NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
TEETH.
57
Teeth.
The teeth are large, complex, and special in their mode of re-
placement. Steel in his "Indian Veterinary Manual" gives an
excellent description of the process, which I take the liberty of
quoting: " Generally on each side of each jaw, two or three teeth
"may be seen ; the front one is small, often loose, and is sometimes
" shed, because the growth of the second gradually cuts off the sup-
" ply of nutriment by compression of the fangs. The second or main
"tooth consists of a number of subdivisions composed of dentine
" coated by enamel, arranged in a linear series from before backwards.
" All these are buried in an enormous bed of cementum, layers of
" which are between each subdivision and coating every part of the
" surface, except the depressions for the pulp cavities and the table
" or grinding surface of the tooth." In the Indian elephant the
enamel on the tables is arranged in transverse ridges. Only two
teeth, as a rule, can be seen on each side of the jaw; these are
pushed out and replaced by others growing from behind. Many
male elephants possess tusks ; these are placed in the premaxillary
bone, they grow from a persistent pulp.
The statement of Corse in Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopae-
dia with reference to the growth of the teeth, and quoted by Steel
(Indian Veterinary Manual, page xxviii) is most interesting. "The
" first set of grinders or milk-teeth are not shed, but are gradually
" worn away during the time the second set are coming forward, and
" as soon as the body of the grinder is nearly worn away, the fangs
" begin to be absorbed. From the end of the second to the begin-
ning of the sixth year the third set come gradually forward as the
" jaw lengthens, not only to fill up this additional space, but also to
" supply the place of the second set, which are, during the same
" period, gradually worn away and have their fangs absorbed. From
" the beginning of the sixth to the end of the ninth year the fourth set
" of grinders come forward to supply the gradual waste of the third set.
" In this manner to the end of life the elephant obtains a set of new
" teeth as the old ones become unfit for the mastication of his food.
" The milk-grinders consist each of four teeth or laminae, the second
" set of grinders of eight or nine laminae, the third set of twelve or
" thirteen, the fourth set of fifteen, and so on to the seventh or eighth
" set, when each grinder consists of twenty-two or twenty-three ; and,
" it may be added that each succeeding grinder takes at least a year
" more than its predecessor to be completed."
The term " tush " is applied to the small tusks of females and
some males, though the latter ordinarily carry the large teeth known
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58
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
familiarly as " tusks." Tusks and tushes are simple teeth found
in the upper jaw embedded in deep bony sockets, the pulp cavity (in
young elephants) extending into them for a considerable distance, but
in aged animals the cavities are much diminished in size. On re-
moving a tusk the pulp which resembles a large conical-shaped
sausage, may be taken from the cavity without trouble. The Bur-
mans prize the pulp, as it is considered a specific for some disease.
With regard to the tushes Steel states : " The tushes afford indi-
cations of age appreciable to natives. Sanderson erroneously affirms
" they are never renewed or shed. They vary much in different va-
" rieties, and no doubt his remark applies to some; however, in others
" the milk tusks are shed between one and two years of age and re-
" placed by the permanent ones which often attain 70 lbs. weight
" in the male." Sanderson, page 67, says: " The tusks of the male
" elephant-calf show almost from birth. I believe that they are never
" renewed, and that the first tusks are permanent. In many works on
" the elephant it is stated that the first tusks are shed before the
" second year, but I believe this to be an error, one that has gained
" ground through so many writers deriving their information from a
" common source. I have made this a point of particular enquiry
" amongst experienced elephant-attendants, and have found them
"unanimous in dissenting from the idea of any such process of
" renewal." He also remarks : "I have had many young elephants in
" my charge and never noticed anything of the change alluded to."
I have asked many foresters, Burmese and Karen, about this matter ;
they are of opinion that the tusks are never shed; I have, however,
also been informed of one or two instances of milk tusks being shed
and renewed.
A small percentage of males have simple tushes, which are simi-
lar to those of the female, except that they are a little longer and
thicker, and some have none at all; the first are known as han ( )
and the latter as haings ( ). Some few males have a single tusk
only. The Burmans consider it lucky to own an animal possessing
a right tusk only; such an animal is known as a te (
) (see
Plate C). Males occasionally lose a tusk when fighting, or through
other injury, but some are born with a single tusk. The late Mr.
Darwood, who owned many elephants, records a case where one of
his elephants dropped a male calf which grew up with only one tusk.
Burmans, Karens, and others when judging the age, carefully
examine the tusks with regard to their soundness, size, colour,
sweep, spread, and amount of wear shown.
Tusks are formidable weapons of offence'; they can be brought
into use at almost any angle. Tuskers in a herd maintain discipline,
and are justly feared by the members of it. At times most
THE SPINE—CERVICAL VERTEBRÆ.
59
ghastly wounds are inflicted with these weapons, and when tuskers
fight, one or other of the combatants is frequently killed, or dies of
wounds inflicted. Well trained tuskers are highly valued, as owing
to the possession of these organs, they are enabled to perform a va-
riety of work which cannot be undertaken by animals without them.
Strange as it may appear, there are occasional instances where a
haing is feared even by powerful tuskers. Mr. C. B. Lacey in-
formed me of one or two cases within his knowledge. Mr. Danson
also informed me of a case, and I myself have met with one instance.
It is also a generally recognized fact amongst the Burmans. In
such cases it will usually be found that the haing is an enormously
powerful elephant with an unusually fine development of the trunk;
the strength and dexterity in its use when fighting against a tusker
is said to fully compensate for the absence of tusks. In Pegu some
years ago, a reliable Burman tracker casually informed me about a
fight he witnessed in the jungle between a very large haing and
an ordinary sized tusker; though the haing received some nasty
wounds, he put the tusker to flight.
Tusks are occasionally snapped during fights. Mr. Danson, of
Messrs. Darwood and Company, showed me a piece of a very fine tusk
fractured about a foot or so from the point. This piece, when found
in one of the Shweli forests, was covered with congealed blood.
The Spine.
The spine or backbone is composed of a number of bones termed
vertebrae. In animals the head is suspended from it. It also forms
a tube for the accommodation and protection of the spinal cord, a
part as important as the brain itself, being the bond of union between
all parts of the body. The backbone is possessed of great strength
and flexibility. For convenience of description, it has been divided
into five parts ; namely, cervical, dorsal, lumbar, sacral, and caudal.
In the Indian elephant there are seven cervical, twenty dorsal, three
lumbar, three or four sacral, and thirty-one caudal vertebræ. Owen
gives the following :—cervical 7 ; dorsal 20 ; lumbar 3 ; sacral 3 ;
caudal 31. There are undoubtedly variations and peculiarities in
individual skeletons. In some specimens there are only nineteen
dorsal vertebrae bearing moveable articulated ribs.
Cervical Vertebræ.
Seven in number. The first from its supporting the head is known
as the atlas; it is very similar in appearance to that bone in the
60
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
human subject, and is in form something after the shape of a sig-
net ring. The second or axis, may be readily recognized, as it pos-
sesses a conical tooth-like process, and has a massive spine which
is bifid posteriorly. The bodies of the fourth, fifth, and sixth are
short, the spinous processes are also short. The seventh may be
distinguished by its long spine, and also by its having on its posterior
edge a cavity for the articulation of the first rib. Owing to the im-
mense weight of the head, we find that the neck is extremely short.
The latitude of motion possessed by each bone on those to which it
is attached is not as great in elephants as in most other animals ;
accordingly we find the general flexibility of the neck is compara-
tively limited, and that when an animal is desirous of observing an
object posterior to the direct line of vision, it is necessary for him to
turn his body more or less in that direction.
Dorsal Vertebræ.
Nineteen to twenty in number. They are intermediate in size
between the cervical and lumbar, and are to be distinguished by
their long superior spinous processes, which proceed upwards and
incline backwards ; they form the " withers " and greater portion of
the spinal ridge.
Lumbar Vertebræ.
The lumbar vertebrae are three in number; they may be distin-
guished by their longish, flattened, transverse processes, which give
support to the muscles of the loins.
Sacral Vertebræ.
The sacrum is short and arched, and formed by the union of
three or four bones, which in the young animal are separate. It is
more or less triangular in shape, with its base anteriorly and apex
posteriorly placed. In very old animals the last lumbar vertebra may
become united to the sacrum. The sacrum forms a roof to the
pelvis, and affords protection to its contents.
Caudal Vertebræ.
Thirty-one in number, but in many specimens it will be found
that from accident, &c., there are less. The anterior ones show in
STERNUM—RIBS—EXTREMITIES.
61
a rudimentary form the essential parts of a vertebra, but posteriorly
they become cylindrical rods, convex on their anterior and posterior
surfaces.
The head and first bone of the neck have free motion up and
down. The joint formed by the next bone of the neck also has free
motion, chiefly to either side. The bones of the back have the
least motion, they confer strength, and permit of motion of the ribs.
The bones of the loins possess slightly more motion. If the verte-
bræ be examined, certain holes will be observed on either side ;
these are for the passage of spinal nerves, &c.
Sternum.
The sternum or breast bone is situated in the middle line, on the
inferior aspect of the chest. In young animals it is cartilaginous,
and consists of several segments, which later on become consolidat-
ed. The lateral surfaces present indentations for the reception of the
cartilages of the sternal or true ribs. The sternum also helps to
protect the heart and lungs from injury.
Ribs.
The ribs constitute a series of long arched bones which are con-
nected to the lateral sides of the spinal column above, and mostly
to the sternum below. There are from nineteen to twenty pairs, in-
creasing in length from the first to the tenth, after which they de-
crease. They are divided into (a) true or sternal ribs, namely, those
that join the sternum directly ; (b) false or asternal, those that do
not ; and (c) floating ribs, those that have no attachment below.
The first two or three sternal ribs are very stout and short, and only
slightly curved, as the chest in this region is very narrow. The
articulation between the heads of the ribs and the vertebræ in the
region of the chest is a synovial one, permitting of a certain degree
of motion. The ribs form the walls of the chest, and protect the
important organs within and their articulations with the vertebræ
above and the breast bone below, admitting of slight motion, they
assist in respiration.
Extremities.
In the skeletons of most mammalia it will be observed that the
bones of the limbs are set at certain angles, in order to diminish
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A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
shock, especially during such acts as leaping and galloping, where-
as in the elephant the bones are not set at angles, but almost in a
vertical line ; the reason for this is apparent when we consider the
immense size of the body to be supported. It is this particular for-
mation that renders these animals incapable of making the slightest
spring. Sanderson states that " a trench seven feet wide is impass-
" able to an elephant, though the step of a large one in full stride is
" about six and a half feet." From the position of the bones it is
evident that the elephant is intended to sustain weight, i.e., is a
beast of burden; and this fact to some extent accounts for the dis-
comfort experienced when riding these creatures.
The fore extremities.—The clavicle or collar-bone is rudimentary.
The scapula or shoulder-blade is of great size ; it is unequally
divided by a ridge or spine, and from about its centre is "a process
directed backwards. The cavity with which it articulates with the
next bone is very shallow, and looks downwards.
The humerus is also large, and affords extensive surfaces for the
attachment of muscles.
The fore-arm consists of two bones, the ulna and radius, which
in the elephant are distinct and peculiar in that they are obliquely
and permanently crossed. " The upper end of the latter (radius)
" is small, while the ulna not only contributes the principal part of the
" articular surface for the humerus, but has its distal end actually.
" larger than that of the radius, a condition unique among mammals."
—(Flower).
The knee in the fore, and the hock joint in the hind limb are
situated very low down, namely, just above the pad or hoof.
The knee-joint or carpus is made up of a group of eight distinct
small, but very hard, irregular-shaped bones.
" There are five digits with short, stout phalanges, the terminal
ones being very small, and of irregular form."—(Flower.)
The hind extremities.—As in the case with the fore limbs, the
vertical disposition of the bones is observed, and to some extent
bears a strong resemblance to the arrangement of the bones in the
human subject.
Pelvis.
Pelvis or haunch bone, so called from being likened to a basin, is
the medium by which the hind limbs are connected to the body.
It is of peculiar conformation, not unlike the human pelvis, and
is set almost vertically to the spinal column. The acetabula are the
cavities provided for the reception of the heads of the thigh bones,
or femora. Owen states that " the planes of the acetabula incline
FOOT.
63
" from the perpendicular about 70 degrees, a favourable position for
" transmitting weight upon the heads of the femora." There is no
question that this construction is adapted for bearing downward
pressure ; it is a conformation in which immense strength is secured
at the expense of suppleness, and is another reason why the gait of
the elephant is such a source of discomfort to the rider.
The femur or thigh bone is a long bone, more or less cylindrical
in form, at its upper extremity is a rounded head which fits into
the socket or acetabulum, and forms the hip joint. The lower ex-
tremity articulates with the tibia (the stifle joint of the horse).
" The patella, or knee-cap, is slightly convex-lengthwise, and con-
cave transversely at its articular surface."—(Owen.)
The tibia and fibula comprise the second segment of the limb.
The first-mentioned is by far the larger bone ; its upper end is ex-
panded, the shaft of the bone is somewhat triangular in shape. The
lower extremity is also expanded slightly to receive the bones of
the hock.
The fibula is distinct from end to end ; at its upper extremity it
is connected to the tibia, just below the joint, and its lower end enters
into the formation of the hock joint.
As with the fore-foot, three groups of bones go to form the skele-
ton of the hind foot, namely :—
(a) The tarsus or hock, consisting of seven bones.
(b) The metatarsals.
(c) The phalanges or toes.
Foot.
By the term foot is meant the " hoof slipper" and the parts con-
tained within it. In the elephant the " hoof slipper " consists of the
sole and toe nails.
The shape of the sole in the fore-feet is nearly round, while that
of the hind-feet is more or less oval. It consists of a layer of soft,
elastic horn, and though thick and tough, it may be made to bend
under pressure of the fingers. Anteriorly it bears the nails ; pos-
teriorly the margins curl upwards. On removal of the slipper, and
inspection of its inner surface, it will be seen to be covered with
numerous indentations ; these small holes lodge projections from
the sensitive sole.
The toe-nails vary in number from sixteen to twenty, but the more
usual number is eighteen, namely, five on each fore, and four on
each, hind foot. It has been already noted that the knee and hock
joints are situated very low down, the digits running obliquely down-
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A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
wards. The terminal bone of each digit lies within one of the
nails. If the internal surface of a nail be examined it will be found
to be traversed in a vertical direction by a series of horny leaves or
laminæ ; it will also be observed that the extremity of the digit as
exposed by removal of the nail, is also traversed by a series of
laminæ known as the sensitive laminae ; they fit in between the
horny laminæ of the nail. It is by means of the indentations on
the interior of the sole, and the laminæ above noted, that union is
brought about between the horny and underlying sensitive structures.
The hoof slippers are not rigid boxes like the hoof of the horse;
each digit is provided with tendons for flexing or extending it, thus
permitting of a great degree of motion. The noiseless tread of the
elephant is a subject of common remark. The reason for it is that
a large quantity of a fibro-fatty substance enters into the formation
of the foot, which goes to make a wonderful elastic cushion. The
elephant is by nature intended to roam about the vast forests, where
the soil is usually soft, or the ground is covered to a depth of many
inches by fallen leaves. Under natural conditions the " hoof slip-
per " affords ample protection to the underlying sensitive structures.
The Alimentary Canal.
Mouth.—The cavity of the mouth is remarkably small, " a fact
" which is demonstrated by the precision with which the food is pass-
" ed into it by the proboscis, and the small part which the lips con-
" sequently play in the act of prehension."—(Miall and Greenwood).
The roof of the mouth is quite smooth, the sides are formed by the
cheeks, which are sufficiently loose to permit of limited motion of
the jaws, the powerful muscles of which act chiefly in their grinding
motion.
Lips.—The upper lip is blended with the nostrils to form the
trunk ; the lower lip is small and pointed.
Teeth.—A description has already been given, see page 57.
Tongue.—The cavity of the mouth is occupied chiefly by a mus-
cular organ, the tongue, which is very small. The tip lies in the
groove formed by the lower lip, and the organ is possessed of more
freedom anteriorly than posteriorly. It is the organ of taste.
Pharynx.—The pharynx is a cavity situated behind the tongue,
and through it the food is conveyed to the gullet, or oesophagus.
Œsophagus.—The œsophagus or gullet is a muscular tube, ex-
tending from the pharynx to the stomach ; the calibre of the tube is
small. On the authority of Dr. Harrison, Tennent gives an illustration
of a muscle passing from posterior part of the windpipe to the gullet
which he thought " might raise the cardiac orifice of the stomach,
MUCOUS MEMBRANE—STOMACH.
65
" and so aid this organ to regurgitate a portion of its contents into the
" œsophagus." (See Fig. 25.) I have never observed this muscle.
The abdominal cavity or belly is of large size, the nature of the
food requiring a great volume in the intestines. The cavity is
bounded in front by the diaphragm or midriff, which separates it
from the chest cavity, posteriorly by the pelvis, above by the back-
bone, laterally by the ribs and their muscles, and below by the abdomi-
nal muscles. The cavity contains a portion of the gullet, the stom-
ach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, and the uro-genital
organs. On opening the cavity shortly after death it will be ob-
served that the intestines are alternately contracting and relaxing,
but always working down the gut, so as to force onward the contents.
The movement like that of the heart is automatic.
It will be noted that the cavity is lined by a glistening membrane
which is also reflected over the organs. This membrane is known as
the peritoneum. Its function is to secrete a small quantity of fluid
to prevent friction, and so permit the continual motion of the bowels
to go on without injury.
A striking point is the slight amount or entire absence of fat in
these creatures.
Mucous Membrane.
Is a delicate membrane lining those inner parts of the body which
are, in direct communication with the external air, namely,—
(a) from the nostrils to the minute ramifications of the
lungs ;
(b) the whole alimentary tract from the mouth to the anus;
(c) from the penis or vagina to the bladder.
It is furnished with blood vessels, nerves, &c. In health it is
pf a delicate pink colour, in fever and inflammations it becomes
reddish and the minute blood-vessels are frequently injected, when
the liver is deranged they assume a yellowish tint; and in debility
and anaemia the membrane is usually pale and bloodless, In the
elephant the colour of the mucous membrane covering the mouth,
tongue, and palate is easy to note, sometimes that covering the
eye can also be seen, and this being of a highly delicate structure
shows any changes in a marked manner.
Stomach.
The stomach (see Fig. 24) is a single sac unlike that of most her-
bivora, smooth externally, and measures from 2½ to 3 feet long ; that of
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