NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
184
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Treatment.—Care and attention to watering, feeding, and ex-
ercise. A dose of physic is usually sufficient to disperse the rash.
If the patient is weak, a course of iron tonics generally proves
beneficial (see Appendix Nos. 41 and 42); bicarbonate of soda in
½ ounce doses twice daily very often yields good results.
Pityriasis or scurf.
Causes.—Elephants that are badly cared for, and whose general
health suffer in consequence, are specially liable to this disease; it,
however, may also occur amongst animals that are irregularly
worked, but in other respects well cared for.
Symptoms.—A general unthriftiness of the skin, which may be
hot and very tender. Irritation may or may not be present. If
the skin be carefully examined, it may be observed that the scales
which resemble dry bran are being cast off on all parts of the body.
The hair on the body and tail is easily removed. In some cases
the skin may be noticed to be rather harsh, in others it remains
soft and pliable.
Treatment.—A change of food and to the jungle is usually bene-
ficial in these cases. If the patient has been over-fed, the quantity
should be reduced. In cases where debility is present, a liberal
allowance is to be made, and the fodder should be clean and fresh.
Attention must be paid to the state of the digestion, and also to the
action of the bowels. Regular exercise, regulated in accordance
with the strength of the patient, is essential. The body should be
lightly groomed daily with a soft brush or cocoanut fibre glove, and
afterwards washed with carbolized soft soap and water, and occasion-
ally with a weak solution of washing soda. Internally, a course of
tonics, of which the best results are obtained from the adminis-
tration of iron, or arsenic, or both.
External parasites.
These huge creatures are not exempt from the annoyance of flies ;
mosquitoes even causing them great irritation.
Fleming in his "Animal Plagues" mentions that—
"A. D. 260. When Saphor, King of Persia, was besieging Nisi-
bus, his elephants and beasts of burden were so suddenly and
furiously attacked by swarms of gnats as to kill or disable them,
thus causing the siege to be raised, and subsequently leading to
the discomfiture of that monarch's army" (Theodorite, Hist: Eccles,
Book ii, page 30). We have nothing as bad as this in Burma,
EXTERNAL PARASITES.
185
Steel, page 53, also records that "the tsetze fly in South Africa
has proved a serious enemy to the elephant, its poison giving rise to
anthracoid symptoms and rapidly fatal results."
In Burma in certain tracts, and at certain seasons of the year,
flies and other pests are very troublesome to all animals.
The elephant fly.—This insect is very numerous in many places,
especially after the first few thunderstorms at the end of the hot
weather. On the appearance of an animal they swarm out of the
jungle and attack it, and owing to their numbers and the severity
of their bites often cause much irritation and soreness of the skin.
When these flies are about, elephants become agitated, and with ears
flapping, tails and trunks swinging, make very rapid journeys, in
order to escape from their tormentors.
Several species of "oestrus" or gad-flies occur in Burma, and
are a great annoyance to elephants as well as other animals. In one
species the female gad-flies attack animals when grazing, their chief
object being to deposit their eggs, rather than to obtain sustenance.
The eggs are carefully deposited on the skin or hairs about the
tusks just where they emerge from their sockets, and about the edge
of the lower lip; the ova adhere by means of a glutinous material.
By depositing them in the position noted they are easily licked
off by the elephant and conveyed to the mouth, and thus to the
stomach. The larvæ are ordinarily known as "bots," techni-
cally as the gastrophilus elephantis, for descriptions of which see
" Parasites," Alimentary Canal. In another variety not uncommon
in Burma the females attack and probe the skin about the back,
loins, sides, &c., by means of an ovipositor, and place subcutaneously
a little acrid fluid with an ovum or egg"; this sets up irritation which
gives rise to an abscess (known as " warbles " in cattle at home)
Situated within is a larva or grub : finally the abscess bursts, the larva
escapes, falling to the ground, becomes a chrysalis and in due course
a gad-fly. When the nature of the swellings is recognized a little
pressure applied to them will materially assist in setting the larvæ
free. The abscesses should be treated in the ordinary manner.
The larvae of this fly is about ¼ inch long and consists of some nine
segments. The grubs should be destroyed.
In cases of neglected wounds the maggots of the ordinary fly are
occasionally met with. They should always be removed without
delay. Camphor and turpentine are most useful. (For treatment,
see wounds.)
Pediculi or lice.—Lousiness in the elephant, though as far I am
aware very rare, has been noted by some observers. Cobbold
in his Treatise on the Entozoa of Man and Animals, page 399,
notes: " A species of mite has been described whose generic position
24
186
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
appears doubtful. I allude to Homopus elephantis of Furstenberg,
or Symbiotes elephantis of Gerlach. According to Mignin it is
Nymphe adventive or hypope of a variety of Tyroglyphus siro.
This acarus is abundant in old forage. Another ectozoon is Hcema-
tomysus elephantis. It differs from the lice proper in many re-
spects, but, according to Piaget, the reproductive organs resemble
those of hœmatopinus. In Science Gossip for June, 1871, Mr.
H. C. Richter describes " a new form of parasite" which is called
Idolocoris elephantis. The insect, which was one line in length,
was found upon an elephant in Ceylon. According to Walker it not
only constituted the type of a new genus, but of an altogether new
family of the Hemiptera heteroptera, coming very near to the bed
bugs (Acanthidœ). It is a huge sucking louse. From the dis-
cussion which followed, it seems that the parasite had several times
been seen before, and was none other than E. Piaget's Hœmato-
myzus elephantis. Excellent figures accompany Richter's and
Piaget's descriptions."
Lice generally, though by no means always, attack animals that
are ill-kept and poor in condition.
Symptoms.—Constant irritation evidenced by the animal fre-
quently rubbing himself. In such cases a careful examination of
the skin is necessary; if lice be present, they may quickly be
detected.
Treatment.—Immediate segregation of the affected animal. The
body must be thoroughly washed, preferably with carbolic soft
soap and water, after which, from experience with other animals,
I can strongly recommend the following dressing recommended by
Adams. He writes as follows: " After drying, apply to every
" part of the skin a mixture of tobacco water and sulphur ½ an ounce
" of each to a pint of boiling water. This must be applied for two
" consecutive days and on the third day the horse must be again
" washed as before. It will be seldom found necessary to repeat
" this." This dressing, he remarks, " has the advantage of being
" simple, ready at hand, not likely to do harm if used with ordinary
" caution, inexpensive, and effectual." The lice are killed easily
enough, but the eggs or " nits " are difficult to destroy. Other dress-
ings in which a little tar or turpentine is mixed with oil act well, as also
does plain decoction of tobacco leaves, ½ an ounce to a pint of boil-
ing water; the vessel should be covered and allowed to stand for half
an hour or so, after which the liquid may be strained through a piece
of calico. If the elephant has been standing in a shed, it is essen-
tial that all wood-work, be thoroughly washed with boiling water, to
which crude carbolic acid or phenyle has been added. It may even
be necessary to apply tar. All gear had better be destroyed by fire,
TENDER FEET OR
"THULLEE."
187
or at least be saturated with carbolized boiling water. This should
be repeated daily for two or three days.
Poultry, which are proverbially full of vermin, should not be al-
lowed in elephant sheds.
Ticks.—They belong to the family Ixodidœ, and are plentiful
enough both as regard species and numbers. They are blood-
suckers ; the mouth is provided with a serrated rostrum, or beak, by
means of which they can pierce the skin and retain a firm hold.
They may be induced to release their hold by applications of tur-
pentine and oil, or by adding a little earth or kerosene oil to some
ordinary sweet oil. Once ticks have secured a firm hold they should
not be removed forcibly; they are likely to leave their heads behind,
a nasty sore resulting from the irritation.
Leeches.—Family Hirudinae. During the rains the large water-
leeches may attach themselves and, when fixed, will suck blood
freely until they become distended to very many times their original
size. They should not be removed forcibly. The ordinary Burmese
method, namely, to place the lighted end of a selaik (Burmese
cheroot) in close proximity to their bodies soon causes them to re-
lax their hold.
Mosquitoes.—During the rainy season, especially at night, these
insects are so numerous, and their bites so irritating, that domestic
animals can hardly obtain rest. Fires should be lit near their stand-
ings. Animals, I feel sure, readily recognize the value of smoke as a
protection against flies. Wild elephants protect themselves against
insect tormentors by wallowing in mud, with which they cover them-
selves so thoroughly that, when standing quietly in the jungle, they
are not unlike ant-hills.
Tender feet or "thullee."
This is a very common ailment.
Causes.—Continued marching over hard or stony ground, especially
during the hot weather; it also occurs amongst animals that are
marched first through swampy wet grounds and then over stony or
rocky country. Animals habitually kept on dirty standings are liable
to it. Steel mentions that elephants employed in heavy draught
are liable to overwear at the junction of the hoof slipper with the
skin.
Symptoms.—Short action, at times lameness. If the feet be
examined, the tender parts will be at once seen; they are quite
smooth and of a yellowish or pinkish colour, and, if pressed, the ani-
mal shows evidence of pain.
188
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Treatment.—Regular inspection of the feet; if a tender patch
be observed, the animal should be rested forthwith. The standing
should be of dry earth, not sand. Rest and keeping the feet dry is
the only treatment. Mahouts, to prevent the occurrence, use astrin-
gent mixtures, called chobing which have been found of practical
value. Hawkes recommends—
Aloes
Wax
Dammer
Grease
Catechu
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Tolas.
24
24
24
24
96
Melt together and apply as an ointment to the feet. One tola
equals 3 drachms—(Hawkes).
Steel, condensing one of Gilchrist's formulae for chobing, gives the
following prescription:—
Catechu powdered
Galls powdered
Wax powdered
Gingili oil (hnan-si)
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
12 ounces.
1 pound.
2 pounds.
4 pounds.
Melt together and apply to the soles of feet night and morning.
Take a large quantity of the bark of the " jack" and palmyra
trees, boil with plenty of water for about four hours till reduced to
about 6 or 7 quarts, then strain it through a cloth and while hot add
the following:—
Catechu
Soda
Wax
Sweet-oil
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
2 ounces.
2 ounces.
4 ounces.
2 bottles.
To chobe the feet the animal is made to lie down as when sleep-
ing ; the feet must be thoroughly cleaned by washing, after which
apply the chobing warm; this may be carried out with a mop.
Chobing is an excellent thing for hardening the soles of the feet.
Inflammation of the feet or laminitis.
Causes.—Prolonged work, especially over hard ground during
the hot weather months. It may also result as part of a general chill,
when an elephant fatigued by exertion is taken into cold water. Steel
mentions as causes, high feeding, too free use of massauls, and that
it is a complication in foot-and-mouth disease.
Symptoms.—Lameness, the animal very often being unable to
stand, lies on his side, high fever, great heat around the foot-pad.
I have met with two cases; these were in animals that had done a
deal of heavy marching without due rest.
Treatment: General and Local.—As laid down for fever.
INFLAMMATION OF THE FEET OR LAMINITIS.
189
Local.—Envelope the feet in blue clay [shun, j§$], or stand the
animal in wet mud, or cover with gunny, and keep constantly wet
with cold water; if bran be at hand, cold poultices may do good. In
some cases fomentations afford great relief.
Steel mentions that oozing takes place at the margin of the slipper,
and also that shedding of the hoof slipper is not uncommon, on ac-
count of effusion between the horny structures and the sensitive
parts which produce them. I have never met with such severe cases,
but-it is necessary to keep a sharp look-out for such complications.
Steel notes that death has been known to result from mortification.
In the event of the hoof-slipper being cast, the foot must be kept
perfectly clean and thoroughly protected, till a new slipper has been
produced.
CHAPTER XVI.
MISCELLANEOUS-SPRAINS-FRACTURE-" GUNRUSS " AND " CHOWRUNG "-CRAMP—
MOOKUNDAH.
Sprains.
THE elephant, though a sure-footed animal, is liable to sprains, es-
pecially of the joints a little above the pad in the fore, and middle of
hind, limbs. They occur when animals have to pass over rocky
ground, getting a foot suddenly wedged between heavy logs, placing
a foot on unsound ground, and it is surprising how frequently ele-
phants will do this, though they are credited with being so very care-
ful, working in heavy mud, such as tidal creeks. Wild elephants do
not appear to be more cautious than tame ones, as it is not unusual,
when following up a herd, to find that a member of it has walked up-
on ground apparently sound, and on which one of his legs has gone
through to a depth of a couple of feet or more, and I have on two or
three occasions come on places where a bank has given way, and by
the saplings, bushes, knocked down, there was little doubt that the
elephant went down also. I also witnessed an accident where a loaded
elephant was walking along on a newly made road, when it suddenly
gave way under him, and he rolled down some 40 or 50 feet scream-
ing and trumpeting. We had to get a couple of elephants down to
assist him to rise after the load was removed. The camp was fortu-
nately not far off, so he was walked in quietly without his load. He
showed no symptoms that day beyond stiffness, but next morning he
could hardly move; one of his legs, near hind, was much swollen
from foot upwards for about a foot, and he was very tender and sore
over the loins. He made a good recovery under treatment, but it
took two months to get him round.
Fording streams with a rocky bottom, especially where there are
a number of large loose stones, renders animals liable to sprain, as
also does overloading, hurrying them, especially in hilly country.
Symptoms.—Enquire into the history of the case. Lameness,
heat, swelling, tenderness, and pain. There is often very great pain
when the joint is involved, so much so as to induce fever and loss of
appetite.
Treatment.—Cold water continuously applied, or hot water
fomentations applied frequently ; cooling lotions may also be tried.
FRACTURE—" GUNRUSS " AND " CHOWRUNG."
191
When the inflammation has subsided, a smart blister should be ap-
plied. Liniments (see Appendix 70 to 74).
Injury to the loins.—In these cases the injury usually takes
place when a loaded animal is going down a very steep place; his fore-
legs may suddenly slip ahead, and to stop himself he drops his hind
legs in the ordinary way, but in these circumstances he has not time
to do it quietly, and the suddenness and consequent strain may hurt
the muscles of the back. A history of the case will afford much
assistance in these accidents. I have never seen an animal totally
disabled. If an elephant after a slip shows any difficulty in rising,
very often manifested by the animal trumpeting, the load must be re-
moved forthwith and a couple of elephants brought to give a hand to
enable him to rise. Once on his legs after he has finished tremb-
ling, the mahouts should massage the back in the usual manner, and
then take him quietly into camp if he can be moved. Several days'
rest may be necessary.
The treatment consists in warm applications to the back, massage
(which operation is well carried out by Burman, Karen, and Shan
mahouts), and the application of strong liniments. When better,
gentle exercise is to be allowed. It is advisable for some time after
such an accident that the animal be loaded lightly ; it is also as well
not to put him to any heavy work such as aunging heavy timber.
Fracture.
Is a solution of continuity in a bone and is a very rare accident in
elephants. I have only seen one case and that was in the fore-leg,
a little above the knee. The animal recovered with a distorted limb
and was able to do a certain amount of work after.
Causes.—Undue violence, such as sudden slips, especially with
a heavy load, or falls, struggling to extricate the limbs from heavy
boggy ground.
Symptoms.—If in a limb, there will be loss of power and inability
to sustain weight on it, swelling, and pain.
Treatment.—The animal may be given a chance, absolute rest
being enforced for at least three months, after which, if the slightest
use cannot be made of the limb, the animal had better be destroyed.
"Gunruss" and "Chowrung."
These are terms applied by native mahouts to certain affections
of the feet. In the former only the fore-feet are attacked; in the
latter the limbs and all the feet are involved.
192
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Gilchrist and Hawkes state that the condition known as gunruss
supervenes in some animals that have been allowed to take their rice
during the time they were eating earth. It is manifested by stiffness
and a turning outwards of the feet, but, except in severe cases, loco-
motion or efficiency of the affected animal is not impaired.
"Chowrung."—Is an aggravated form of the above. It may
arise from chills, or from crossing rivers when the body is heated.
Treatment.—Is to avoid the causes such as mentioned. The
patient should be protected from cold, rain, and given stimulants,
and good food. I feel certain that many of these cases are rheumatic.
Cramp.
Cramp is a spasm of muscle of variable extent, i.e., many muscles
may be attacked or only a few.
Causes.—Cold, especially entering water in an exhausted or
heated condition.
Symptoms.—The animal suddenly is incapable of using his
limbs, which become painful and stiff owing to muscular contraction.
In deep water when he discovers his helplessness he loses his head
and is drowned. This is a common accident, and in deep water a
very fatal one. In these cases of drowning, Burmans attribute cause
of death to the bite of a mythical Ushyesin (<s^so5) or natsin ($c8ao5).
" Mookunda."
Is an affection described by various authors as a result of permit-
ting an elephant to have his ration of rice during the period he is
eating earth as a remedy for worms.
Symptoms.—Swelling of the abdomen, accompained by pain and
restlessness; the animal appears dull and listless; the surface of the
body is cold. There is no diarrhoea.
Treatment.—Grain should be withheld and a purgative given,
after which tonics containing arsenic or iron, or both, may be em-
ployed.
CHAPTER XVII.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES-PREPARATION OF MEDICINES AND MODE OF ADMINIS-
TRATION-INSTRUMENTS.
Weights and measures.
Weights.
One grain, gr.
One ounce, oz. = 437·5 grains.
One pound, lb. = 16 ounces = 7,000 grs.
Apothecaries' measure of weight.
_.-. «
One grain
One scruple = 20 grains
...
One drachm = 3 scruples = 60 grains
One ounce = 8 drachms = 480 grains
One pound = 12 ounces = 5,760 grains
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Measure of capacity.
One minim
One fluid drachm = 60 minims ...
One fluid ounce = 8 fluid drachms
One pint = 20 fluid ounces
One quart = 2 pints
One gallon = 4 quarts
...
...
...
...
...
...
...fst
... /st
... of
... 0tf
...
Weights used by Mahouts.
One tola = 3 drachms = weight of one rupee.
One scruple = 1/9 th tola = weight of two-anna piece.
One drachm = ⅓rd tola = weight of three two-anna pieces.
One and half drachms = ½ tola = weight of eight-anna piece.
Two drachms 10 grains = ¾ tola = weight of three four-anna piece.
Four drachms = ½ ounce = 1¼ tolas = one rupee and one four-anna piece.
Eight drachms = 1 ounce = 2½ tolas = two rupees and one eight-anna piece.
Two ounces = 5⅓ tolas.
One pound (apothecaries) 32 tolas.
One seer = about two pounds.
One chittack = two ounces.
If standard measures are not at hand, house utensils may be employed. The ordinary
pint bottle contains about thirteen ounces and the quart twenty-seven ounces.
Common tumblers from ten to twelve ounces, breakfast cups about eight ounces, and
wine glasses two to two-and-a-half ounces.
Preparation of medicines and mode of administration.
As already pointed out Veterinary Surgeons rarely have an oppor
tunity of treating elphants, and as owners usually do not know much
about their ailments, the treatment is invariably left to the mahouts.
25
194
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
These men employ a multiplicity of drugs to make up their formu-
læ or mussauls; they are purchased in the bazaar, and I have fre-
quently seen them ; excepting the curry-stuffs, the vegetable drugs
are usually old, mildewed, and inert, and the minerals impure.
The expense incurred by the purchase of reliable drugs from a
chemist, where purity, freshness, and uniformity in strength are guar-
anteed, would at the end of a year be far less than the cost of the
ordinary expensive mussauls so frequently indented for. A good
many of the curry-stuffs supposed to enter into them often find their
way to the mahouts' quarters. I have come to the conclusion that
domestic elephants must carry a special heat generating apparatus in
their interiors, as gurmi or heat seems to be the most prevalent
ailment amongst them, and the amount of cooling mussauls required
is truly surprising.
No drug is known to have an emetic action on this animal. Gil-
christ mentions that " tartar emetic has been given in two-ounce
" doses morning and evening till half a pound was taken, but no
" emetic or other obvious medicinal effect followed."
Mahouts are strongly averse to the administration of purgatives ;
in fact they never intentionally purge an animal, though such drugs
as croton seeds, aloes, in small doses, enter into the composition of
many of their mussauls.
Doses.—The question of the amount of a drug to be given is a
matter of some difficulty, seeing how very rare it is that opportunities
offer for trying experiments on these valuable creatures. There can
be little doubt, however, that, misled by the size of the animal, drugs
have been administered in what appears as excessively large doses
and not free from risks ; perhaps bazaar drugs were used, thus leading
to this error as they are often impure or inert. To be on the safe
side, I have always been guided by the doses given by Steel, and as
he employed drugs of known strength, I would recommend others to
do the same. I have, however, given the doses given by other
authors and have also added many of their mussauls.
Preparation.—All drugs should be finely powdered and mixed
with some spice, jaggery, honey, tamarind pulp, boiled rice, plantains
to mask the taste as much as possible. The mixture is then made
into pills about the size of a small orange.
Administration.—The administration of drugs is not always an
easy matter : the mouth is very small and to add to the difficulty the
back of the tongue is free. In order to render it easier to give
medicine, it is an excellent plan to accustom an elephant to take small
packets filled with paddy, rice, tamarind, sugar, or sweets, flavoured
with some spice. The packets are generally made of straw, grass,
and at times a plantain leaf is used. Wheaten bread or native bread