressed a cord tied to the upper handle of the bellows pulled it down and
closed the opening, but during the expansion of the bellows it was raised and
the opening uncovered by the elastic force of a piece of India-rubber. The cord
and India-rubber were both attached to a short rod fixed at right angles to
that which carried the cover. When it was desired to give chloroform vapour
along with the insufflated air, a piece of blotting-paper soaked with chloroform
was held over the valve-opening of the bellows, or the opening was closed by
a bung and wide rubber tube, and the blotting-paper was placed inside the
tube. In the first comparative experiments on the effects of chloroform and
ether on the heart in monkeys, when given by insufflation, the bellows and
valve just described was employed. Instead of one limb of the T tube being
directly connected with the tracheal canula, however, it was connected to a
small glass T tube. Each of the other limbs of this tube passed to a long-
necked glass flask furnished with a tubulature through which the an æ sthetic
could be introduced. The neck of the flask was closed by a stopper through
which two glass tubes passed, one reaching only a little way below the stop-
per, but the other extending nearly to the bottom of the flask. One of these
tubes was connected with the glass T tube just mentioned, and the other with
a glass canula tightly tied into the trachea. At each blast of the bellows the
air passed onward through these glass flasks to the trachea of the animals, and
returned through the flasks and out through the valve during the expansion of
the bellows. It is evident that by this arrangement a certain admixture of
ether and chloroform vapour will occur in the tubes between the animals and
the valve, so that after a few blasts both animals will receive mixed vapour,
although that of chloroform will predominate in the one case and that of ether
in the other. In order to avoid this admixture the bellows was used without,
the valve, and provision was made for allowing the air to escape from the
lungs by using a different form of tracheal canula. Instead of a plain glass
tube a small glass T tube was used. The perpendicular limb was inserted
into the trachea, and one end of the horizontal limb was connected with the
bellows the other was partially closed by a piece of glass tubing, one
end of which was drawn out and cut off so as to leave only a small orifice.
This was attached by a short piece of India-rubber tubing to the limb of
the T tracheal canula. The orifice was of such a size that while it presented
185
sufficient resistance to the passage of air to allow the lungs to become com-
pletely inflated when the bellows was pressed, yet during the expansion of the
bellows it allowed the air to escape from the lungs and thus prevented over-
distension.
When it was desired to give vapour by installation to one small animal,
such as a monkey or rabbit, only the India-rubber ball of Junker's apparatus
was used instead of the bellows. Junker's apparatus consists of the India-
rubber balls ordinarily used for spray producers, but these arc attached to a
bottle in which the anæ sthetic is put in such a way that, instead of producing
spray, the air simply passes through the anesthetic and becomes charged with
the vapour. It then passes to a mouth-piece and is inhaled. The mouth-piece
which we employed for dogs was made of stout leather in the form of It truncated
cone. A metal rube ¼ in. in diameter, opening into the inhaler at its apical
end, conveyed the vapour into it. This tube fitted the opening in the inhaler,
through which, it passed closely, but the junction was not air-tight. The inhaler
at its other end did not fit the dog's muzzle at all closely, so that there was a
free circulation of air. When we wished to prevent this and to give concentrated
vapour, a piece of Mackintosh was tied over the inhaler and muzzle so as to
close up the space between them.
Blood-pressure Experiments.
In all these experiments the pressure within the arteries was registered
by one of Ludwig's kymographs consisting of a mercurial manometer and a
revolving cylinder on which the oscillations of the mercury were recorded.
Thu paper On the cylinder was smoked by means burning camphor. The
float on the mercury of the manometer consisted of it eylindrical piece of ivory
tapering below and bearing above a steel wire, near the top of which it writing.
point of glass was fixed by a bit of cork. This point was kept in contact with
the smoked paper by a silk thread loaded with a shot. To the top of tile mano-
meter was fastened a second writing point made of glass or of copper foil.
When the mercury was at zero this point was at the same level as the point on
the float, and as the cylinder revolved it traced tile zero line round it and thus
afforded a means of estimating the height of the blood-pressure at any moment.
The cylinder revolved once in nearly thirty minutes. Near the top of the
cylinder was placed a magnetic time-marker worked by a DuBois Reymond's
key.
An observer sat constantly beside the cylinder with a watch in front of
him, and recorded on the cylinder by means of the time-marker, as well as the
24