NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
320 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ III, IV.
in a dog here is of some interest. Leiper [1911] obtained E. malayanum in the
intestines of Tamil coolies during post-mortem examination and opined that dogs,
cats, etc., should be examined as possible carriers. Lane [ 1915 ] obtained from a
girl in Assam somewhat similar parasites (E. sufrartyfex) and said that the Tamils,
from whom Leiper obtained the trematodes, may have carried the infection to
the Malay States from India, and whether it was so or not there must be other
cases waiting for recognition. In Madras it is seen that low class Tamils catch
fresh water fish—"Barbus stigma"—all the year round for food. It has been
pointed out that these fish harbour the Metacercariæ and may be the source of
infection in human beings who carried it with them to Malay States. This shows
that Leiper is right in thinking that the dog may be a carrier, and Lane is right
in opining that the infection may have been carried thither.
My thanks are due to Col. R. B. Seymour Sewell, Director of Zoological Survey
of India for identifying the cercaria, to Dr. Baini Pershad for identifying the
snail and to Messrs. L. S. Parameswara Ayyar and S. Vaidynatha Mudaliar for
the help rendered during this work.
SUMMARY.
1. Cercaria indica XXIII Sewell 1922, are found in Madras in Limnea leuteola
and they encyst in the gills of fresh water fish— Barbus stigma, and other fresh-
water snails.
2. The Metacercariæ, when fed to dogs and cats, develop into a species of
Euparyphium in the small intestines.
3. In a pariah dog a natural infection of a trematode of the Genus Eupary-
phium was recorded on 26th January 1931.
4. There is reason to believe that low class Tamilians may get infected through
the said fish which they are very fond of eating.
REFERENCES.
Lane, Clayton (1915). Artyfechinostomum Sufrartifex. Indian Journal of Med. Research, 2,
pp. 977-983.
Leiper, R. T. (1911). A new Echinostome Parasite in Man. Journal of London School of Trop.
Med. 1. pp. 27-28.
Sewell, R. B. Seymour (1922). Cercariæ Indicæ. Indian Journal of Med. Research,
10, Supplement, pp. 131-135.
PLATE XXV.
Photomicrograph of a pair of S. suis.
SCHISTOSOMA SUIS, N. SP.
A SCHISTOSOME FOUND IN PIGS IN MADRAS
BY
M. ANANT NARAYAN RAO,
Lecturer in Parasitology, Madras Veterinary College,
AND
L. S. PARAMESWARA AYYAR,
Assistant Lecturer.
(Received for publication on the 8th April 1933.)
(With Plate XXV and one text-figure.)
There seems to be very little literature on Schistosomes found in pigs, and
what exists seems to deal with only S. japonicum Katsurada, 1904. This parasite,
it would appear, has not been reported from India.
In December 1932 while collecting parasites from the pigs slaughtered in
Madras, the authors first found an adult male and female Schistosome in the portal
vein of an apparently healthy pig. Later four more pairs were found in 4 pigs out
of 81 examined. The pigs brought for slaughter were all from the North Arcot
District only, hence the authors are not in a position to say anything regarding
the rate of infection in pigs in this presidency, but it would appear that it is low
in pigs of that district.
DESCRIPTION OF THE MALE WORM.
The male, like most other Schistosomes, is fairly active when alive. The
whole worm varies from 4 to 6 mm. in length. In the body of the parasite there
is a constriction a little behind the ventral sucker which can be said to divide it
into a short anterior portion more or less sub-cylindrical and a longer posterior
portion whose lateral margins curve ventrally to form the gynecophoral canal.
The anterior portion which is spindle shaped carries the oral and ventral sucker.
The cuticle lining the suckers, and that lining the gynecophoral canal is spiny.
The cuticle of the anterior portion of the parasite is smooth, but that covering the
dorsal surface of the posterior part is covered with moderately large tubercles,
( 321 )
322 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [III, IV.
majority of which bear a few spines on them. The posterior extremity of the
male is truncated.
The oral sucker is subterminal or it appears to be so owing to the overhanging
dorsal rim. The diameter is about 0.15 mm. The wall of the oral sucker is thick
and it encloses a funnel shaped cavity leading into a thin walled oesophagus.
The ventral sucker is somewhat larger than the other and measures 0.18 mm.
in diameter. It is pedunculated.
The alimentary canal begins with the oesophagus which is short and it bifur-
cates in front of the ventral sucker into two intestinal caeca, and each passes on
either side of the sucker dorsally only to unite in the region about the beginning
of the middle third of the worm to form a blindly ending common caecum which
terminates 0.2 mm., from the truncated posterior extremity of the worm. The
anterior third of the common caecum appeared to possess small diverticulæ in one
worm.
The visible excretory system consists of a small elongated bladder 0.08 mm.,
in length and opens on the posterior margin of the worm. The bladder has two
cornua anteriorly, each of which disappears in the tissue on either side of the
parasite.
The genital glands consist of 4 to 7 testes which lie apparently in a row in the
median line, in the dorsal aspect, behind the ventral sucker and each gland
is almost rectangular when viewed ventrally. The vesiculæ seminis is placed in
front of the testes and opens ventrally just behind the ventral sucker.
DESCRIPTION OF THE FEMALE.
The female worm is cylindrical and has nearly uniform thickness excepting at
the ends which taper slightly. The cuticle is smooth. The length varies from 4.9
to 6 mm. The oral sucker is subterminal and much more developed than the
ventral sucker. It is about 0.05 mm., in diameter and leads into the œsophagus.
The ventral sucker projects from the body and appears to be much more developed
than the corresponding sucker in other species of female Schistosomes found in
mammals. In the live worm its movements were almost similar to those of the
oral sucker. Its diameter is about 0.03 mm. The alimentary canal, as in the male,
begins with the œsophagus, bifurcates in front of the ventral sucker and the two
caeca thus formed reunite at the end of the anterior fourth of the body just behind
the ovary.
The ovary is a solid granular organ, more or less pyriform, the broader end of
which is directed anteriorly. It measures about 0.2 × 0.06 mm. The oviduct
Schistosoma suis, N. Sp.
Ovum-side view.
SCHISTOSOME FOUND IN PIGS IN MADRAS
323
begins at the posterior pole and immediately bends forwards, passes by the side of
the ovary and in front of the ovary it meets an ill-defined granular body, the shell
gland.
The vitellaria begin 0.19 mm. from the posterior extremity of the ovary and
are in the form of loosely packed granular clumps round the whole length of the
common caecum. The vitelline ducts meet the oviduct a little behind its origin.
The uterus which is a fairly wide tube, passes forward in a zig-zag manner
between the intestinal caeca and opens just behind the ventral sucker apparently
on a small papilla. Only one ovum could be seen in the uterus of each of the
specimens available.
The egg is yellowish brown in colour, suboval in shape with one side flattened.
There is a small stout spine which is subterminal and inclines towards the flattened
side. The egg, in utero, measures 0.09×0.041 mm. and the spine measures about
7.5 μ in length. The egg shell is thin.
DISCUSSION.
As far as the writers are aware, no Schistosome other than S. japonicum has
been recorded in the portal system of the pig, at any rate, no Schistosome has been
recorded in the pig in this country. The parasite in question resembles in size
S. bomfordi Montgomery, 1906, and S. turkestanicum Skrjabin, 1913, but the males
of these two species have in them over 60 testicular glands, whereas the male of the
former has only 4 to 7. In all other Mammalian Schistosomes the ovary in the
female is either in the middle or post-equatorial except in S. bomfordi and
S. mansoni Sambon, 1907, in which it is pre-equatorial. The female worm of the
species described has its ovary anterior to the middle, but the size of the worm,
the shape of the ovum and the position of its spine differs from those seen in
S. bomfordi or in S. mansoni. S. japonicum again is larger in size and the cuticle
of the male is smooth when compared to the one under discussion, which is smaller
and has moderately developed tubercles on its cuticle. Further the ovum of
S. japonicum is a rounded oval with a papilla, or knob or a mere thickening
laterally, whereas the ovum of this parasite is suboval flattened on one side and
bears a short subterminal spine inclined slightly towards the flattened side.
Recently Leroux [1933] has described a new Schistosome, S. margrebowiei, from
ruminants in Northern Rhodesia and the ovum of these is an oval provided with
either a subterminal knob, rudimentary or well developed spine sunk in almost
resembling a short piece of the petiole in an apple. Hence these appear different
from the ones described in this paper.
324 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ III, IV.
MacHattie and Chadwick [1932] and many others have admitted that the ova
of the various species of Schistosomes described from man and animals, within
reasonable limits of variation, have a definite and characteristic shape which is
generally regarded as being diagnostic of the species. These authors have also
proved that a very small percentage of females produce ova showing a departure
from the normal shape ; yet the fact remains that a vast majority of them produce
ova each having a characteristic shape which is constant to a given species. Baylis
[1929] and Faust [1930] have given outline drawings of ova of different species of
Schistosomes from mammals and when the outline of the ovum of the parasite in
question is compared with any one of those depicted, it looks different. The ova
of all the females of the species described, resemble each other in their characteristic
shape and the authors therefore believe that that shape is normal to that species.
Chandler [1926] has described Schistosome ova from samples of what he believed
to be human faeces which were collected from defæcation areas, near two villages,
to which pigs had access. These ova resemble in all respects, the ova described in
this paper. Chandler assumed that such faeces, from which he obtained samples,
were passed by human beings because of the nature of the stools and the presence
of ova of Anclyostomes, Ascaris and Trichuris, but, for obvious reasons that can-
not be taken as evidence to prove the correctness of his assumption. The fact that
the Schistosome ova described by him resemble those found in the Schistosomes
collected here from pigs, suggests the probability that the fæces in which he saw
them were from the pigs that had access to the areas mentioned by him, and not
from human beings. The difference in the morphology between this and the other
Schistosomes has been discussed above. Further the various Schistosomes de-
scribed from mammals can be differentiated by the shape of their ova, and since the
shape of the ova of the parasites in question is different from the others, there
appears to be enough justification in making it a new species and it is proposed to
name it "SCHISTOSOMA SUIS." Now that the adult Schistosome and its host
has been found, we suggest to tentatively place S. incognitum Chandler, 1926,
as a synonym of S. suis, because even though the former name is the older it is
only a nomen nudum.
REFERENCES.
Baylis, H. A. (1929). Helminthology Medical and Veterinary. London, B. T. & Cox.
Chandler, Asa, C. (1926). Ind. Jour. of Med. Res., 14, pp. 179-183.
Faust, E. C. (1930). Human Helminthology. London, Henry Kimpton.
Leroux, P. L. (1933). Jl. of Helminthology, 11, No. 1, pp. 57-62.
MacHattie, C. and Chadwick, C. R. (1932) Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. and Hyg., 26, pp.
147-156.
CROSS-BREEDING FOR MILK
BY
CAPTAIN R. W. LITTLEWOOD, N.D.A., I.A.S.
(Received for publication on 20th June 1933.)
(With Plates XXVI- XXXI.)
It is stated that the best milkers in the breeding tracts which are taken to
large towns and cities for milk purposes, half or more of them never return. They
are generally the pick of the cows and this is a serious drain on the breeding tracts,
secondly the heifer calves of these cows are generally neglected in the towns and the
strain of good milking cattle is gradually disappearing.
The town dairyman requires a good milking cow which will calve regularly and
also milk without its calf if possible; therefore an experiment was started to try
and evolve a breed of animal which would supply these demands until such a time
as the milk-yielding powers of indigenous dairy breeds were improved.
In Madras, the dairyman neglects to feed his country calf properly and quite
a number of them are maintained in a semi-starved condition, whereas it is very
rare to see a cross-bred heifer calf belonging to the dairyman in such a condition and
this speaks for itself.
In 1919, the Madras Government approved of Mr. Carruth's scheme, i.e., to use
the Ayrshire Bull on the Scindi and Saniwal cows in order to try and evolve a
new breed of cow suitable for urban milk supply. The first generation half-bred
bull is used on the first generation cow, the second generation bull on the second
generation cow and so on. In this way the breed retains half the imported blood
and half the country blood.
Object. In Madras the Ongole breed is looked upon as the best milker for
dairy purposes; the average yield of this breed is between 2,250 and 2,500 lb.
Young cows in milk are purchased in the breeding tract and brought to Madras.
In many cases when these cows go dry, they are sold to the butcher and slaughtered.
In order to stop the drain of these good cows from the breeding tract, it was de-
cided to try and evolve a breed of cow suitable for the Madras dairymen. The
number of cross-bred cows in Madras has increased considerably during the last 10
years and a dairyman will very rarely part with a cow or a heifer if it has the least
sign of imported blood in it; this displays the high regard the dairyman has for
cross-bred cows and he is the man who has to make his living from his cows and his
opinion cannot be disregarded.
( 325 )
PLATE XXVI.
1. AYRSHIRE-SINDHI BULL. F 1 GENERATION.
2. AYRSHIRE-SINDHI BULL. F 2 GENERATION.
326 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ III, IV.
From 1919 to 1923, the experiment was carried out at the Military Dairy
Farm, Bangalore. Early in 1923, this Government purchased 32 half-bred cows and
heifers born in the experiment at Bangalore and continued this work on their own
cattle farm in the Presidency.
Births. 222 calves have been born and are classified as follows :—
Generation
F. 1
F. 2
F. 3
F. 4
F. 5
Total
Heifers
15
27
43
13
3
101
Bulls
12
33
54
22
..
121
Total
27
60
97
35
3
222
All the calves with the exception of F. 1 calves, were weaned at birth and
hand-fed.
Deaths. These have been rather heavy. Improper feeding of calves caused
stomach trouble which ended fatally in several instances, in others pneumonia
followed this. Several calves suffered from ringworm and this lowered their
vitality. There have been 106 deaths including adults, 66 of these being calves.
Generation
F. 1
F. 2
F. 3
F. 4
Total.
Cows and
heifer
calves
9
23
23
5
60
Bulls and
bull
calves
4
10
25
7
46
Total
13
33
48
12
106
CROSS-BREEDING FOR MILK
333
western countries, a stockman or labourer takes a pride and interest in all his
animals but this class of trained labour is not available in India at present and it
is hoped that with better training and more supervision, this standard can be
obtained in the near future.
Regarding udder trouble, the cross-bred is not so liable to develop this as pure
Sindhis,
Two tests for T. B. have been conducted on the half-bred herd and in both
cases, they have been declared free.
One drawback amongst the half-bred is that many cows do not conceive at the
first or second covering but with all this, their dry periods are much shorter than
the country cows.
BREEDING BACK TO THE COUNTRY WITH COUNTRY SIRES.
Quarter-bred Ayrshire Sindhi and Sahiwal.—This experiment has only been
conducted during the last 6 years at Hosur and a good number of cows
have been sold. A Sindhi bull has been used on cross-bred cows and the
particulars of the cows at present on the farm are given in the list at the end. Two
out of these 5 cows have yielded over 5,000 lb. milk. Cow No. 261 has given over
5,000 lb. milk in her 2 lactations with daily averages of 16.1 and 18.5.
In 1930, this Government purchased 16 cows and heifers from Pusa (¼ Ayrshire,
¾ Sahiwal). The particulars of the best cows are given in the list at the end. It is
seen that one cow No. 216 CL has given 8,570 lb. with a daily average of 19.9 lb.
and in her present lactation has given 11,532.7 lb. with a daily average of 27.8 lb.
and is still in milk. This yield is much better than any of the F. 1 half-bred cows.
Cow No. 250 M.T. has given 5,495 lb. with a daily average of 15.1 lb. Cow
No. 255 RJ. has given in her present lactation 8,169 lb. milk with a daily average of
17.1 lb. and is still in milk.
CONCLUSIONS.
In an experiment of this kind a very large number of animals are necessary,
at least 200 F. 2 cows are necessary in order that a good selection can be made.
Possibly 25 to 30 per cent. of the cows would be retained and the same applies to
future generations. In this experiment the original numbers, I have worked on,
have been very small and only very poor milkers and bad breeders have, been
discarded, therefore drastic discarding was impossible. There are two cows out of
9 in F. 3, which have gone over 6,000 lb. in a lactation, another animal would have
reached this figure but unfortunately it died.
CROSS-BREEDING FOR MILK
327
The chief causes of death are :—
Johnes disease
Pneumonia
Rinderpest reaction
Enteritis,etc.
Blackquarter
Pyroplasmosis .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
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.
.
6
21
18 (including calves used as controls).
19
5
4
Growth of calves.
The calves of the second, third, etc., generations in most cases do not grow so
well as the F. 1 calves; this, no doubt, is partly due to hand-feeding which is done
by the coolies and the Dairy Manager has not the time to continually supervise
the feeding of all these calves. Feeding of milk at wrong temperature whilst
young, is very apt to cause scouring, etc., and this lowers the calves' constitution
and they take a long time to recover condition. In many instances at Hosur,
ringworm breaks out and this retards the animals' growth.
Present strength of the herd.
Several cows which were bad or irregular breeders and milkers have been sold,
adult balls in most cases have been used for work purposes and a large number of
bull calves have been sold as they were not required. The total strength of the
herd at present is:—
F.1
.
F. 2 .
F. 3 .
F.4 .
F.5 .
Generation
....
....
....
....
....
Total
Cows
and
heifers
6
5
17
4
..
32
Breeding
bulls and
young bulls
2
4
3
4
..
13
Heifer
calves
..
1
2
1
1
5
Bull
calves
..
..
..
3
..
3
Total
8
10
22
12
1
53
Calvings and average age at first calving.
28 F.1 cows calved at an average age of 2 years 7 months and 20 days.
27. F.2 cows at 3 years and 16 days.
12. F.3 cows at 3 years 2 months and 1 day and
2. F.4 cows at 3 years and 1 day.
328 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ III, IV.
Milk Yield.
Before giving these it is necessary to state the average number of completed
lactations per cow in each generation.
Generation
F. 1 ..........
F. 2 ..........
F. 3 ..........
Including
all
animals
36
3.5
2.4
Herd minus
poor
milkers, etc.
4.0
3.9
2.5
It is therefore seen that F.1 and F.2 have reached their best, whereas F.3 have not.
The following statement includes all cows born in the experiment and shows
the yields of the specially selected country dams.
Class
15 Scindi cows
27 F. 1 cows
23 F. 2 cows
11 F. 3 cows
Average
yield per
lactation
lb.
3,431
5,021
3,296
3,626
Average
daily
average
lb.
120
14.8
12.3
12.4
Average
days
dry
186
113
151
148
Average
maximum
yield
lb.
4,505
6,268
4,247
4,516
It must be noted that the Sindhi cows were specially selected for their milk
yields from a large herd, therefore selection in the progeny should be continued ;
poor and abnormal milkers, also long dry periods are omitted in order to arrive
at a proper comparison and this is seen from the following:—
Class
15 Scindi cows . . .
23 F. 1 cows...
19 F. 2 cows...
9 F. 3 cows...
Average
yield per
lactation
lb.
3,431
5,122
4,068
4,151
Average
daily
average
lb.
12.0
16.1
14.0
13.3
Average
days
dry
186
83
97
94
Average
maximum
yield
lb.
4,505
6,231
4,919
4,550
Average No.
of days in
milk
286
318
290
304
PLATE XXVIII.
AYRSHIRE-SINDHI COW No. 1. F
1 GENERATION.
PLATE XXIX.
AYRSHIRE-SINDHI
COW No. 8. F
1 GENERATION.
CROSS-BREEDING FOR MILK
329
In the F.3 group above, 2 cows in their first lactation gave 1,100 lb. of milk and
these lactations have been omitted. In two dry periods 2 cows were dry for 272
and 349 days respectively and these two periods have been omitted in the
calculation.
The average daily yield of milk from date of first calving to date of last
calving including dry periods over all cows is :—
Sindhi cows
F. 1 cows .
F. 2 cows .
F. 3 cows .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
7.2 lb.
12.7 lb.
10.5 lb.
10.4 lb.
It is thus seen that all the cross-bred cows give on the average from 3 to 5 lb. milk
more per day from date of first calving to date of last calving. The F.3 cows
have not attained their best, their average lactations being 2.5 as against 4 and
3.9 in F.1 and F.2 respectively.
F. 1 cows.
In this herd 3 cows had extraordinarily long lactations. In two cases, cows
aborted after 6 months in milk. The length of their lactations were long and
these account for the large number of days in milk for this herd.
Three out of 23 cows have yielded less milk on the average per lactation than
the Sindhis. The highest yield in a single lactation omitting abnormal cases is
cow No. 8 with 9,732 lb. and a daily average of 28.9 lb. This cow in 7 lactations
has averaged 6.574 lb. milk with a daily average of 21.7 lb. (This is omitting one
lactation of 1,150 lb. when the cow was sick.) Cow No. 1 is another good animal
with an average for 8 lactations of 5,885.6 lb. and a daily average of 18.1 lb. She
gave 50½ lb. milk per day at her maximum. Cow No. 14 had abnormal lactations,
she aborted in two cases after six months in milk ; she gave 12,731 lb. milk in 950
days with a daily average of 13.4 lb. and 10,820 1b. milk in 894 days with a daily
average of 121 lb. She had a very difficult parturition in the second calving and
she became sterile. Cow No. 113 aborted about 7 months after calving and she
had an abnormal period, she gave 17.092 lb. milk in 810 days with a daily average
of 21.1 lb.
Fifty per cent. of these cows have given over 6,000 lb. milk in a lactation.
This herd on the whole is much superior to the Sindhi herd in milk yield and daily
average.
F. 2 Cows.
Taking the whole herd, the average yield per lactation is less than that of the
Sindhis, but if the 4 low yielders in the F.2 are omitted, the average yield for 19
C