NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
114
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Other conditions have been mentioned post mortem, namely,
atrophy (wasting of the substance) of the heart, hypertrophy or
enlarged heart, and rupture from extreme and sudden exertion.
Blood-letting.
This consists in the abstraction of blood from the system locally
or generally. I cannot recommend it in elephants.
The objects are—
(a) to reduce the action of the heart and so the force of the
circulation ;
(b) to reduce the quantity of blood in the system.
Dangers of blood-letting.—Failure of the heart and collapse,
anaemia from excessive loss of blood. Blood when abstracted is
taken from the vessel behind the ear in cases such as apoplexy, heat-
stroke, or from the large vein on the inside of the thigh. The
animal having been carefully fettered, the part is washed and a
string is tightly tied round the limb above where it is intended to
open the vessel; this raises the vein. An incision must be made
through the skin and the vein opened. Elephants cannot afford to
stand a large abstraction of blood; the state of the animal and con-
dition of the pulse should denote when enough has been taken.
CHAPTER VII.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM-INFLAMMATION OF THE LINING MEMBRANE OF THE CAVITIES IN
THE BONES OF THE SKULL-CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES-
APOPLEXY OF THE BRAIN-PARAPLEGIA-REFLEX PARALYSIS—PARALYSIS OF THE
TRUNK-PARALYSIS OF THE FLAP OF THE EARS-SUNSTROKE—HEAT EXHAUSTION-
HEAT APOPLEXY OR HEAT STROKE.
The Nervous system.
THE nervous system consists of (a) the brain, (b) the spinal cord,
(c) the nerves.—
(a) The brain is contained within the cranial cavity. It is
the organ that regulates every vital process in the
body, it is the seat of the will and intelligence, it con-
trols all motion, appreciates and locates sensation,
and its activity is exhibited in part by what is termed
consciousness.
(b) The spinal cord is contained within the vertebral canal,
and is in relation to the brain what a local post office
is to the general post office. It only controls cer-
tain functions of the body and even in those is itself
controlled by the brain.
(c) The nerves are merely conducting media between sensi-
tive surfaces or organs and the brain and cord. They
are the telegraph wires which convey the messages
emanating from the brain, spinal cord, or special organs
of sense, the outcome of which may be seen in a
variety of ways, such as size of the pupil, degree of
redness of mucous membranes, the activity in the
secretion of a gland, the movement of a muscle or
a limb, the voiding of excreta, &c.
Inflammation of the lining membrane of the cavities in
the bones of the skull.
Causes.—Prolonged exposure to the sun, injuries to the forehead
and bullet wounds. Steel remarks that it may be due to the exten-
sion of inflammation in consequence of the intimate vascular con-
nection through the bones between the skin on the forehead and
this lining membrane. Gilchrist gives as causes the exhibition of
116
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
stimulating mussauls to elephants who work much in the sun, and
to sudden cooling of the body by taking a heated animal into water.
Symptoms.—These are not very evident, but the history of the
case will assist. The skin on the forehead may become sore and
ulcerated and later the bone may become diseased; there may be
considerable excitement and delirium.
Treatment.—Keep in a cool quiet place. Fetter carefully, give
a dose of physic. If the head be injured, fomentations may be ap-
plied ; the wounds to be kept clean and dressed regularly; should
matter form, it must be given exit. In the cases resulting from ex-
posure to the sun, cold cloths frequently applied may afford much
relief. Cooling medicines such as tamarind pulp, epsom salts, may
be given with advantage. Green food should be given in moderate
quantities.
Congestion of the Brain and its membranes.
The brain and the membranes covering it are intimately connected,
and it is a difficult matter to distinguish between congestion of
either separately; hence it is best to consider them together.
Causes.—The more common causes of congestion are prolonged
exposure in the sun, extension of inflammation from the membranes
lining the air cavities in the bones of the head, acute indigestion,
the result of high feeding, insufficient exercise, and frequent use of
stimulating mussauls which the attendants are so fond of giving
Symptoms.—Fever with its attendant signs noted under that condi-
tion. The animal appears giddy, may stagger in his walk. In the
later stages other symptoms may become pronounced, notably ex-
citement. The condition may run on to inflammation.
Treatment.—Owing to the violence and danger of approaching
animals in this state, treatment is dangerous ; if it can be managed,
a smart dose of physic, such as croton oil, should be administered.
When possible, constant application of crushed ice, or cold water to
the head, is most beneficial.
Plenty of gruel or fresh water should be kept near the standing,
to which a little nitre (4 to 6 drachms) may be added.
Apoplexy of the Brain.
A condition characterized by a sudden loss of motion and con-
sciousness.
Causes.—Rupture of a blood-vessel of the brain, resulting in the
escape of blood upon or within that organ. In old animals de-
PARAPLEGIA—REFLEX PARALYSIS.
117
generation of the blood vessels may predispose to rupture, which
may be actually brought about by violent or prolonged exertion.
Apoplexy may occur during a severe attack of congestion of the
brain.
Symptoms.—There may be no symptoms ; the animal suddenly
drops and becomes comatose.
Death results from the effects of pressure on the brain from the
initial quantity of escaped blood, or from a fresh haemorrhage.
Some cases recover, but it is a slow process and not infrequently
some form of paralysis develops.
Treatment.—Cold to the head ; bleeding (see page 114). Should
the animal recover, care must be taken not to expose him. Stimu-
lating mussauls or stimulants should on no account be given.
Paraplegia.
Paralysis of the posterior portion of the body, though common
enough amongst mules and ponies under the name of "kumree,"
" windstroke," " gone in the loins," is distinctly rare among elephants.
It is met with, however, in some cases of anthrax, and as a result of
a bad chill.
Causes.—Altered conditions of the blood as in anthrax and kin-
dred fevers, cold, and wet, injuries to the spine by falls.
Symptoms.—A difficulty of movement, swaying and dragging of
the hind-quarters, and loss of power in them. The animal may even
fall.
Treatment.—Give a smart dose of physic; fomentations to the
loins, to which extract belladonna or ganja may be added, should be
applied. Blistering the loins (see Appendices 54 to 56). Belladonna
internally one drachm twice a day, and later tonics, such as nux-
vomica and iron, arsenic (see Appendix 39 to 46). Iodide of po-
tassium, two drachms twice a day, may in time bring about complete
recovery.
Reflex Paralysis.
Is a similar condition to the last, but brought about by causes not
affecting the spine directly, but indirectly through nerves connecting
it with remote parts. Severe constipation, worms, and indigestion
may produce this condition, which is usually trifling and amenable
to treatment directed to the removal of its cause. Should the con-
dition not be better in a week or so, advantage may be derived from
the application of a blister to the loins and its subsequent repetition
if necessary.
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A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Paralysis of the trunk.
Loss of power in this important organ must necessarily lead to
starvation, unless special means are taken to ensure the affected
animal being hand-fed, and also that he be taken to water deep
enough to enable him to drink with his mouth.
Causes.—Paralysis may be met with in cases of advanced debility,
or come on as a complication of sunstroke, or apoplexy. It is clear
that the most humane way of dealing with such a case is to destroy
the animal.
Treatment.—If it is decided to treat the case, it will be necessary
to see that the animal receives ample nourishment and tonics, such
as nux-vomica, arsenic, sulphate of iron (Appendix Nos. 39 to 46).
Paralysis of the flap of the ears.
Causes.—Seen in some cases of advanced debility.
Symptoms.—The ears droop downwards and forwards and are
immobile.
Treatment.—As in the last.
Sunstroke.
This term is applied to a condition usually brought about by ex-
posure to great heat and glare.
Sunstroke in the elephant may be divided as follows:—
(a) heat exhaustion, and (b) heat stroke, or heat apoplexy.
Heat exhaustion.
Causes.—Cases of heat exhaustion are of very frequent occurrence,
the usual cause being over-exertion in great heat. These creatures,
by nature nocturnal in their habits, stand prolonged exposure to the
sun very badly. The condition generally occurs in animals that are
well fed, but irregularly worked, and then suddenly called on to do a
long march in the heat of the day, and in weakly animals when sub-
jected to long exposure, or in those that are of a nervous, or excitable
temperament. The digestive system, when out of order, also tends
to increase the susceptibility.
Symptoms.—The symptoms usually come on towards the close
of a trying hot march. There is evident distress and dullness ; the
HEAT APOPLEXY, OR HEAT STROKE.
119
animal is fatigued, slows down in his pace ; the breathing is hurried,
and the ears droop ; the trunk is lax, and not swung about freely ; if
these symptoms escape notice, the prostration increases until the
animal more or less suddenly falls down in a faint. The temperature
may be subnormal. These cases are met with most frequently when
the atmosphere is moist, oppressive, and still.
Treatment.—Immediately remove the load, gear. Dash cold
water if possible from a height for some time over the head, neck,
chest, and along the spine; if lying in the sun, run up a single or
double tarpaulin as an awning to afford shade, but not so as to im-
pede free circulation of air ; for the same reason, men should not
be allowed to crowd around. Wash the face, head, and trunk with
cold water, and sponge out the mouth and lips with weak vine-
gar and water, or plain water. The head and face should be fanned
if there is no breeze; a weak solution of ammonia if any be handy
poured on to a wet cloth, which may be thrown or placed on a bam-
boo near orifices of the trunk may prove beneficial. As a rule after
a little time the animal pulls round and will drink some water if
presented; when he gets up he should be removed to the nearest
shade. An aperient may be given with advantage. Clean fresh
grass in moderation should be allowed ; it is better to reduce the
ration for a day or so. Whenever possible, arrangements should be
made for the load and gear to be taken into camp. After a
rest of from thirty-six to forty-eight hours, he may during the cool
hours of the morning or late evening be quietly taken to camp. Great
care, however, must be taken to avoid subjecting the elephant to ex-
posure to sun for a considerable time afterwards.
Death may occur from failure of the action of the heart.
Heat apoplexy, or heat stroke.
The symptoms are similar to those met with in heat exhaustion,
but the animal may be somewhat excited ; he staggers about, trem-
bles all over, breathes very hurriedly, and finally falls down in a
more or less unconscious state. In some cases there may be symp-
toms of delirium ending in convulsions, or coma and death. The
temperature usually ranges high.
Causes.—Heat apoplexy may occur either while an elephant is
idle, or at work. In many cases the animal, if examined beforehand,
would probably have been found feverish and out of sorts ; if worked
in this condition, the temperature may rise to such an extent as to
bring about a stroke.
Treatment: Preventive.—Do not permit elephants to be worked
in the sun during the day in the hot weather, i.e., between the hours
120
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
of 10 and half past 3. If work has to be performed during these
hours, the head should be protected by a quilted cotton pad.
Frequent rests are desirable and the animals permitted to take
water in small quantities occasionally. It may even be advisable,
on a long march, to halt the animals half way, and relieve them of
their loads, allowing a rest for three-quarters of an hour. Before
being sent on the march, or put to work, it is a good plan to have
every animal carefully inspected ; any showing symptoms of fatigue,
or ill health, should on no account be sent out. On the march
some person ought to be held responsible to look after the elephants
while travelling; should any show signs of distress, evidenced by
slowing down, staggering in their gait, or trembling, they should
be halted (in the shade, if possible) without delay, the load and
gear quickly removed, and cold water dashed over the head and
spine ; even if relieved by these means, they should not be permitted
to proceed on the journey till the evening or early next morning.
Remember that one attack predisposes the animal to another;
therefore every care ought to be taken to avoid causes calculated to
induce a recurrence.
Curative.—As in exhaustion, crushed ice if procurable should be
applied to the head and spine, if not continuous cold water appli-
cations. The state of the temperature of the body ought to be
noted at intervals. The patient may recover, but restoration to
health is very slow, and not infrequently paralysis in some form may
develop. Tonics are useful during convalescence.
Death may result in a few hours from failure of the action of the
heart, suffocation, or from exhaustion following on the intense heat
and consequent failure of the vital powers of the body.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS—CATARRH—MUMPS—PNEUMONIA—BRONCHITIS.
The Respiratory Organs.
THE respiratory tract consists of—
(a) Nostrils.
(b) Nasal chambers in the
skull.
(c) Wind-pipe.
(d) Lungs.
The lungs are the organs which furnish the blood cells with oxygen,
which, being circulated by means of the heart, distribute oxygen to
the tissues which build up the system. Oxygen is necessary to the
life of those tissues. To effect this charging of the blood cells
with oxygen, breathing is constantly going on, and consists of two
acts, the first during which air is conveyed through the respiratory
passages to the lungs to purify the blood (inspiratory act), and the
second during which air with impure products generated in the
system is thrown out (expiratory act). During inspiration the
chest expands and on expiration it contracts. In health this double
act is performed on an average 13 to 16 times a minute.
The mucous membrane at the orifices of the trunk is a rich pink
colour and moist, with an occasional drip of clear fluid. Any de-
parture from those conditions may indicate disease of this tract
and may be summed up as follows :—
(a) Undue redness of mucous membrane of trunk.
(b) Constant dripping of a clear or opaque yellowish fluid
from trunk.
(c) Soreness inside the trunk.
(d) Cough.
(e) Hurried or difficult breathing.
(f) Impaired movements of chest with compensatory increase
of movement of belly during breathing.
Catarrh or Cold.
Causes.—Chill, exposure to winds, cold, wet.
Symptoms.—Fever and attendant signs described under that con-
dition. Constant discharge of watery or opaque fluid from the
16
122
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
trunk and watering from the eyes, the eyelids often swollen and
half closed. The causes which produced the condition in this tract
often affects other parts ; hence diarrhœa may be present.
Treatment: Preventive.—As laid down under rheumatism, page no,
and curative as laid down under fever, except that enemas should
be given instead of purgatives, supplemented by the following:—
Camphor
Liquorice
twice a day, or
Sweet spirits of nitre
Liq. ammonia acetatis dilute ...
twice or thrice a day.
...
...
...
...
2
½
2
4
drachms
ounce
ounces
ounces
Mumps or Sore-throat.
Causes.—Sudden chills and exposure to cold winds when heated.
Symptoms.—Fever with its attendant signs, swelling about the
throat and adjacent glands (parotids), difficulty in breathing and
swallowing. In extreme cases the throat may be so involved that
the animal may suffocate. Gilchrist states that in some cases food
becomes impacted in the gullet, causing mortification.
Treatment, General.—Only allow gruels, linseed tea, boiled
rice while there is any difficulty in swallowing; protect the animal
from the weather; if he will take it, allow nitrate of potash in half
ounce doses in the drinking water. The following will be found
useful:—
Extract of belladonna ... ...
Powdered camphor
...
...
Powdered chlorate of potash ... ...
Powdered nitrate of potash ...
Powdered liquorice
...
...
} of each 4 drachms.
1 ounce.
4 ounces.
To be mixed and well rubbed down with a few ounces of honey
and jaggery. It should be made into a thin paste. A little of this
should be taken and rubbed in the mouth every half hour or so.
Local.—Enemas to relieve the bowels, frequent hot fomentations
to the throat, and mustard or other embrocation (Appendix 70 to
73) rubbed in. Steel recommends steaming through the mouth with
infusions of nim leaves (
, ta-ma-ywet).
Pneumonia.
Inflammation of the lungs.—By pneumonia is meant inflamma-
tion of the tissue or substance of the lung.
Causes.—Chill from exposures to cold winds and wet.
BRONCHITIS.
123
Prognosis.—Favourable.
Symptoms.—Fever as described under that heading, but it
usually lasts only a few days, and, if death does not ensue speedily
the animal begins to mend and a favourable result may be expected.
The patient does not as a rule lie down during the early part of the
attack. The breathing is hurried and the chest is found to move
little or not at all during respiration, but the belly moves unusually
during this act; cough, yawning, are frequent symptoms.
With careful nursing and treatment the diseased organ usually
regains its health and function, but at times the inflammation may
be so severe that the diseased portion of lung mortifies and the
animal almost always dies. This untoward event is. characterized
by a sudden subsidence of urgent symptoms, increased rapidity
and weakness of pulse, great prostration and foetid breath. Some-
times the diseased lung ends in forming an abscess, which may be
suspected by an undue continuance of the fever, accompanied by
marked dullness.
Treatment, local.—Frequent hot fomentations, after which em-
brocation should be applied (Appendix Nos. 70 to 76).
General.—A laxative (Appendix Nos. 23 to 28), stimulants,
whisky, brandy (sweet spirits of nitre in 3 or 4 ounce doses), plenty
of gruel. Tonics during convalescence (Appendix 39 to 46).
Bronchitis.
Definition.—Inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the
air-tubes in the lung.
Causes.—As in pneumonia.
Symptoms.—If acute, fever with its attendant signs, cough,
wheezing, and laboured breathing.
When chronic, symptoms are very similar, only fever is absent.
Treatment.—In the acute cases as laid down for fever, employ-
ing enemas in lieu of purgatives, supplemented with the following:—
Opium ... ... ... ...
Camphor ... ... ... ...
Squills (powder) ... ... ... ...
Liquorice (powder) ... ... ... ...
twice or thrice daily or—
Myrrh ... ... ... ...
Assafœtida ... ... ... ...
Aniseed ... ... ... ...
1 drachm
2 drachms
2 drachms
1 ounce
3 drachms
3 drachms
1 ounce
twice daily. Embrocation should be rubbed into the chest.
Bamboo leaves are very often given to animals suffering from
cough.
CHAPTER IX.
THE URINARY SYSTEM-NEPHRITIS OR INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS-CYSTITIS OR IN-
FLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER-RETENTION OF URINE-HÆMATURIA OR BLOODY URINE-
DIABETES.
The Urinary System.
THIS consists of—
(a) Kidneys.
(b) Ureters.
(c) Bladder.
(d) Urethra.
The kidneys (two in number) are situated in the loins, one on each
side of the spine. Their function is to withdraw from the blood
passing through them certain poisonous products which have been
elaborated in the system.
These poisons pass in a state of solution called urine from the
kidneys through two ducts called the ureters to the bladder, where
after a certain quantity has collected the animal voids it through the
urethra or passage through the penis.
The elephant passes water from about 10 to 14 times during
the 24 hours. This fluid in health has the following characters,
—Specific gravity 1,004 ; colour watery or faint amber, and towards
the close of the act may be a little turbid ; it is clear and has a
peculiar characteristic smell, not disagreeable. Any deviation from
the above should lead one to suspect disease of the urinary tract,
namely,—
(a) Increased frequency in making water.
(b) Arrest of the flow (suppression).
(c) Constant dribbling.
(d) Offensive smell.
(e) Alteration in colour. It is invariably high coloured in
fever; may be greenish when the liver is affected,
and markedly reddish when admixed with blood.
(f) Pain, evinced by straining and groaning during the act
of voiding ; also by increased restlessness, denoted
by frequent changes of posture, that is, constant
shifting of feet, lying down and getting up.
Nephritis or Inflammation of the Kidneys.
The kidneys like other organs are apt to become inflamed.
CYSTITIS—RETENTION OF URINE.
125
Causes.—Chill from exposure to cold and wet, any of the acute
fevers such as anthrax, certain drugs such as Spanish fly (can-
tharides) and turpentine.
Symptoms.—Fever, with its usual symptoms noted under that
condition; usually increased frequency in voiding water, which act
is often accompanied by pain, but the amount of water passed is
frequently very small. Sometimes it is suppressed. The urine
itself is very high coloured and may be mixed with blood.
Prognosis.—As the function of the kidneys already described is
to remove poisonous matters from the blood it follows that when
these organs are diseased these poisons are partially or wholly re-
tained and in course of time will produce death ; hence prognosis is
unfavourable.
Treatment: (a) Local.—A mustard plaster one foot square on
each loin for an hour (see Appendix, page 224) or hot fomentations
to the loins, but turpentine must never be employed. A blister to the
loins may be applied, but neither turpentine nor cantharides should
be used. Biniodide of mercury (1 to 16) (Appendix—Blisters, No.
55) is perhaps the best agent to employ ; the blister should be
about a foot square. Soap and warm water enemas, to which may be
added chloral hydrate ½ an ounce, or extract of belladonna 1 to 2½
drachms.
(b) General.—As laid down under fever, and a liberal allowance
of linseed, rice, or wheaten gruels, supplemented by the following
drugs,—Bicarbonate of potash in ½ ounce doses two or three times
a day, or the acetate of potash in 3 drachm doses two or three
times a day.
Cystitis or Inflammation of the Bladder.
Causes.—Chill.
Symptoms.—Fever, with the symptoms already rioted. Increased
frequency in voiding urine, accompanied by straining; urine turbid.
Treatment: Local and General.—As laid down for inflammation
of kidneys. The loins should be protected with a rug.
Retention of urine.
This is a condition characterized by inability to empty the bladder
and may be complete or partial.
Causes.—It may be due to nervous disturbance after an accident,
such as a heavy fall, especially when under a load, the retention being
sudden and complete; or to over distension of the bladder, causing