NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
286 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [III, III.
in ruminants with a bibliography of 150 papers. It is therefore not necessary to
discuss this subject any further, but mention may be made of one of their interest-
ing conclusions, that aphosphorosis may be made evident by blood analysis long
before any clinical symptom of phosphorus deficiency appears. In a paper on
"Pica" which means depraved or perverted appetite in animals Foster (loc. cit.)
has brought together many interesting natural cases. Thus while wool eating in
sheep may sometimes be due to the presence of external parasites, Green 69 records
a serious outbreak of the habit among penned sheep fed on maize endosperm and
minimal ration of auto-claved hay, " a diet faulty both in mineral and in vitamin
content". Hutyra and Marek 70 consider the fault to lie in the low salt content and
the ill-balanced mineral ratio of the fodder. The same observers quote tales of Alpine
hunters and mountaineers whose perspiration-soaked clothes were greedily licked by
salt-starved mountain sheep.
An interesting form of pica is the habit of eating earth at the so-called " salt
licks ". This is found specially in tropical regions and salt licks are known to occur
in the Punjab, in the Madras Presidency and in Hyderabad State. Some salt licks
in South Africa are composed mainly of lime and phosphorus, whilst others may be
rock salt or a mixture of sodium carbonate and bicarbonate. Recent analysis at
Nairobi of the Lumbwa cave earth, which is largely used as a salt lick has shown
that in addition to 5 per cent. Na 2 O, there are also present 5 per cent. Fe 2 O 3 and
up to 5.25 per cent. Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2
71
. An analysis of Madras salt licks by Newcomb 72
showed that the substances contained large amounts of iron and some iodine. Roy
(unpublished data) in this laboratory has recently analysed several samples of salt
licks and edible earths and has found that some of them contain appreciable
amounts of lime and iron while others mainly sodium chloride, traces of carbonate
and sulphate.
CONCLUSION.
In concluding this paper a brief reference may be made to the work done in
India on this subject. An important investigation in this direction is that of
McCarrison 73 on the goitre problem and the distribution of iodine in certain regions
of India. With regard to lime and phosphorus deficiency, Davis 74 states that the
low milk yield of cows in Bihar is due to deficiency of phosphorus in the pastures
and McCarrison 75 has stated that in Bihar and on the Malabar coast mortality
among cattle is high, sterility is common and the milk yield of cows is low.
McCarrison suspects the cause to be lack of phosphorus. Smith 76 suggested that in
many parts of the country the local fodders were deficient in mineral matter and
Warth 77 considers that the deficiency of phosphorus is perhaps the most important
MINERAL METABOLISM OF FARM ANIMALS
287
problem in India. He also cites the work of Meggitt who found deficiencies of lime
in Assam and Harrison's soil survey in Madras Presidency showing regional defi-
ciencies. It is of course well known that soil deficiencies are reflected in the crops.
Matson 78 has observed the beneficial effects of patassium iodide, in cases of delayed
shedding of calf hair and Nayudu 79 considers that iodine fed to young calves im-
proves their appearance. Aiyer and Kayasth 80 have recently studied the chemical
composition of some fodders of the Central Provinces and Berar and find that these
are deficient in phosphorus and lime. The poor stunted growth of the cattle in
Chhattisgarh, may according to them, be due to phosphorus deficiency. According
to our own work here, some of the Muktesar pastures are markedly deficient in
phosphoric acid and lime. There is thus no question that pasture in many parts of
this country is deficient in nutrient minerals, but no systematic work has however
been done to determine if, by the addition of suitable salt mixtures, the nutritive
value of our pastures can be improved. Some experiments in our Institute, now in
progress, seem to indicate that the addition of bone meal to the ration of dairy
cows increases the milk yield. Since improvement in the condition of cattle is
linked with the agricultural prosperity of our country, research into the food values
of pastures and allied problems of nutrition in relation to Animal Husbandry is of
urgent necessity. Pioneer work on the digestibility of fodder, silage, etc., and food
values of different substances for growth and milk production has been done by
Warth and collaborators 81 and by Lander and others 82 and it is now necessary to
investigate the need of supplying minerals to the mineral deficient natural pastures
of India for the proper growth, fertility and productive capacity of her cattle.
The writer wishes to record his sincere thanks to F. Ware, Esq., F.R.C.V.S.,
I.V.S., Director of this Institute, for first asking him to take up the study of the
present subject and for his constant encouragement and advice. Thanks are also
due to the authorities of the Rowett Research Institute, Aberdeen, who gave every
facility for studying this problem at first hand. In preparing this article the writer
has received considerable help from the numerous experiments and publications of
this Institute.
REFERENCES.
(1) Forster, Z. Biol„ 1873, 9, 297, 369.
(2) Compare McCollum and Simmonds, Newer Knowledge of Nutrition, 1925.
(3) Proscher, Z. Physiol. Chem., 1897, 24, 285; 1899, 26, 487 ; Abderhalen, ibid, 1899, 27,
408 ; Konig, Chemistry of Human Food, 3rd Ed., 1889.
(4) Bunge, Physiological and Pathological Chemistry, Eng. Trans., 1902, p. 83 ; Abderhalden, Z.
Physiol. Chem., 1899, 27, 356.
288 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [III, III.
(5) Godden and Husband, J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1925, 44, 671.
(6) Sherman and Hawley, J. Biol. Chem. 1922, 53, 375.
(7) Orr, Proc. Vet. Congress Ayr., 1929.
(8) Forbes, Schulz, Hunt, Winter and Remler, J. Biol. Chem., 1922, 52, 281.
(9) Hart, Steenbock, Hoppert, Bethke and Humphrey, J. Biol. Chem., 1922, 53, 21 ; 54, 75.
(10) Hart, Steenbock and Hoppert, J. Biol. Chem,, 1921, 48, 33.
(11) Husband, Godden, and Richards, Biochem. J. 1923, 17, 707: Henderson, Biochem. J., 1925,
19, 52 ; Orr. Magee and Henderson, ibid, 1925, 19, 569.
(12) Henderson, Biochem. J., 1925, 19, 52.
(13) Sherman and Pappenheimer, J. Fxpt. Med., 1921, 34, 189.
(14) Ingle, J. Agri. Sci., 1908, 3, 22.
(15) Blauberg, Z. Biol., 1900, 40, 1, 36.
(16) Sherman and Hawley, J. Biol. Chem., 1922, 53, 375.
(17) Ingle, J. Physiol., 1905, 32, 183.
(18) Orr, Journal of State Medicine, 1924, 32, 421.
(19) Bunge, Z. Biol., 1873, 9, 104.
(20) Hart, McCollum, Steenbock and Humphrey, Wisconsin Agric. Expt. Stat. Research Bull,,
1911, 17.
(21) Seeman, Virchow's Arch., 1879, 77, 299.
(22) Zander, Vischow's Arch., 1881, 83, 377.
(23) Aron, P.flüger's Arch , 1905, 106, 91.
(24) Zuntz, (1912): Cited by Armsby in " Nutrition of farm animals," p. 342.
(25) Richards, Godden and Husband, Biochem. J., 1924, 18, 651.
(26) Richards, Godden and Husband, Biochem, J., 1927, 21, 971.
(27) Auchinache, Unpublished data, Rowett Institute.
(28) Husband, Godden and Richards, Biochem J., 1923, 17, 707.
(29) Forster, Quoted from Orr. Presidential Address to Section M. Brit. Assoc., 1925.
(30) Orr, ibid.
(31) Sen, Unpublished results, Rowett Institute.
(32) Magee and Reid, J. Physiol. 1931, 73, 163.
(33) Compare Husband, 1st Report of the Rowett Research Institute, 1922, 57.
(34) Orr, Agricultural Progress. 1925, V. 2.
(35) Smith, J. Biol. Chem., 1917, 29, 215.
(36) Marine and Kimball, Western Reserve Univ. Bull., 1923, 26.
(37) Theiler et al, Union of South Africa. Vet. Dep. Reports 3 and 4.
(38) Bechdel, Eckles and Palmer, J. Dairy. Sci., 1926, 9, 409.
(39) Bechdel, Honeywell, Dutcher and Knutsen J. Biol., Chem., 1928, 80, 231.
(40) Orr and Collaborators, J. Agric. Sci., 1924, 14, 114; Brit. J. Expt. Path., 1922, 3, 10.
(41) Zilva, Golding, Drummond and Coward, Biochem, J., 1921, 15, 427.
(42) Crowther, Olympia Agric. Co. Bull, 3, 1923.
MINERAL METABOLISM OF FARM ANIMALS
289
(43) White and Roberts, J. of Ministry Agric., 1923, 30, 27.
(44) Carrick and Hauge, J. Biol. Chem., 1925, 63, 115.
(45) Thurston, Univ. of Minnesota, 1928. Quoted by Gortner, Outlines of Biochemistry, 1929.
(46) Orr, Agricultural Progress, 1925, 2, Scotish, J. Agri. 1924, 7, 264.
(47) Foster, Kenya and East African Medical Journal, 1927, 4, 68.
(48) Hart et al, J. Biol. Chem., 1924, 60, 341.
(49) Pitz, J. Biol. Chem., 1918, 36, 439; Lewis : ibid 1919, 40, 91.
(50) McCarrison, Deficiency Diseases 1921, 42.
(51) Hutyra and Marek, Path. and Ther. of Diseases of animals 1913 ; I, 930 et seq. Eliot, Cri-
chton and Orr: Brit. J. Expt. Path. 1922, 3, 10; Korenchevsky : Etiology and Patho-
logy of Rickets, 1922.
(52) Meigs, The relation between the quantity and availability of calcium in the Ration in the
Milk yield of Dairy Cows, Washington, D. C., 1924.
(53) Hart, Steenbock and Humphrey: Agric. Expt. Stat. Wisconsin Bull., 1920, 49.
(54) Theiler, Green and Du Toit, Journal of the Department of Agric., Union of South Africa,
May, 1924.
(55) Elliot, Crichton and Orr: Brit. J. Expt. Path, 1922, 3, 10.
(56) Davidson, Proc. Brit. Assoc,, Glasgow, 1928.
(57) Hart, Steenbock and Humphrey, Agric, Expt. Stat. Wisconsin, Res. Bull., 1920, 49.
(58) McGowan and Crichton, Biochem. J., 1923, 17, 204; 1924, 18, 255.
(59) v. Höslin : Quoted by Czerny and Keller : Des kindes Ernahrung, 540.
(60) Waddel, Steenbock, Elvehyem and Hart : J. Biol. Chem. 1928, 77, 769.
(61) Elvehyem, Hart and others, J. Nutrition, 1929-30, 2, 277; J. Biol. Chem., 1932, 95, 363.
(62) Orr, Milk Industry, August, 1925.
(63) McCollum, Simmonds and Becker, J. Biol, Chem., 1922, 53, 313.
(64) Marin, Western Reserve Univ. Bull., 1923, 26, 61.
(65) Ennis Smith, J. Biol. Chem. 1917, 29, 215.
(66) Helmer, Expt. Station, Summerland, B. C. Report, 1921, 6.
(67) Torrance, Health of Animals Branch : Circular No. 3, Canada.
(68) Theiler and Green, Nutrition Abstr. and Reviews, 1932, 1, 359.
(69) Green, Physiol. Rev., 1925, 5, 336.
(70) Hutyra and Marek, Spezielle Path. u. Ther der Haustiere, 1922.
(71) Quoted from Foster, loc cit. cf. Gregory: The Rift Valleys and Geology of East Africa,
1921, and appendix to above by Cathart.
(72) Newcomb, Trans. 7th Congress of Far Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine, 1927, 3,
450.
(73) McCarrison, Etiology of Endemic Goitre, London, 1913.
(74) Davis, Agric. J. India, 1917, 12, 77.
(75) McCarrison, Roy. Commission on Agric. in India, 1927, 1, part 2, 105.
(76) Smith, Roy. Commission on Agric. in India—Quoted by Orr, Minerals in Pasture, 1929.
(77) Warth, ibid, also Journ. Animal Husbandry and Dairying in India, 1929-30, 3, 104.
290 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [III, III.
(78) Matson, Agric. and Livestock in India, 1931, 1, 237.
(79) Nayudu, ibid, 1931, ], 240.
(80) Aiyer and Kayasth, ibid., 1931, 1, 526.
(81) Warth, Singh and Husain, Mem. Dept. Agric. India, 1925-26, 8, 153 ; Warth and Ahmad :
ibid. 1925-26, 211; Warth : ibid., 9,1926-27. 37, 125 ; Warth and Gossip, ibid., 1928, 10,
1; Warth : ibid., l930. 11, 53, 73, 85 ; Warth and Kutty : J. Animal Husbandry and
Dairying in India, 1928-29, 2, 31; Ayyangar, Rasul, Singh, Kolhe, and Sikka : ibid. 1929-
30, 3, 77.
(82) Lander and Dharmani, Mem. Dept. Agric. India, 1926-27, 9, 63, 235 ; Lander, Dharmani
and Chand : ibid, 1929-30, 10, 169, 181, 193.
TRANSMISSION OF ANIMAL DISEASES BY AEROPLANES.
NOTE BY
DR. P. J. DU TOIT,
Director of Veterinary Services for the Union of South Africa.
(Reprinted from the Quarterly Bulletin of the Health Organisation, League of Nations, Goneva,
Volume II, No. 1.)
When rinderpest swept over South Africa in 1896-97, it was observed that the
disease advanced at about the same rate as an ox-wagon. To-day the rate of
progress would probably approximate more closely the speed of a motor-car or
aeroplane. Vehicular transport has become an important factor in the spread of
animal diseases.
One example may suffice to prove the truth of this statement. In August
1918, a dog was smuggled into England from the Continent by aeroplane and was
landed at Plymouth. It developed rabies, which spread to seventeen counties,
and it was only after a very energetic and costly campaign, lasting three years,
that the disease was again eradicated.
South Africa is exposed to this danger in a very special degree, because all
aeroplanes entering the Union of South Africa have to pass over tropical countries
which harbour many dangerous diseases. Other countries, which are free of these
diseases and which lie on the route followed by the aeroplanes, are, of course,
exposed to the same dangers. These diseases may be conveyed in three ways : by
means of live animals; by means of insect vectors; by means of products con-
taining the infective material.
These three methods may be elucidated briefly.
(a) INTRODUCTION OF DISEASES THROUGH LIVE ANIMALS CONVEYED BY AEROPLA
At present the danger is practically confined to domestic pets (especially dogs),
although in the future the conveyance of larger domestic animals by air may
become an everyday occurrence.
Some of the diseases which may be transmitted in this way are the following:—
1. Rabies.— This disease has already been mentioned, and measures to guard
against the introduction of possible carriers are urgently needed. The long in-
cubation period and the susceptibility of practically all animals (and man)
enhance the danger of conveying rabies by air.
2. Foot-and-mouth disease—The recent, unexplained outbreak of this disease
in Southern Rhodesia makes us suspect the aeroplane as a possible carrier of
( 291 )
G
292 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [III, III.
infection. Again, several species of animals (and also man) are susceptible to this
disease. In view of the enormous financial burden which an outbreak of this
disease imposes on a country, it behoves us to take every possible precaution
against its introduction.
3. Rinderpest.—This disease is enzootic in Central Africa, but absent from
Southern Africa. Its introduction would be in the nature of a national calamity.
In addition to cattle, sheep, goats and various antelopes are susceptible; and the
transmission of the disease by means of these smaller animals is not beyond the
bounds of possibility.
4. Lung-sickness (pleuro-pneumonia of cattle).—Southern Africa has been free
of this disease for many years, although it is prevalent in other parts of Africa.
5. Sheep-pox also is absent from Southern Africa, and its introduction would
probably involve the country in very serious expense.
6. Hog cholera (swine fever).—The European (and American) form of the disease
does not occur in South Africa. whereas we have another form of the disease
which is also present in other parts of Africa. Recovery from either form of the
disease fails to protect against infection with the other. The introduction of the
European virus into Africa or of the African virus into Europe is therefore liable
to cause very serious economic losses.
(b) INTRODUCTION OF DISEASE BY MEANS OF ' INSECT ' VECT
AEROPLANES.
The chief danger lies in ticks. These arthropods, which transmit some of the
most important animal diseases, can easily be conveyed on the clothing or luggage
(rugs) of passengers travelling by aeroplanes. Since infected ticks can live
without food for a year or longer, the danger of introducing disease in this way
is obvious.
A few examples may be quoted to illustrate the danger.
1. East Coast fever (Theileria parva infection of cattle) has been, or is being,
eradicated from some African countries at enormous cost, whereas it remains
enzootic in others. The introduction of infected ticks into countries free of the
disease would be calamitous.
2. Anaplasmosis is a very fatal disease of cattle. The ticks which transmit
it are present in all parts of Africa, whereas the disease itself is absent from many
countries (e.g., West Africa). One infected tick could start the disease in such
countries.
TRANSMISSION OF DISEASES BY AEROPLANES
293
3. Nairobi disease (gastro-enteritis) of sheep is a virus disease transmitted by
ticks which are present over the greater part of Africa. As far as is known the
disease is confined to a comparatively small area in Kenya. But there is nothing
to prevent the disease getting a foothold in other countries if infected ticks were
introduced.
(c) INTRODUCTION OF DISEASES BY MEANS OF PRODUCTS CONTAININ
MATERIAL.
The outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in the United States of America in
1908 was traced to the introduction of contaminated vaccine lymph. In another
instance, hog cholera serum was responsible for the spread of foot-and-mouth
disease. The importation of vaccines and sera by air or otherwise should be
carefully controlled.
Other objects capable of carrying infection are skins, horns or other parts of
animals which air passengers may collect during their travels. The danger of
introducing diseases like foot-and-mouth disease in this way is very great.
RECOMMENDATION.
Consideration should be given to the desirability of national regulations and
international agreements to prevent, as far as possible, the transmission of animal
diseases by aeroplanes.
C 2
A COMPARISON OF CARBON TETRACHLORIDE AND
TETRACHLORETHYLENE
BY
G. W. RAWSON, Detroit, Michigan,
Animal Industry Department, Parke, Davis and Company.
[Reprinted from the Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, N. S. Vol. 33, No. 4.]
Judging by various comments appearing in veterinary literature and elsewhere,
it would seem that some misunderstanding has arisen about the use of
tetrachlorethylene that is well worthy of correction. For instance, it has been
erroneously stated:
1. That tetrachlorethylene is similar to carbon tetrachloride in that it causes
asphyxiation in cases where it enters the respiratory organs;
2. That it produces an injurious effect on the liver;
3. That it is dangerous to use in case animals are suffering from the effects of
calcium deficiency.
The object of this article is to determine whether there is any justification for
the beliefs expressed above.
As may be seen by the following table, carbon tetrachloride and
tetrachlorethylene are similar in certain physical features, and both belong to the
chlorine group of compounds; however, there are several very important differences
between them that should be considered.
Chemical formula
.
.
.
.
.
Form . . . . . . .
Color . . . . . . .
Odor . . . . . . .
Specific gravity
.
.
.
.
.
.
Boiling point . . . . . . .
Tetrachlorethylene
C 2 Cl 4 .
Liquid.
Colorless.
Ethereal.
1.619 at 20° C.
121-122° C.
Carbon tetrachloride
CCl 4 .
Liquid.
Colorless.
Aromatic.
1.632 at o° C.
77° C.
THE EFFECTS OF TETRACHLORETHYLENE ON THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
In regard to the possibility of tetrachlorethylene causing asphyxiation, it should
be noted that it has a much higher boiling point than carbon tetrachloride;
consequently there is less danger of it causing asphyxiation even though the drug
accidentally enters the trachea or lungs.
A number of tests have been made to determine whether tetrachlorethylene
is capable of causing asphyxiation. For instance, Schlingman 1 introduced 1 c.c. of
( 294 )
CARBON TETRACHLORIDE AND TETRACHLORETHYLENE
295
tetrachlorethylene into the larnyx of a dog weighing about 15 pounds, by means of
a pipette. No ill effects followed other than a slight cough. Another dog was
injected intratracheally with 1 c.c. tetrachlorethylene, without fatal results, although
vomiting, retching and dyspnea followed, as might be the case if water were injected
into the trachea.
In order to determine whether foxes are likely to be affected when
tetrachlorethylene enters the respiratory organs (as might occur if a capsule were
accidentally broken in the mouth) Hanson 2 broke six 1 c.c. capsules in the mouth of
each of two foxes without any ill results following, other than a temporary irritation
of the mouth as evidenced by profuse salivation and by the rubbing of the mouth
with the paws. Hanson adds :
Under similar conditions the use of carbon tetrachloride would undoubtedly
have brought about collapse and possible death from inhalation-intoxication.
More recent observations by Hanson 3 have shown that tetrachlorethylene does
occasionally cause inhalation-intoxication in foxes. Consequently, it should be
administered in soft gelatin capsules and the patient closely watched to see that the
capsule is successfully swallowed. In case a capsule is broken in the mouth and
signs of collapse develop, such as dilation of the pupils, trembling and general
'grogginess,' it is advisable to commence artificial respiration. One recommended
method is to grasp the animal by the hind legs and to whirl it around in order to
centrifuge the drug from the lungs; then lay the animal down on the ground and
perform artificial respiration.
Cases of choking and death have been occasionally reported in dogs following
the administration of tetrachlorethylene enclosed in capsules, but when such cases
are properly investigated it is usually found that death was due to a capsule being
pushed down the trachea, with resulting mechanical suffocation. Occasionally a
hog may die following the administration of drugs in capsules. This may be
attributed either to a capsule having been pushed into the trachea or having lodged
in the retropharyngeal recess or blind pouch, setting up irritation and swelling,
the capsule itself causing death by suffocation.
Lamson, Bobbins and Ward 4 found it impossible to produce surgical relaxation
(anesthesia) in certain dogs with tetrachlorethylene when using an ordinary ether-
bottle attached to a tracheotomytube, even though the tetrachlorethylene was
heated. Anesthesia could, however, be induced by the cone method.
THE EFFECTS OF TETRACHLORETHYLENE ON THE LIVER AND OTHER ORGANS.
In comparing the toxicity of tetrachlorethylene with that of carbon tetra-
chloride on dogs, experimental evidence has shown that the former has no appreci¬