NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
THE RÔLE OF MINERALS IN CALF FEEDING
175
when the amount of milk supply is reduced but sufficient amount of well balanced
concentrates are supplied, even then the rate of growth is reduced. The reduction is
probably due to the lack of the proper kind and amount of minerals, proper kind
of protein and the accessory factors that are present in the milk.
The present experiment was undertaken to find out whether it was possible to
improve the condition of the calves which were distinctly very backward in growth,
by adding a mineral supplement and to find out the best means of supplying the
accessory factors present in milk. In India where the average milk yield of cows
is very poor, it is a difficult problem to maintain a satisfactory rate of growth of
calves because it is not possible always to spare sufficient milk for them. This
being so, it becomes evident, that if a suitable substitute can be obtained to take
the place of the milk of which they are deprived, their rate of growth and general
condition will materially improve.
MATERIAL AND METHOD.
The experiment was carried out in the Government Cattle Farm, Phulwari. In
this experiment 15 of the most backward calves that could be selected from the herd
were taken. The age of the calves varied from one week to seven months and they
were all of Tharparkar breed except one which was from a cross between a Tharpar¬
kar bull and a Shahabad cow. The calves were arranged in three groups, in such
a way that the total weight of each group was as nearly as possible the same. The
animals were distributed in each group according to their age, sex and weight as
evenly as possible. This was the best arrangement that could be made in the
absence of calves of the desired kind and of the same age and weight. The three
groups were kept in three separate pens ; had their distinguishing permanent
numbers in their ears, and each group was provided with tin discs marked A, B
and C according to the group to which the animals belonged. They had access to
a common enclosure for exercise. All the calves were provided with twine muzzles
when they were in the paddock to prevent them from eating any grass or green
stuff and were fed twice daily, the food consisting of equal parts of linseed cake and
crushed oats as much as they could eat and rice straw was provided ad lib.
The difference in feeding among the three groups was that the group " A " was
kept as control, and fed on concentrates and straw. Group " B " received concen-
trates and' straw plus mineral mixture. Group " C " received concentrates and
straw, mineral mixture, and 4 ozs. of whole milk per head per day. The milk was
given to see whether the accessory factors present in the small amount of milk
provided would make any difference in the rate of growth.
176
INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [III, II
The mineral mixture used was :—
1. Chalk . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Potassium chloride . . . . . . . . . .
3. Steamed bone meal
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
4. Sodium chloride . . . . . . . . . .
5. Ferric oxide . . . . . . . . . .
6. Potassium iodide . . . . . . . . . .
2.40
1.15
0.66
0.55
0.10
0.01
parts.
„
„
„
„
„
The mixture was used at the rate of 2.42 parts per 100 parts of the meal. This
is a modification of the one used in Aberdeen experiment in that it contained no
blood meal. This mixture was further modified after a few weeks. The chalk and
bone meal content was doubled as most of the calves under experiment were lean
and thin legged and as good bone development was also aimed at.
FEEDING.
The calves were fed twice daily with concentrates, once in the morning at
about 9 A.M. and once in the evening at about 4 P.M., rice straw, clean water being
provided at the same time. The concentrates were supplied in sufficient quantity,
and a record was kept of the amount given. The uneaten portion was weighed
daily and the amount recorded. A record of the daily consumption of concentrates
in each of the three groups was kept separately.
Each calf was weighed regularly on the same day and at the same time every
week before their morning meal, excepting during the last 6 weeks of the experiment
when they were weighed fortnightly, as some of the calves became very big and a
little troublesome to weigh in the particular weighing machine used.
During the whole of the experimental period on two occasions only the weights
could not be recorded on the exact day due to some unforeseen causes, but these two
occasions were not allowed to disturb the weighings of other weeks.
RESULTS.
Table I shows the total weights of each group and the average of each animal
of each group on the dates of weighing.
A glance at Table I will show that the average initial weight of each group is
nearly equal, that of " B " was slightly greater. From 10th August 1931 to 18th
August 1931 was non-experimental period during which the calves were selected,
weighed and kept under observation. The experimental feeding started from the
18th August 1931. It will be seen that at first the group "B" was making the
greatest gain in weight. But later the group " C " shows the maximum increase
in weight. The average increase of weight by each group is shown clearly in
Fig. I.
Average weight per calf.
FIG. 1.
THE RÔLE OF MINERALS IN CALF FEEDING
177
TABLE I.
Date
of
weighing.
10-8-31 . .
18-8-31 . .
29-8-31 . .
1-9-31 . .
8-9-31 . .
15-9-31 . .
22-9-31 . .
29-9-31 . .
6-10-31 . .
14-10-31 . .
20-10-31 . .
27-10-31 . .
3-11-31 . .
10-11-31 . .
17-11-31 . .
24-11-31 . .
2-12-31 . .
8-12-31 . .
15-12-31 . .
22-12-31 . .
29-12-31 . .
5-1-32 . .
12-1-32 . .
19-1-32 . .
Total
weight of
group
" A "
in lbs.
Lbs. oz.
555 0
572 0
606 8
610 6
615 12
630 8
675 0
695 0
719 0
734 0
786 0
814 0
844 12
858 0
900 0
925 8
958 0
1,006 0
. .
1,079 0
. .
1,166 0
. .
1,230 0
Total
weight of
group
"B"
in lbs.
Lbs. oz.
560 0
572 0
618 0
621 12
653 12
666 4
714 0
752 0
771 0
782 0
834 0
861 0
885 0
926 0
954 0
964 0
1,019 12
1,078 0
. .
1,151 0
. .
1,260 0
. .
1,328 0
Total
weight of
group
"C"
in lbs.
Lbs. oz.
557 0
567 0
612 8
616 4
618 2
643 8
679 0
724 0
771 0
820 0
877 0
895 0
943 14
1,011 0
1,040 0
1,098 0
1,159 0
1,206 0
. .
1,316 0
..
1,446 0
. .
1,510 0
Average weight per calf.
Group
"A".
Lbs.
111.0
114.4
121.3
122.9
123.1
126.1
135.0
139.0
143.8
146.8
157.2
162.8
168.9
171.6
180.0
185.1
191.8
201.2
. .
215.8
. .
233.2
. .
246.0
Group
" B ".
Lbs.
1120
114.4
123.6
124.3
130.7
133.2
142.8
150.4
154.2
156.4
166.8
172.2
177.0
185.2
190.8
192.8
203.9
215.6
. .
230.2
. .
252.0
. .
265.6
Group
" C ".
Lbs.
111.4
113.4
122.5
123.2
123.6
128.7
135.8
144.8
154.2
164.0
175.4
179.0
188.7
202.2
208.0
219.6
231.8
241.2
. .
263.2
. .
289.2
. .
302.0
Table II shows the net weekly increases of each group and the total amount
of food consumed each week. It will be seen that the total amount of food con-
sumed is practically the same in each group. The consumption is rather a little
more in group " A " than in either " B " or " C ".
178
INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ III, II
TABLE II.
Serial No,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Period.
18th to 24th August
1931.
25th to 31st August
1931.
1st to 7th September
1931.
8th to 14th
1931.
15th to 21st „
1931.
22nd to 28th „
1931.
29th September to 5th
October 1931.
6th to 13th
October
1931.
14th to 19th
1931.
20th to 26th „
1931.
27th October to 2nd
November 1931.
3rd to 9th November
1931.
10th to 16th „
1931.
17th to 23rd „
1931.
24th November to 1st
December
1931
(8
days).
2nd to 7th December
1931 (6 days).
8th to 14th December
1931.
15th to 21st
„
1931.
22nd to 28th
„
1931.
29th December to 4th
January 1932.
5th to 11th January
1932.
12th to 18th
„
1932.
Total .
Difference of B & C
Group A.
Total
food
consumed.
Lbs. oz.
61
2
75 13
92
4
99
8
110
0
114
0
115
0
135
0
106
8
124
0
135
0
134 12
146
0
169
0
260
8
153
4
192
8
262
4
199
8
191
8
189 8
192
0
3138 15
over A.
Total
weight
gained.
Lbs. oz.
. .
38
6
5
6
14 12
44
8
20
0
24
0
15
0
52
0
28
0
30 12
13
4
42
0
25
8
32
8
48
0
} 73 0
} 87
0
} 64
0
658
0
Group B.
Total
food
consumed.
Lbs. oz.
51
0
73
4
93
0
97
8
92
0
106
0
117
0
128
0
104
0
126 0
133 8
134
4
147 0
171
0
200
0
152
8
191
0
201
4
197 8
193 0
189 12
192
0
3090
8
—47
0
Total
Weight
gained.
Lbs. oz.
. .
49 12
32
0
12
8
47 12
38 0
19
0
11
0
52
0
27
0
24 0
41
0
28
0
10 0
55 12
58 4
} 73 0
}l09 0
} 68 0
756
0
+98
0
Group
Total
food
consumed.
Lbs. oz.
61
0
70
0
91
8
96
0
94
0
110 0
123 0
135
0
108 0
122 0
134
8
135 4
146 4
173 0
198 12
152 12
192
8
203
8
195 0
192
4
189
4
191
4
3114 12
—24
3
C.
Total
weight
gained.
Lbs. oz.
. .
49
4
1 14
26
6
35
8
45
0
47
0
49
0
57
0
18 0
48 14
67
2
29
0
58
0
61
0
47
0
}110
0
}l30
0
} 64
0
943
0
+285
0
THE RÔLE OF MINERALS IN CALF FEEDING 179
Up to the 2nd stage of the experiment none of the calves in any of the groups
were allowed any green fodder.
It was found that without any green fodder calves of both the groups " B "
and " C " showed increase in weight over the calves of the control group " A ".
Of " B " and " C ", the progress made by the calves of " C " group is most remark-
able.
At this stage it was thought to add cut green fooder in place of straw which
consisted of chopped stalk of Jowar (Andropogon Sorghum) to the ration of all the
groups and to find the effect on the growth. The results may be seen from
Table III.
It will be seen that during the period when green fodder was given there was
a marked improvement in growth in all groups specially in group " B " than in
group " A". This is probably due to certain elements and minerals present in
the green fodder and which are necessary for proper growth. The condition of
group " B " probably goes to prove that apart from minerals certain elements
which are present either in milk or in green fodder are also necessary for growth.
TABLE III.
—
1st
stage.
2nd
stage.
3rd
stage.
4th
stage.
18th August to 20th October
1931, 9 weeks period with
mixture No. 1.
21st October to 24th Novomber
1931, 5 weeks period with
mixture No. 2.
25th November to 22nd December
1931, 4 weeks with mixture
No. 2 plus green fodder to all.
23rd December to 18th January
1932, 4 weeks mixture No. 2
grazing allowed to all.
Group "A"
Average weight
per group per
week in Lbs.
23.72
27.90
38.12
37.75
Average weight
per animal per
week in Lbs.
4.74
5.58
7.62
7.55
Group "B"
Average weight
per group per
week in Lbs.
29.11
26.00
48.75
44.25
Average weight
per animal per
week in Lbs.
5.82
5.20
9.35
8.85
Group "C"
Average weight
per group per
week in Lbs.
34.38
44.20
54.50
48.50
Average weight
per animal per
week in Lbs.
6.87
8.84
10.90
9.70
180
INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ III, II
At this stage it was decided to test the effect of the mineral supplement when
the calves were allowed to graze with other calves of the farm. The condition of
grazing at this time of the year is poor. It will be seen from Table III that
there is a slight decrease in growth in all. But the gains made by both " B " and
" C " were yet better than that made by " A ". The reduction is no doubt due to
the poor condition of the pasture, that is to say, the pasture was deficient in
minerals and those elements which help proper growth.
DISCUSSION.
It would appear from the results of this experiment that calves which are back-
ward and unthrifty in condition are able to put on more weight when a suitable
mineral mixture is added to their ratio n of concentrates. Their capacity to grow
was more pronounced when in addition to a mineral supplement a small quantity of
4 ozs. of milk was supplied to them per head per day. This is due to the elements
that are present in milk and which are also present in cod-liver oil as is found by
the Aberdeen experiment. It will further be seen from the results that the addition
of the minerals and those elements do not increase the weight by increasing their
capacity to eat more food but by increasing their assimilating power. The total
amount of food consumed and the total gain in weight by each group leads to such
conclusion. The group " C " not only gained in weight but they showed also a
marked improvement of their appearance and size. It is, however, not possible to
furnish figures relating to the sizes, as no records were kept of their heights during
the progress of the experiment. But at the end of experiment all the calves belong-
ing to the group " C " appeared higher than those of the calves belonging to the
groups " B " and " A ".
In this experiment it is seen that the addition of a limited amount of green
fodder has the effect of raising the rate of growth in all but this effect is much
pronounced in group " B " which was so long getting as its food concentrates plus
minerals supplement only. Green fodder was probably supplying those elements
which help proper assimilation. During the last stage of the experiment all the
calves were turned on to grazing but they all received their experimental foods. It
is seen that the gain in weight made by " B " and " C " is still greater than that
made by group "A" which indicates that the minerals obtained from grazing are
not sufficient in quantity. If we turn our attention to the condition of the grazing
we find that it was very poor during the period in question. That is why probably
the group "A" failed to make the same rate of growth when the calves of the three
groups were allowed to graze. From the results of this experiment it may be con-
cluded that calves may be maintained in thriving condition with a limited milk
ration plus a suitable mixture of concentrates and minerals. The condition of
THE RÔLE OF MINERALS IN CASE FEEDING
181
u nthrifty calves, which may be due to unbalanced food lacking in sufficient proper
minerals, may be improved with the help of a ration mentioned in this experiment.
SUMMARY.
It was found that calves which were very stunted in growth improved in weight
and condition when a mineral supplement was added into their daily ration. This
improvement was very marked when a small quantity only about 4 ounces of milk
was added to their ration in addition to the mineral supplement.
The rate of growth was accelerated in the group " B " which received concen-
trate and mineral supplement only, when green fodder was given to them.
It was found that the calves of the groups " B " and " C " consumed com-
paratively less food than the calves of the group " A " but put on more weight.
This may be due to the fact that minerals helped them to assimilate more food.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
The author wishes to record his thanks to Mr. R. T. Davis, M. R. C. V. S.,
I. V. S., the principal of the college for giving permission and full facilities to carry
out the experiment and for taking great interest in the work.
Thanks are also due to the Farm Manager for offering facilities in the farm and
to the Assistant for attending to the routine work of this experiment.
REFERENCES.
Orr, Crichton, Shearer and Speedy (1929). Scottish Journal of Agriculture 12, 2.
Prentice, Baskett and Robertson (1928). The Nutrition of the chicks and its effect on growth,
maturity, egg production and mortality. Pamphlet No. 37, Ministry of Agriculture, Belfast.
PAPERS ON INDIAN TABANIDAE, X*. THE LIFE-HISTORY
OF TABANUS SPECIOSUS RIC.
BY
P. V. ISAAC, B.A., M. Sc. (London), D.I.C.;
Of f g. Imperial Entomologist, Imperial Institute of Agricultural Research, Pusa.
(Received for publication on 3rd April 1933.)
(With Plate XIII.)
INTRODUCTION.
Among the Tabanidæ of India Tabanas speciosus Ric. is one of the largest
in size. Though not found in numbers, it does occur all over the Indian plains and
is a source of injury to livestock.
Very little is known of the life-history of this blood-sucking species. Patton
and Cragg [1913] have recorded that this lays its eggs on the leaves of water lilies
growing in deep water and that each egg-mass consists of 500 to 600 eggs. The
egg-mass has also been described and figured by them. They have not described
the larva but have stated that the larvæ are powerful swimmers and have large
air sacs connected with their tracheal tubes, so that they can float or sink at will.
This paper embodies a description of the complete life-history of this insect.
A female was observed at Giridih, Bihar, laying eggs in the field. The egg-mass
was brought to Pusa and the larvæ that hatched from it were bred in small glass
beakers, each larva in a separate beaker. Although in recent years much effort
has been spent on investigating the life-histories of Tabanidæ because they are
blood-sucking pests of cattle, the complete life-history including the number of
larval instars of members of this genus has been only known in the case of certain
Indian representatives that were studied by the writer [1924]. As is the case with
the majority of Indian flies of the genus Tabanus, Schwardt [1931], working re-
cently in North America, has observed the larvæ of T. lineola Fb. to pass through
a maximum number of seven instars. Schwardt [1932] also studied important facts
in the life-histories of two more North American Tabanids and found that
T. atratus Fb. passes through a maximum of nine larval instars and T. trimaculatus
P. de B. passes through a maximum number of eight larval instars. In both these
cases the larval period is a little over three hundred days. In the Indian species
T. crassus Wlk. (= T. rufiventris Fb.) studied by the writer [1924], eight larval
instars were observed and here too the larval period was noted to be much longer
than in most other Indian Tabanids.
* Eight previous papers in the series were published as Memoirs of the Dept. of Agric. in India,
Entomological Series, and the ninth paper appeared in Vol. II, Pt. 3 of this Journal.
( 182 )
PLATE XIII.
Tabanus speciosus Ric.
LIFE-HISTORY OF tabanus speciosus
RIC.
183
HABITS OF T. speciosus RIC.
The females suck blood from cattle during day. Patton and Cragg [1913]
have mentioned that the female attacks the animal on the lower parts of the back
of the hind legs. The eggs are laid during day usually at, or a little before, noon
on stems of paddy or twigs of other small plants over water which is about a foot
or more deep. Each egg-mass contains about 500 eggs closely packed together in
a slightly elongated dome-shaped mass. The true eggs are covered over with
blackish elongated empty egg-like bodies, glued together with a chalky substance
which is spread irregularly. The use of a chalky substance to cover the eggs has
been observed in the case of the egg-masses of T. rufiventris Fb. (= T. crassus
Wlk.) by the author [1924]. Patton and Evans [1929] have suggested that the
purpose of such a chalky deposit is to protect the eggs from parasites.
The case of T. speciosus Ric. is the only one known among Tabanids where
use is made of such flattened egg-like bodies to cover the true eggs and this seems
to be a really efficacious means of protecting the eggs from natural enemies.
On hatching the larvæ crawl out from the lower end of the egg-mass, fall
into water and swim till they reach the shore. Then they burrow into the soil
and live close to the edge of the water. They feed by sucking the juices of earth-
worms and other soft bodied animals they can prey on. When ready to pupate
they move away from the water edge to drier but damp soil.
DESCRIPTION OF EARLY STAGES.
Egg.—In each egg mass there are about 500 eggs under the covering of the
long black chitinous bodies and the chalky deposit. Each egg is cigar shaped and
0.8 mm. long. The eggs are white when laid and turn light brown in course of time.
Larva.—The just hatched larva is 1 mm. long, white and translucent. It has
a median hard toothed process at the cephalic end. The purpose of the process
is to break open the egg shell. These larvæ of the first instar show no free mandi-
bles ; but directly they reach water they moult and exhibit the mouth parts
necessary for feeding. The second instar larva is 3 mm, long and has two pairs
of black bodies in the Graber's organ at its posterior extremity. It is very active.
The full grown larva is 36 mm. long, white, torpedo shaped and 5.5 mm. broad.
It has a retractile head, three thoracic segments and eight abdominal segments.
The eighth abdominal segment carries the anal opening ventrally between two
anal pads and there is a terminal elongated siphon tube at the extremity of which
the main paired tracheal tubes of the larva end. It is creamy white in colour.
The head is well chitinised and has a pair of black mandibles. The thoracic seg-
ments carry no external process. On the abdominal segments one to seven at
their anterior margins there is a fleshy ridge which carries six fleshy parapodia,
184
INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ III, II
two laterally and two pairs ventrally. Minute brownish spines are present on the
fleshy ridge and larger bristles are seen at the extremity of the parapodia.
Pupa.—The pupa is well chitinised and can twist and wriggle with the aid
of the rings of spines found on the abdomen. The last segment ends in six stout
spines known together as the pupal aster. The male pupa has a peculiar sculptured
crescent shaped area on the venter of the abdomen close to its extremity and
posterior to a comb of spines. In the female pupa this comb of spines is broken
in the middle and the spines are in two lateral groups.
LIFE-CYCLE AND LARVAL INSTARS.
The egg hatches in five days. The larva, when food is plentiful, attains full
growth during summer in about fifteen weeks. Larvæ, from eggs laid just before
winter, hibernate during the winter, and take about six months to become full
grown. The larvæ moult several times, the first moult taking place a few minutes
after hatching. The second instar larva has, it has been mentioned, two pairs, of
black bodies in the Graber's organ. After every moult an additional pair of such
black bodies appear in this organ. All larvæ pass through eight instars and not
the usual seven instars, perhaps owing to the unusually long larval stage. The
pupal period lasts for about eighteen days.
BROODS.
There are three broods in the year. Winter is passed in the larval form.
REMARKS.
The adults closely resemble those of T. rubidus Wied which are very com-
mon in India. They however have the dorsal whitish triangular markings on the
middle of the abdomen bolder and wider and the female has a large oblong frontal
callus with a fine, short, L near extension, which is not always visible, whereas the
corresponding callus in T. rubidus Wied is narrow and oval with a clear, narrow
linear extension.
REFERENCES.
Isaac, P. V. (1924). Papers on Indian Tabanidæ, I-III. Mem. Dept. Agric. Ind., Ent. Ser. 8,
53-62.
Patton, W. S., and Cragg, F. W. (1913). Text book of Medical Entomology, 294 and 297.
Patton, W. S., and Evans, A. M. (1929). Insects, Ticks, Mites and Venomous Animals, Part I
Medical, 298.
Schwardt, H. H. (1931). The Biology of Tabanus lineola Fabr. Ann. Ento. Soc. America, 24,
2, 409-416.
(1932). The Life-histories of Two Horse-Flies. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 25,
3, 631-637.