NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
206
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
and is non-contagious. Several animals may, however, be attacked
at the same time, but the reason for this is, that generally speaking
those that suffer have been partaking of the same kind of food and
in other matters subjected to similar treatment. The disease may
attack animals in good condition, but is more common and severe in
those that are aged or debilitated. The malady is met with most
frequently during the hot weather and is liable to recur.
Symptoms.—Irritation
of the skin, manifested by a desire on
the part of the animal to rub the body against posts, trees ; the skin
on examination will be found to be hot and tender. This is followed
by crops of blisters or vesicles ; in the milder cases observed
about neck, shoulders and quarters, but in those that are more
severe, may also be seen on the head, ears, neck, sides of belly,
between thighs and on tail. These vesicles burst the discharge
drying on the surface. Successive crops of blisters may appear.
In some severe cases the eruption was restricted to the face, sides
of chest, the back of ears (in two cases back and front). The ears
were especially affected.
Simple eczematous inflammation may pass through several stages
viz.:—
(a) Redness of the skin.
(b) Papular stage, where small nodules are observed.
(c) Vesicular stage, where these nodules are filled with fluid
(serum).
(d) Weeping or moist stage, due to the opening of the vesicles
themselves or artificially by rubbing.
(e) Pustular stage, where the fluid is transformed to pus.
(f) The scaly stage, which is the drying up of the discharged
matter either in the pustules or over the suppurating
surface.
It must not be inferred that every case passes through these
regular stages ; some may pass from the first to the last, while in
others some of the stages may easily be overlooked owing to the
pigmentation of the skin. In severe cases where the face is affected
there may be a watery discharge from the eyes, which later
becomes whitish and in some few cases the corneæ may become
clouded.
Treatment:
General.—Attention
to proper management. The
first thing to do is to secure the animal on a dry standing free from
sand and dust, otherwise he will rub himself on trees, posts, etc.,
causing great raw patches and throw dust on them. The ears are
most difficult to deal with owing to the constant flapping. The
animal should be sheltered from sun and rain, the standing dis-
infected to keep flies away. The bowels should be kept regular
BOILS.
207
and if the animal be weak tonics should be administered, especially
arsenic and iron.
Local.—With regard to the local treatment the parts should be
washed with soft soap and tepid water, dried and dusted over with
a powder of oxide of zinc 1, starch 4 parts, or boracic acid and zinc
oxide 2 parts of each, starch 6. Where the ears are very bad
resembling an immense sore, it is desirable to have the neck washed
morning and evening with disinfectants and afterwards smeared
with carbolic oil or some such preparation, so that the ears may
come in contact with a clean surface. If there are scabs the crusts
should be soaked well with sweet oil or glycerine and when soft
removed by washing. The resulting raw surfaces should be cleansed
with weak carbolic lotion 1—80, phenyle 1—80, permanganate of
potash 8 grs. to the pint, after which dry dusting powders may
be employed. If flies are troublesome, a little iodoform or euca-
lyptus oil may be added, the parts may be dressed with oxide of zinc
ointment; boracic acid ointment; dikamali ointment; acetate of lead
ointment—15 grs, to 1 oz. lard; or white precipitate ointment,
ammoniated mercury 1 dr., lard 1 oz., or acetate of lead 1 dr.,
glycerine 1 oz., water 1 pint. Two or three drachms of powdered
borax may be substituted for the lead. In cases where there is much
weeping, the parts after being washed may be painted over once
with a solution of nitrate of silver 4 per cent. This is often very
effective.
The eyes when affected must be treated as laid down under
inflammation of the cornea. In one case sloughing of portions of the
tail and ears were superadded to the above, but whether dependent
or independent of this affection it is very difficult to say.
BOILS.
Boils are frequently met with in this animal confined to no parti-
cular part of the body, but perhaps more often seen on the front
of face or quarters, inside of thighs and under the belly, but
they may be distributed all over the body. They may be either
boils which proceed to suppuration, or what are known as " blind
boils," that is, they do not go on to the formation of matter and
may disappear with or without treatment.
Causes.—Derangement
of the digestive organs especially the
liver and depravity of blood from any cause.
" Intelligent
mahouts say they may arise from the too free use of mercury."—
(Hawkes.) Others the result of oestrus (larvæ) are dealt with
under the section on parasitic disorders due to flies.
208
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Symptoms.—A
circumscribed, hard, elevated swelling of the
skin, often painful and tender to the touch, not as a rule disposed
to come to a head. If a boil bursts, a tough slough of the deeper
parts of the skin and even the tissues beneath, commonly called
the core, is disclosed.
Treatment.—The
cause must be sought for : if the digestive
system be out of order, the state of the bowels must be attended
to and kept regular by means of laxatives, purgatives or enemas,
as the strength of the animal may indicate. Small doses of aloes,
about 3 drs., or aloin 1 dr. and calomel 30 to 40 grains every
alternate day for a week may do good. If the animal be weak,
good mixed food, boiled rice, may be given, also some cordial
(see Formulæ 11 to 14) conjoined with tonics may be administered.
Local.—Foment with warm water and open as early as possible,
otherwise the matter may burrow ; for procedure see Abscess. After
evacuation foment and treat as an ordinary wound.
Anti-fly dressings are very useful in these cases, such as dikamali
ointment, or turpentine ointment:—
Oil of turpentine
Resin, powdered
Wax
Lard
... 1 oz.
... 2 drs.
... ½ oz.
... ½ oz.
Melt these together in a water bath.
OR
Camphor
Sweet oil
... 1 part.
... 4 parts.
OR
Venice turpentine
Sweet oil
...
... ½ oz.
... 4 ozs.
Melt together and strain.
HÆMATIDROSIS—BLEEDING OF THE SKIN.
On one or two occasions it has been noticed that in herds
certain animals show drops of blood about the body. If the hand
be rubbed gently over the affected parts it is covered with blood.
Several elephants may be suffering at the same time. In most
cases noted the skin along the abdomen was affected, but in some
the quarters, between the legs, and in one or two the under surface
of the neck and the shoulders were the seats of the affection. The
cases were observed during the hot season, the animals ate well, and
in other respects were said to be all right. Flies were not at all
bad or at least not sufficiently numerous to cause so much trouble.
HÆMATIDROSIS.
209
The only reason that could be assigned was that the animals were,
and had been for some time, on dry coarse fodder, and that there
was a general disturbance of nutrition of the blood vessels. Some
animals which had recovered presented a spotted appearance and at
each of the hæmorrhagic points the skin had lost its pigment.
The treatment consisted in regularly washing parts with weak
antiseptic lotions and giving internally arsenic and bicarbonate of
soda.
Haemorrhages of this kind occur in cattle and in certain breeds of
horses. In some cases the haemorrhage may be due to the presence
of minute round worms (filariæ).
14
CHAPTER VIII.
DISEASES OF THE SKIN (continued)—EXTERNAL
PARASITES.
BLOOD-SUCKING
FLIES.
These huge creatures are not exempt from the annoyance of flies ;
mosquitoes even causing them great irritation.
Fleming in his " Animal Plagues " mentions that—
" A.D. 260. When Saphor, King of Persia, was besieging
Nisibus, his elephants and "beasts of burden were so suddenly and
furiously attacked by swarms of gnats as to kill or disable them,
thus causing the siege to be raised, and subsequently leading to the
discomfiture of that monarch's army."—(Theodorite, Hist. Eccles,
Book II, page 30.)
Steel, page 53, also records that "the tsetse-fly in South Africa
has proved a serious enemy to the elephants, its poison giving rise
to anthracoid symptoms and rapidly fatal results."
Selous in his work " A Hunter's Wanderings in Africa " makes
frequent reference to this fly, which he describes as the " most
abominable of all created insects."
In Burma in certain tracts, and at certain seasons of the year,
flies and other pests are very troublesome to all animals. This is
especially the case after the first few thunderstorms towards the
end of the hot weather and also during breaks in the monsoon.
On the appearance of an animal they swarm out of the jungle
and attack it, and owing to their numbers and the severity of their
bites often cause much irritation and soreness of the skin.
When flies are about, elephants like other animals become
agitated and with ears flapping, tails and trunks swinging, make
very rapid journeys in order to escape from their tormentors.
Certain flies appear to be more or less confined to particular
areas suitable to their phases of development and mode of life.
As a rule they confine themselves to the proximity of water or
damp areas where vegetation, etc., is usually luxuriant, though
by reason of winds or other agency they may be found at some
little distance from their place of origin. The agency of several
species of blood-sucking flies in the transmission of certain diseases
[Facing page 210.
WING NEURATION OF SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT BITING
FLIES AS COMPARED WITH THE HOUSE-FLY.
Muscidæ (restricted)—House-fly (yin).
Tabanidæ—Horse-fly (hmet).
Simulidæ—Blood-blister fly.
Hippoboscidæ—Spider-flies.
Glossina—Tse-tse fly.
BLOOD-SUCKING FLIES.
211
such as malaria, surra, n'gana (tsetse-fly disease), sleeping sickness,
etc., has been fully established.
There are several varieties of blood-sucking flies in Burma and
the Shan States. Blood-sucking is generally confined to the female
sex.
Sand-flies
Simulium
Mosquitoes
Stomoxys
Tabanus
.........
{ Blood-blister fly
... Buffalo gnat
.........
.........
Horse flies
Breeze flies
Sometimes called
gad-flies...
Hpyôk.
Po-laung.
Kyin.
{ Yin-ye.
{ Yin-kya.
Hmet.
Hmet-gyi.
Hmet-kya.
The hmet-gyi is the large horse-fly and is not anything like so
plentiful as the hmet-kya or smaller hmet which swarms on to
animals causing herds to run away.
Taungpyauk (
) is an Upper Burma name for the
hmetkya.
Sand-flies and mosquitoes need no description to those concerned
with this work ; nevertheless, of all the biting flies at present
known, the mosquito ranks first in importance as it has been conclu-
sively proved that certain species take a prominent part in the
diffusion of certain diseases such as malarial fevers, filariasis.
Furthermore they act as hosts in which the germs pass a certain
portion of their life cycle, hence without these insects the parasites
could not exist.
Simulium (The blood-blister fly).—This is common enough in
certain localities and where found is a regular pest. They are well
known to visitors to the hill station Thandaung, and are particularly
troublesome in parts of the Salween. It is a small blackish hump-
backed fly, part of the abdomen is yellow; flight is noiseless. In
human beings at the time of biting no inconvenience is caused, but
later the bites become very irritable and in some individuals there
is considerable swelling of the parts. The seat of the bite may be
distinguished by the presence of a small globule of blood under the
skin.
Tabanidæ.—Several species of this order are to be found in
Burma and some of them are amongst the largest of Diptera, many
of the horse flies measuring quite ¾ to 1 inch in length. Some 1,500
species have been described, the majority belonging to the genus
Tabanus, the other principal genera being Hæmatopota, Pangonia
and Chrysops. They are voracious blood-suckers and cause very
irritating bites and are much dreaded by all animals whose skins can
212
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
be assailed by them. They are heavy, large bodied flies, in size
ranging from ¼ to 1 inch in length. The head is large, convex in front,
eyes usually greenish in colour, but in some species may be of other
brilliant colours. Eyes in the male meet, but in the female there is
a space between them. Proboscis in most genera is short and stout.
Colour of the body varies, usually greyish. In some especially the
smaller kinds the flight is noiseless, the first intimation of their
presence being their sharp bite. The eggs are deposited on rushes
or other smooth surfaces over water or damp ground. It is probable
that at least some of the genera of this species aid considerably in
the dissemination of surra.
Stomoxys.—Different
members of this genus are very similar
to each other. In appearance and size they so closely resemble
house-flies as to easily deceive at a casual glance. Their most readily
distinguishing feature is the little short proboscis, which projects
horizontally in front of the head and if looked at closely will be seen
to be bent like an elbow joint. This fly bites freely, as will have
been noticed by any who has stayed any time near buffaloes in the
rains. It can easily bite through an ordinary stocking. It has
been recognized as one of the agents in the transmission of La
Souma (a surra-like disease in the Soudan), and probably may help
to disseminate surra in this province.
A most important member of the genus allied to the Stomoxys
and so far not recorded from Burma is the Glossina or Tsetse-fly of
Africa, the dreaded agent which causes the " fly sickness" of
certain tracts in that continent. In view of its possible presence or
perhaps introduction into the country, a short description may with
advantage be given. They are brownish or greyish brown flies.
Length ¼ to ½ inch, and have a very prominent proboscis. In the
resting attitude they may be distinguished from biting-flies of a like
appearance by the fact that the wings are closed tightly, overlapping
each other like the blades of a pair of scissors.
During the " fly season " when animals are tethered during the
day but more especially during the night, fires should be lit near
their standings. Animals readily recognize the value of smoke as
a protection against flies. Mosquitoes are so numerous in many
places during the rains that without fires domestic animals can
hardly obtain rest. Sand-flies and mosquitoes are the chief tormen-
tors, but sometimes Tabanadæ will bite after sunset, by moonlight,
and even when dark. This I have been made aware of by personal
experience when in the vicinity of cattle more particularly buffaloes.
Selous* remarks, " I think it is usually believed that the tsetse-fly
* " A Hunter's Wanderings in Africa." Page 154. F. C. Selous.
NON-BLOOD-SUCKING FLIES.
213
will not bite at night, but along the Chobe river (where they swarm),
and by moonlight, I can feelingly say that this is a mistake. They
kept flying up from the ground on to my naked legs, and bit as
furiously as in the day-time."
Wild elephants and buffaloes usually protect themselves by
wallowing in mud-holes, thus coating their bodies with mud.
Cartmen when starting on the march often tie a smoky wood-oil
torch to the front of the yoke while carrying another to protect
themselves and the hind parts of their oxen.
NON-BLOOD-SUCKING FLIES.
Certain non-blood-sucking flies require notice owing to the fact
that their larvae as maggots occur in wounds, others causing
''warbles" under the skin, or appearing as internal "bots" cause
much trouble.
Maggots.—The
large sarcophagus (S. magnificata) and the
common carrion-fly (Musca cadaverina,
) are probably the
most common ones which lay their eggs in wounds, ulcers, etc., the
resulting maggots setting up intense pain and irritation and delaying
healing.
It is not proved that the blue flesh-fly (Calliphora votmitoria,
) nor the carnivorous sarcophagus (Sarcophaga carnaria,
) deposit their eggs and larvae in wounds.
In a neglected wound the presence of maggots may be suspected
by approaching the nose near the wound, when usually a foetid
odour will be detected ; there is also generally a thin offensive
discharge.
When a small opening exists, the wound should be opened up
and the maggots that can be seen removed gently by means of
forceps. There are usually many more present which have burrowed
and are lying in pockets, hence it is necessary to keep a close watch
for two or three days.
The application of certain drugs causes them to emerge from
their hiding places ; such are carbolic lotion 1 to 40, powdered
camphor alone, or dissolved in spirit or mixed with oil, oil of
turpentine or eucalyptus oil mixed with sweet oil. In fact almost
any essential oil diluted with sweet oil helps to effect their removal.
Warbles (parasitic boils).—The family (Estridæ are all dis-
tinguished by the necessary parasitism of their larvae. According
to the species they develop in suitable localities in different
mammals. Sometimes it is the stomach which is chosen, and the
larvae then known as internal " bots " are treated of under the
214
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
chapters on internal parasites. In others the suitable region is the
subcutaneous tissues of the selected animal. Warbles or swellings
due to the invasion of the subcutaneous tissues by the larvae of one
or more of the family œstridae (gad-flies) are very common in
elephants in various parts of the province from the Chindwin to
Tenasserim. As a rule they are numerous, but in some cases in
the Meza forests mentioned by Mr. Petley of Messrs. Steel Brothers,
the infestation was remarkable. He describes it as follows :—
"The elephants from which these ' bots ' were taken literally
swarm with swellings in all parts—head, ears and body. The scars
of recent eruptions are in some parts of the body so closely pitted
as to impart to the skin a honeycomb appearance, showing that
thousands of the parasites have burrowed out during the last few
months. Curiously enough, only the elephants brought from India
last year are affected, and no doubt their general unhealthy appear-
ance is due to the presence of myriads of ' bots ' beneath the skin.
In the elephants from which the specimens were taken the numbers
were almost incredible."
How the larvae reach the subcutaneous tissues has not yet been
rightly explained. Many theories have been advanced, but the
more common one would seem to favour the idea that the egg is
deposited directly on the skin and the larva in the initial stage of its
development gains inlet either by the hair follicles or sebaceous
glands to its resting place.
Symptoms.—Swellings,
so-called boils or warbles, of varying
size. When the larvae are well developed towards the end of April
and May (most commonly here) they produce inflammation and sup-
puration about them producing the so-called warbles. When the
larvae are ripe they quit their abodes, usually stern first, after
widening the openings.
Treatment.—When
the nature of the swellings is recognized a
little pressure applied to them will materially assist in setting the
larvae free.
The abscesses should be treated in the ordinary
manner. The larva of this fly is about ¼ inch long and consists of
some nine segments. The larvae should be destroyed.
THE HIPPOBOSCIDÆ—SPIDER-FLIES.
These well-known insects may occasionally be observed on
elephants. They probably come off cattle or ponies, on which
animals they may be found frequently about the smooth parts of the
body, i.e., between the thighs, around the arms and on the perinæum.
They are flat, have a broad body which is leathery especially the
TICKS.
215
abdomen, which in the female is capable of great distension. The
legs are strong and terminate in claws.
The wings are obtuse and
rounded, and the veins are confined to the anterior third. They
can run with great rapidity, are difficult to catch and not easy to
crush owing to their leather-like skin. In some animals they cause
great annoyance, one or two being sufficient to cause them to kick
furiously.
TICKS.
Ticks ( ) are plentiful enough both as regards species and
numbers. They are blood-suckers ; the mouth is provided with a
serrated rostrum or beak, by means of which they can pierce the
skin and retain a firm hold. More important, however, than the
annoyance caused by their fixation to the skin is the fact that in
recent years it has been proved that several species are responsible
for transmission of certain diseases in man and various animals.
What particular ailments may be carried amongst elephants by ticks
have not been established, but it is extremely probable that piro-
plasmosis affecting these animals is at least one of them. As far as
they have been recognized, elephant ticks belong to the family
Ixodidæ ; it is unlikely that the members of the family Argasidæ
will be found owing to the conditions under which these latter live.
It is advisable that all ticks be removed as soon as seen, but care
should be taken not to remove them forcibly : they are likely to leave
their heads behind, nasty sores resulting from the irritation. They
may be induced to release their hold by applications of turpentine
and oil, or by adding a little crude earth oil or kerosine oil to some
ordinary sweet oil. If an animal is badly infected the following
dressing, noted in one of the Queensland Agricultural Journals,
may be employed. It is very effective in dogs :—
Soft soap ... ...
Kerosine ... ...
Water ... ...
4 ozs.
1 tea-cupful.
1 qt.
Boil soap and water together till soap is dissolved. When cool
add the kerosine and agitate the mixture thoroughly for five minutes
with a rod. Wash the affected parts with some of the mixture.
LICE (
)—HÆMATOPINUS.
Most animals have a special species and the elephant is no
exception. The hæmatopinus of the elephant is a large blood-
sucking parasite of a reddish colour and rather active.