NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE.
77
his habits must have repeatedly noticed the manner
in which he piles fodder, or a blanket if handy, or other
things on his head and neck, or if such be not available, he
throws dust over himself, or if working, frequently inserts
his trunk in the mouth, withdraws fluid and squirts it over
his body, but it is not everyone who has to deal with him
who appreciates the significance of these acts. How
often has an elephant been seen working in the sun, in
a Government or private timber-yard, provided with any
head protection? One does occasionally see a careful
mahout take off his turban or coat and throw it over his
animal's head.
(b) It is difficult to lay down fixed rules as to the amount of
work which may be exacted. This must necessarily
depend in some measure upon individual idiosyncrasies
and constitution, which can only be ascertained by the
careful observation of those in attendance (supervisors,
&c.). What would undoubtedly prove moderate work in
one individual might prove excessive in another, though to
all appearances of equal size, age, and condition. Again,
the early symptoms of failing vigour which should be
recognized by the mahouts, are either not reported by
them, or often after having been reported, are paid no
heed to by those in authority. I can call to mind in-
stances in which an animal palpably suffering pain and
going lame, was found working. Regrettable as it is, the
sufferings of an animal that may have toiled for years in
his master's cause and contributed materially to his for-
tunes are passed unnoticed. Too often, therefore, it hap-
pens that an animal's energies are overtaxed to such an
extent that he suddenly breaks down. So far as one
can frame rules, I would strongly recommend that dur-
ing the hot weather, from 15th February to the breaking
of the rains, no animal should be worked in the open
after 10 A.M., and never before 3-30 P.M. Moreover,
they should never be worked more than three hours at
a stretch without being given half an hour's interval or
rest in the shade, during which time the gear should be
loosened, parts examined for galls, and a little water
and some bundles of fodder presented. I consider it
imperative for humanity's sake that employers should
detail, whenever possible, a European assistant to fre-
quently (at least three times a week) inspect and report
upon the health of the animals, their physical capability
78
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
for work, also the sanitary condition of their surroundings,
and above all the quality and amount, by weight, of fod-
der supplied.
(c) I have already dealt with the subject of food, but as this
is so important a matter, the remarks beginning on pages
23 and 27 will bear some repetition and addition.
In addition to a plentiful supply of good food being essential, it
must also be varied; but here again the conditions of food-supply in
Rangoon, as I have observed, do not agree with my ideas on the
subject; for instance, the basis of their diet is composed of a spe-
cies of rush called by the Burmans wet-la (Paperus pangoree, Cyprus
tegetum), which is one of the least nutritious kinds of fodder that
could be supplied, as it is full of watery sap. It therefore follows that
for a creature to derive sufficient sustenance from it, a very large bulk
must be ingested which unduly taxes its digestive capabilities; added
to this, being cut in stagnant marsh lands, it may have adhering to it
the ova of many varieties of noxious intestinal parasites, as well as
germs of disease, and is often provocative of diarrhoea. Thus, for
want of proper supervision, it usually happens that a considerable
quantity of dead stalks and other unwholesome material, is mixed with
it. I have observed that usually the custom is to allow so many bun-
dles for each animal, but I have never seen yet a European supervising
the weighing of the fodder to ensure that each animal receives an
adequate allowance, which I have often found was not the case.
How often is any other kind of fodder supplied ? I fully realize why
this food is presented year in and year out: it is undoubtedly the
easiest procurable near Rangoon, but with a little more trouble and
very little extra expense, if employers would insist upon it, far
superior fodder could be and should be substituted or mixed with this
wet-la.
To sum up then, the elephant is far too much in the hands of his
mahout, receives insufficient supervision, and I venture to state that
were more consideration given to the above remarks, more work could
be exacted, better health maintained, and there would be less need
to refer to the subsequent pages.
General treatment of sickness.
It will be as well to remark here that elephants generally are bad
patients from three points of view : (a) they are naturally very timid,
suspicious creatures, difficult and often dangerous for strangers to
handle; (b) their vital processes ate slow, hence diseases run a
protracted course, take on a low form, and loss of condition is only
slowly regained. Their natural timidity in health is often augmented
GENERAL TREATMENT OF SICKNESS.
79
by disease 5 they very readily lose heart, becoming indifferent or
oblivious to their surroundings in serious ailments ; and (c) the diffi-
culty often encountered in the administration of medicines.
If successful treatment is to be achieved, these facts must never
be lost sight of, everything calculated to frighten the patient should
be as far as possible avoided, and every effort to conciliate and gain
his confidence employed, in preference to any method of restraint
to effect one's purpose. Restraint in any form increases his fears,
stimulates him to offer resistance, and exhausts his energies. For
this reason I advise that the details of treatment laid down by the
person in charge, should be carried out under his personal supervision,
through the agency of the mahouts alone.
(1) Rest.—Whenever any indication of ill-health, however tri-
vial, is observed, the first step in treatment is to rest the animal, and
by rest I mean that except gentle walking exercise if not lame, the
animal must be tethered, and not allowed to travel or work on any
pretext whatever, until such time as the person in charge is satisfied
that the animal is fit to do so.
(2) Shelter.—During the hot season a cool and shady standing
must be selected. In the rains he must be kept out of the wet, and
not exposed to cold winds. Should an animal show signs of chilliness,
some sort of covering must be thrown over him, or massage may be
practised. Burmans, Karens, and Shans usually employ this latter
method, which they perform with their hands and feet and appear
to afford the patient comfort.
(3) Food.—All grain ration must be withheld. In most dis-
eases the appetite is partially or wholly lost, and it is therefore
necessary to tempt the patient with some favourite fodder, small
quantities of which should be presented frequently, such as leaves
and boughs of favourite trees, well-known to attendants, plantain
stems, bamboos, maize or millet stalks, in or out of ear, sugarcane
or fruits such as pineapples, plantains, bael, green cocoanuts, &c,
—in fact anything that he can be enticed to eat.
(4) Drink.—Unless the water-supply is in the immediate vicinity,
elephants should not be taken long distances to drink or bathe, but
arrangements must be made to carry this out near the standings.
It is always desirable to have a tubful of fresh clean water as well at
the standing. As much freshly * made cold gruel as they will take
should be offered in bucketfuls.
(5) Excretions.—The dung must always be carefully examined
daily, and especial attention paid to the early detection of parasites
which are so small as to be easily overlooked. Many animals die
every year from want of attention to this important matter, parasites
* Gruel rapidly turns sour in this country.
8o
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
often not being detected until the animal is passing them in thousands,
has serious diarrhœa, and has become so enfeebled as to render
treatment futile. The urine too must be daily examined, and
departures from health as laid down under " Urinary system" reported.
(6) Standings.—Important as it is under ordinary circumstances
to keep standings and surroundings in a thoroughly clean state, it is
still more necessary to do so during any sickness. Offensive gases
emanate from collections of dung, litter, which are themselves un-
wholesome, and these in addition attract flies, causing annoyance
to the sick creature, as well as materially aiding in the spread of
infection. When disinfectants can be procured—and there are many
inexpensive ones on the market—they should be freely used to purify
standings. Once a week the sick animal should be removed to a
fresh standing if it is only 30 or 40 yards distant. It is also a wise
precaution to isolate all sick animals. All animals suffering from
wounds and abscesses should, as much as possible, be kept on stand-
ings free from sand, dust, owing to the habit they have of taking up
dust and dirt in their trunks and blowing it over wounded surfaces.
(7) Convalescence.—When once an animal has regained a cer-
tain amount of strength so that he is able to roam about, he should be
taken to the jungle, sufficiently fettered to prevent his being lost, and
let loose. By this means an animal has the opportunity of satisfy-
ing his own inclinations with regard to the nature, quality, and quan-
tity of his food, and I know of no method of treatment that will
advance and restore his usual health and vigour with the same rapi-
dity.
General indications of ill-health.
After what has been said about the elephant in health (see page 9),
it will be as well, before discussing individual diseases, to enumerate
some of the major indications of indisposition commonly displayed:—
(1) Dullness.—This is probably the first indication likely to
attract notice, and is shown by the cessation of those restless
movements of the trunk, ears, limbs and body so characteristic of
health, and could at once be detected by any observant attendant.
This symptom is evinced in all constitutional disturbances, especially
the acute diseases. It is also manifested in many local conditions,
unless of a trivial character, the detection of which should call for an
immediate investigation concerning the temperature, pulse, respira-
tions and excretions.
(2) Fever.—The temperature of the elephant is in health 97
degrees and a fraction over, rarely 98 degrees. Anything above
this constitutes fever, and a temperature of 100 degrees indicates
GENERAL INDICATIONS OF ILL-HEALTH.
81
considerable fever in these creatures, and a rise of 4 or 5 degrees-a
grave condition. Fever, it must be distinctly understood, is not a dis-
ease in itself, but merely a symptom of disease, and may arise from
manifold conditions. It accompanies almost all acute constitutional
ailments resulting from whatever cause, such as anthrax, foot-and-
mouth and kindred diseases, heat stroke, chills, blood poisoning, &c,
but may also attend conditions which are purely local, such as an
abscess beneath the skin, inflammations, wounds and other injuries.
Fever is ascertained by taking the temperature in the rectum or fun-
dament ; but this is sometimes by no means the easy operation that it
is in other animals, owing to the extreme suspicion and nervousness
displayed. The method recommended is as follows : Many ele-
phants are not averse to having the contents of the rectum evacuated
artificially, i.e., by inserting the arm and raking out the dung; the arm
should previously be anointed with soap or oil. A good mahout
can do this and at the same time having removed some dung can
introduce the thermometer without arousing suspicion. With cau-
tion this is the simplest method I know of, and an ordinary clinicial
thermometer may be used; the elephant may be standing or recum-
bent. This method failing, the only alternative and much more
troublesome means, and with ill-tempered animals not always suc-
cessful, is as follows: The elephant must be made to assume the re-
cumbent position. One or often two men are required to hold the tail
aside; a longish thermometer about 12 inches is desirable, and for
economical purposes it is as well, in order to avoid breakage to use
one of a special pattern guarded by a metal case ;* but it must be
borne in mind as a standard rule which on no account should be
relaxed that after the use of such an instrument, the thermometer
must be withdrawn from its special case and thoroughly cleansed in
disinfecting fluid, whilst the case itself must be boiled for some
minutes. It is sufficient to thoroughly wash an ordinary clinical ther-
mometer in some disinfecting solution. These precautions are im-
perative to obviate the risk of infecting sound animals.
As the anus or fundament is surrounded by much loose hanging
skin, special care must be observed to see that the hand with the
thermometer, or thermometer alone, previously anointed with
vaseline or other lubricant, is inserted for at least 6 or 8 inches,
where it should be permitted to remain for at least three minutes
in order to obtain a reliable reading.†
* These I specially recommend and are advertised by Messrs. P. Orr and Sons, but
may be obtained from any surgical instrument makers, such as Messrs. Arnold and Son,
West-Smith field, London.
† Half minute thermometers are much handier and owing to their delicacy only re-
quire a little extra care.
11
82
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
In order to efficiently conduct the operation, one good method is
to divert his suspicion by going through the operation of harnessing
and loading him, and at the same time to offer sweetmeats, sugar-
cane. Care must be taken to observe that the mercury in the
thermometer is shaken down below 97 degrees before handing
the instrument to the mahout, who alone should be entrusted to
insert it.
Should no thermometer be at hand, there are other indications
which may lead one to a correct conclusion as to the presence of
fever; these are (a), shivering often passed unnoticed, is frequently
a precursor of fever, (b) uneven surface temperature of the body, i.e.,
either the trunk, ears, or extremities may be cold whilst the body
is hot, or may be alternately hot and cold, and the skin of the trunk
contracted and shrivelled, (c) loss of appetite, (d) dryness of mouth
and evident thirst, (e) constipation, (f) scanty and deep coloured
muddy urine, (g) unusual redness of the membranes of the mouth
and palate, (h) watery and reddened eyes, (i) acceleration of the
pulse, which normally beats from 46 to 50 per minute, (k) change of
colour of skin which becomes lighter, and any white spots about
trunk, becoming paler.
Treatment.—It has been already pointed out that fever is a
symptom and not a disease, and this being borne in view, the first
indication in regard to treatment is to ascertain if possible its
cause, and when this is found, to remove it. Until the cause has
been discovered one's energies must be directed towards reducing
the temperature to normal limits, and this may be effected in the
following ways: First as a matter of routine, a brisk purgative
should be given and the bowels must be kept open throughout the
attack, i.e., there should be some action of the bowels daily, see
Appendix 23 to 38.
It must, however, be understood that after a strong purgative, re-
action frequently occurs during which no dung is passed for several
hours; should this extend over a day, a repetition of the dose may
be given, but in a much milder form, or better still, enemas may
be employed to bring about action of the bowels.
In addition to the instructions laid down for general treatment of
sick elephants the following prescriptions may be tried :—
Nitrate of potash and
Chlorate of potash
of each half an ounce, in water or bolus.
Nitrate of potash, half an ounce twice a day; given mixed in a couple of
buckets of water.
Camphor and
Nitrate of potash
of each half an ounce once or twice daily.
Aconite leaves powdered
Calomel ...
Jaggery ...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
3 drachms.
6 drachms.
8 ounces.
divide into eight pills; give one even night. Also see Appendix—Diuretics, Nos. 16
to 22, and "Mussauls."
GENERAL INDICATIONS OF ILL-HEALTH.
83
(3) Pain.—This may be suspected when the animal groans fre-
quently without any evident reason. Its locality is sometimes re-
vealed by the behaviour, as for instance, when pain is in a limb, that
member is favoured, evidenced by being lifted with caution or car-
ried stiffly during progression ; if in the abdomen, manifest uneasiness
is shown by frequently lying down and getting up, or by biting the
trunk or keeping the tip in the mouth for some time.
Treatment—May be local or general. The former is best prac-
tised by the application of heat to the part and hot-water is usually
the handiest and best agent to use, also see Appendix No. 76, and for
general treatment, see Appendix 1 to 6.
(4) Appetite—May be partially or completely lost, or may be
depraved as shown by eating earth, which symptom must be care-
fully distinguished from a custom amongst many wild animals which
visit so-called "licks" and eat earth to obtain salt.
(5) Debility—Like fever, is a symptom indicative of disease
rather than a disease per se, and may be brought about by a multipli-
city of causes which may be of a very variable nature, and may be
summed up as follows.
Causes.—(a) Condition of life.—From liberty to captivity neces-
sitating as it does an artificial in lieu of a natural existence.
(b) Diet.—Food may be insufficient in quantity, lacking in quality
or variety. Salt, a most necessary ingredient, may not be allowed,
or if allowed may be insufficient, often being appropriated by the
attendants (a very frequent fault).
(c) Overwork.—Either as regards overtaxing of strength, or to
mild work carried on for many hours at a stretch, and therefore cur-
tailing the time for feeding, sleep, and rest.
(d) Insanitation.—Want of cleanliness in standings, sheds and
surroundings.
(e) Worms—That is, internal parasites, by depriving the animal
of nutriment, or actually robbing him of his blood.
(f) Abuse of drugs.—Gilchrist states that this condition may be
induced by the excessive use of mercurial preparations which some
mahouts undoubtedly are fond of employing.
(g) Suppurating wounds.—When these are extensive or chronic,
the constant discharges issuing therefrom causing a drain on the
system.
Debility in some degree must of necessity accompany all consti-
tutional ailments, and is the outcome of profound changes in the
constitution of the blood. Every one must have heard the adage
" blood is life "; it necessarily follows that the vitality and nutrition
of every structure, and organ, of the body must depend on the
quality and quantity of this fluid supplied to them. When this is
84
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
lacking in quality or quantity; the organs and vital processes from
poverty of nutriment are unable to perform their functions as satisfac-
torily as in health. Debility is directly therefore the outcome of
depravity of the blood, and is shown in very many ways.
Symptoms.—Weakness—Which may vary from mere listless-
ness, restlessness at night and unwillingness to work, to prostration
or utter helplessness.
2. Anœmia—(bloodlessness) which may vary from slight pallor
of the mucous membranes, to extreme blanching.
3. Emaciation—Which may only be so slight that the natural
depressions and projections of the surface are accentuated, or so
pronounced that the beast becomes a skeleton.
4. The heart.—Owing to the inferior quality of blood supplied for
its own nutrition, becomes weakened and unable to perform its func-
tions satisfactorily, hence those parts furthest removed, especially the
tail, and those with paucity of circulation, the ears, may suffer ulcer-
ation or actual destruction (mortification). The pulse becomes
weak; respiration is hurried, the animal pants on the least exertion
and if pressed may drop dead (heart failure) ; dropsical swellings
thut (
) frequently occur owing to the watery condition of the
blood permitting a leakage or sweating of this fluid through the walls
of the vessels into the tissues surrounding them. The fluid then by
force of gravity occupies the most dependent parts. In the case
of cavities, such as the abdomen, it may collect in large quantities
constituting what is known as dropsy. Gilchrist and Forsyth have
noted that sores and extensive sloughing of the external genital
organs sometimes occurs as a result of this dropsical effusion into
the tissues. I noticed this condition in one case of debility in a
female.
The impoverished state of the blood and feeble circulation may
sometimes produce sloughing or mortification of the ears and end of
tail.
5. The digestive apparatus—in like manner suffers, and in con-
sequence we may find loss of appetite or depraved appetite, foetid
breath, and not infrequently diarrhoea of a fœtid character.
6. The urinary organs—from the same cause fail in their func-
tions and the characters of the urine may become altered. It may
be excessive and clear, or scanty, white and syrupy.
7. The skin—too, partakes in this general alteration. We find it
rough, harsh, scurfy, and unduly wrinkled; the hair is readily re-
moved, especially that on the tail, or may fall out; sores may break
out on its surface and swellings occur beneath it, such as an erup-
tion of boils, particularly on the belly and knee joints, in the condi-
tion known to Indians as sukka zahirbad (i.e., where dropsy is
GENERAL INDICATIONS OF ILL-HEALTH.
85
not a pronouced symptom). The boils may or may not burst. Bur-
mans anxiously watch for the boils to come to a head and burst, if
they disappear without bursting they give the animal up.
Debility as seen in its most aggravated form exhibits a train of
symptoms almost exactly coinciding with those recorded by many
authors under the name of zahirbad.
Whether this is a specific disease or not, as some would have
us believe, is a matter of doubt, but the very symptoms noted to
characterize that disease are met with in cases of debility, pure and
simple.
In many ailments of the elephant there is a marked tendency to
glandular enlargements, swellings, and in my experience I have
come into contact with cases of debility, pure and simple, which
have advanced so rapidly that it has led me to think, as it may have
done others, that there was some specific cause, but have failed to
discover it, such as " surra " and kindred diseases. When a num-
ber are attacked simultaneously, such suspicions are no doubt justi-
fied, but at the same time it must not be lost sight of that the de-
fective conditions in general management, feeding, shelter, may
have been shared by all and therefore all may suffer alike.
Owners might help in clearing up much of the present obscurity
by sending me or other persons with some knowledge of bacteri-
ology, specimens of the blood in fatal cases, the instructions con-
cerning which have been fully laid down under 'Diagnosis' in the
Chapter on Anthrax, page 89.
Preventive treatment.—It follows from the remarks made with re-
gard to possible causes that enquiries must be made into every detail
concerning recent general treatment and correcting anything at fault.
Early recognition is of the first importance, and any animal found
the least out of condition should be given a rest by sending him
away into the jungle.
Curative.—(a) General.—Rest from work, gentle walking exer-
cise morning and evening according to strength. The body must
be washed daily and kept thoroughly clean. The state of the bowels
must be watched, and any tendency to constipation corrected by
administration of laxatives, see Appendix—Laxatives or aperients,
Nos. 23 to 28, or Enemas, Nos. 77 to 80.
Thirst should be relieved by always keeping a tub of fresh water
near the standing. A liberal allowance of good food, which must
occasionally be varied, and also an allowance of salt is necessary,
in addition to which tempting diet such as sugarcane, fruit, may
be given with advantage, as also wheaten cakes or chupatties or
bread, 5 or 6 lbs., morning and evening. Diuretics, see Appendix
16 to 22, may be tried, and if the appetite is bad, Cordials, see Ap-