NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
" a small portion of Cinchonodine, 3 . 21 ; Cinchonine, 0 . 01 ; total 3·22.
" The Charquesillo (marked CC ) gave Quinine and Cinchonodine (as
" above), 3· 41 ; Cinchonine, 0. 0 3 ; t o t a l 3 · 4 4 . T h e t a b l e ( m a r k e dc
)
" gave Quinine and Cinchonodine (as above), 3·55 ; Cinchonine, 0 . 04 ;
" total 3 . 59. And still further to investigate the relative contents of
" the cellular envelope and the liber, I recently took a remarkably
" fine piece of Red bark, one-third of an inch thick, and about two feet
" long by six inches in width (bark of C. Succirubra of the sort called
" China rubra dura by the Germans), having a very decidedly
" developed (so-called) resinous ring, and capable of being
"separated by mechanical means into two portions equal by weight ;
" one, the outer bark, comprising all the cellular envelope constituting
" the resinous ring, and also inevitably some of the liber, the other con-
" sisting entirely of liber. The difference between these two portions
" was remarkable. The outer bark seemed to be in this case, as in the
"last, the chief seat of the quinine, as well as of the greater part of
" the colouring matter and of the gum, and yielded me by far the largest
" per-centage of alkaloids that I have yet found in any bark, viz., nearly
" eight and a half parts in a hundred. The inner bark, though rich in
alkaloids to the extent of five parts in a hundred, did not contain
" nearly so much quinine in a state capable of crystallization. The
" produce of the outer bark, more exactly given in detail, was as fol-
" lows—Quinine (when in combination as salts, and crystallized, nearly
" five per cent.) = 3 . 65 ; Quinine not capable of crystallization, 2 . 66 ;
“and Cinchonodine, 1·34, and the large amount of alkaloid in the bark
"under examination must not be taken as a standard of the ordinary
" produce of C. Succirubra, which varies in this respect considerably.
" I do not find previously any record of a larger produce than 5 . 50 per
" cent., which is considerably below the average of outer and inner. bark,
“as above stated." These are the results of the finest barks
f r o m S o u t h
America, which probably may have been twenty
to thirty years of age or
more , and a glance at the following table will shew that our young barks,
grown on the Neilgherries on plants not more than four years of
age, are much superior, both in the quantity of alkaloids and in their
quality.
38. Table shewing the yield of unmossed and mossed Neilgherry
bark (both original and renewed) at different periods of growth, as
follows:—
C. SUCCIRUBRA.
Age
of
Bark.
MOSSED BARK
U N M O S S E D B A R K
Renewed Bark.
T i m e u n d e r m o s s .
P u r i f i e d A l k a - l o i d s
C r y s t a l l i z e d S u l p h a t e s .
C i n c h o n i n e .
P u r i f i e d A l k a l o i d s
Cr ys t al l i zed Sul phat es .
C i n c h o n i n e .
Years.
M t h s .
Per cent.
Per cent.
1
6
3.40
2.80
0.60
2 . 59
. . .
. . .
Renewed bark aged 1
year, on a tree aged 3
years, yielded 9 . 72 per
cent. of purified alka
-loids, 2.72 of crystal
-lized sulphates.
2½
12
6
5.20
0 . 8 0
5.06
2 . 4 3
. . .
Renewed bark aged 1
year and 5 months, on
a tree aged 3 years,
yielded 7 . 7 per cent. of
purified alkaloids, 5 of
crystallized sulphates.
3 ½
11
8
6.94
1.06
. . .
. . .
. . .
Dr. de Vry obtained 11
per cent. of alkaloids
from the same sample.
3 ½ 18
. . . 11.34
. . . . . .
. . .
. . .
The renewed bark which
gave 2.72 per cent. of
crystallized sulphate
when one year old, on
a tree aged 3 years,
gave 5 . 85 when 18
months old.
39. The unprecedented result of 11.34 per cent. of crystallized sul
-phates was obtained from the bark of a tree of three and a half years old,
and of this nine-tenths were Quinine and the remainder Cinchonidine, the
inferior alkaloids not being taken into account. This is a result greatly
superior to anything derived from South American bark, both in quantity
and quality, the South American 'Red bark' invariably producing
from one-third to half as much Cinchonidine as Quinine, as will be seen
by the above quotations from Mr. Howard's work. Cinchona bark may,
and frequently does produce five alkaloids, namely, 1st, Quinine; 2nd,
Quinidine; 3rd, Cinchonidine; 4th, Cinchonine; and 5th, Aricine. The
first of these alkaloids is of the greatest value in commerce, the second
and third being rather more than one-half the value of the first, while the
21
fourth and fifth are almost valueless ; it is thus that the price of Cin -
chona bark depends entirely on the quantity it contains of the three
first alkaloids in a state capable of crystallization, therefore to increase
the quantity of quinine to the diminution of other alkaloids, is the
first and most important object of the cultivator, especially when it is
considered that the presence of inferior alkaloids, though of some
value, add so much to the cost of manufacture as to render their pre-
sence a disadvantage. With these important considerations in view,
from the time the Cinchona plants were introduced to this country, my
attention has been steadily directed to ascertain, by practical observa-
tion, how and in what manner the alkaloids are formed, how they
increase and pass from one into another. Although the experiments
and observations have been limited when compared with the import-
ance of the inquiry, still I feel satisfied that this problem has been so
far solved as to place in a great degree under the control of the culti-
vator, the quantity and quality of the alkaloids produced.
40. Quinine and other alkaloids are first formed or produced in
the leaves by the action of light and air on the juices, and while the
leaves are performing their usual office of elaborating the sap or juices
of the plant. Here the alkaloids are intimately combined with the
elements of the sap, such as Quinovic acid, &amp;c., and in this condition
carried down by the return sap, and deposited in the bark, most
impure in the liber or inner bark, but as the liber becomes trans-
formed into cellular tissue, a superior alkaloid (quinine) is pro-
duced in a state of great purity and easy of separation. The
inferior quality of the alkaloids in the liber is apparently caused
by the rapid circulation in this portion of the bark of sap containing
oxygen from recent exposure in the leaves; quinine being most abund-
ant in the cellular tissue of the bark, where it is deposited at first, also
in an impure state, but in consequence of the retarded and horizontal
circulation of the sap in this bark, the tendency of the alkaloids is to
become and pass into quinine. In the cellular tissue, however, there is
also a process of waste, caused by the action of light and air on the
surface of the bark, thus the quinine apparently oxydizes, becomes
inseparably combined with, or passes into red colouring matter and gum.
This process of waste is, however, somewhat less than the deposit or
accumulation in the bark, and for this reason the alkaloids increase
according to the age of the plant.
41. From the above it will be understood that if this process of
22
oxydation or waste from the surface is effectually prevented, quinine
will be deposited and increased in the cellular tissue of the bark to a
large extent, because the leaves form the quinine laboratory, while
the bark is merely the storehouse, and doubtless the leaves daily elabo-
rate, and deposit a certain proportion of quinine, and will continue to
do so till the last day that a healthy leaf exists upon the tree. There
is, therefore, a continual and never-failing alkaloid-producing power in
action, and the alkaloid thus formed and deposited can be cheaply
and most effectually preserved by covering the surface of the growing
bark with any material, so as to exclude light and the action of the air.
There will of course be a limit to the quantity of alkaloid that the
cellular tissue will contain, which probably will be from 18 to 25 per
cent. the bulk of the bark, and making an allowance for the less pure
alkaloids of the liber, from 14 to 17 per cent. of pure quinine may be
obtained from " Red bark" thus managed. In addition to protecting
the alkaloids from waste, it is desirable to increase the cellular tissue,
and to effect both these objects, moss has been selected to cover the sur-
face of the bark, as this material effectually excludes the light, and at
the same time greatly increases the cellular tissue. By this process
the yield of quinine can be tripled, quadrupled or even more, according
to the time the bark is subjected to the process, which to develope its full
advantages should be applied for a period not less than eighteen months,
a longer time than this being still more advantageous. This process
also gives the advantage of enabling the bark of the stems and branches
to be periodically removed and renewed, so that in reality the produce
from an acre of land will be fully thirty times as much as that which
can be obtained by the usual method of cultivation. The application.
of moss or other material to effect the above purpose having been
secured by letters patent,* the following extract from the specification
will explain the modus operandi.
42, The finest green moss, (or other suitable material,) is selected
to protect the bark from the influence of light and air, and also to in-
crease the cellular tissue of the bark, as this portion forms the principal
receptacle of the quinine. To effect both these purposes, moss has
been found a cheap, convenient, and very suitable material, as its pre-
sence on the exterior of the bark greatly increases its thickness, and
consequently its capacity for the reception of the alkaloids.
* The patent was cancelled by the Governor General of India in Council—vide Noti
-fication published in the Fort . Saint George Gazette, dated 14th December 1866, page 954.
23
With these observations I proceed to detail the particulars of the
application of moss only, submitting it to be understood that when other
material is used, variations will be necessary, according to the com-
parative density or otherwise of the material employed, but ordinary
moss should have the preference, as this, as a rule, can be procured in
abundance in all localities suited to the growth of Cinchonas.
43. To be effectual, the covering of moss should be from three to
three and a half inches thick, laid on uniformly as at Figure I., PlateV III.,
with the surface or green side of the inner layer, (freed from all extrane-
ous matter,) next to the bark of the tree, while the outer layer should
have the surface exposed to the atmosphere. By covering the bark in
t h i s m a n n e r , t h e p l a n t i s s e c u r e d a g a i n s t i n j u r y f r o m f e r m e n t a t i o n , a s t h i s
may take place if the inner layer of moss is much mixed with decayed
l eaves, grass, l i chens, &amp;c. When t hus put on, t he moss i mmedi at el y
begins to grow, especially when used in wet or damp weather, and
this is of great importance, because the natural growth of the moss
increases its own bulk and thickness around the tree, while the root
fibres, and young shoots, ramifying through the moss, effectually
secure the whole around the stems and branches to which it is applied.
The moss, when laid on, is secured by pliable bands of split cane,
fibrous bark, creepers, or any other convenient and suitable material,
wound round the outer layer in a spiral manner, this being further
secured here and there by cross ties, until the covering of the whole
of the bark be completed.
44. The bark, when subjected to this process of protection from
light and air for eighteen months or two years, (more or less at the
option of the cultivator,) is opened out by the moss being divided in a
straight line down the stem or branch, and turned back until about
one-half of the stem or branch is laid bare as at Figure II., Plate VIII.
The sheet of moss is then secured in this position by thin pieces of
semi-circular hoop iron, A, when the strips of bark are removed from
this portion, as at B, the stem is again re-covered by the moss, and the
other half laid bare, and treated in like manner to the first. In this
way at each operation one-half of the bark is removed from the stem,
in alternate strips of from one to three inches in width, according to
the size of the tree.
45. In performing these operations the aid of a knife, such as at
Figure I., Plate IX., is necessary, in order to enable the operator to
perform the work safely and expeditiously.
46. This knife has a perpendicular cutting blade on each side,
to cut through the thickness of the outer bark and a portion of the
liber, behind the cutting face of these two blades and joining them
together is a very thin horizontal steel blade for separating the bark
from the trunk or branch ; this blade is constructed to curve at pleasure
to any radius, by an adjusting screw, so that in a few seconds the blade
can be made to fit any stem or branch. This blade being adjusted to
fit the stem, and the roller to the depth the slice of bark is to be cut,
which should be so arranged as to leave a small portion of the liber
and the whole of the cambium undisturbed ; the cutting knife is now
ready for use, and is first brought into operation on the bark near the
roll of moss, at a height of about three and a half feet from the ground,
where it is pressed into the bark, then downwards in a straight line
until it reaches the ground, the knife being held and worked by the
right hand, the bark as separated is secured by the left hand.
47. The operator now turns round and inserts the knife at the point
from whence he took the downward strip, and pressing the knife in a
direct line upwards, in this way proceeds to remove
a strip of bark, the
whole length of the stem, dividing it in lengths of three or three and a
half feet, so as to be convenient for drying. The space thus denuded is
immediately re-covered by the moss. A. like width of bark to that
removed is now left untouched, and another strip of bark taken off in
the manner above described, and so on until. one-half the bark is re-
moved from the tree. This done the moss is again re-secured, and the
tree allowed to remain covered for about four months, when the trunk
is again uncovered, and the other half of the bark (that is the alternate
strip originally left) removed in the same manner as the first, the tree
is now again covered with moss, and not disturbed for eighteen months
or two years, when the renewed coat of bark can be removed in like
manner to the first. This operation may be repeated every eighteen
months or two years, because after this period each new bark will have
attained considerable thickness, and give a large yield of alkaloid.
48. From the above description it will be readily understood that
by the application of this invention, the produce of quinine, from an
acre of land, will be fully thirty times as much as can be obtained by
the usual method of production.
49. The following brief notice of the different species of Cin-
chonas at present cultivated on the Neilgherries, will enable intending
purchasers to select such as may be best suited to their localities
25
Cinchonas yielding Quinine and Cinchonidine.
50. Cinchona Succirubra, the " Cascarilla Colorada," or "Ge
nuine Red Bark" of commerce. This species grows to a lofty tree,
and is rich in alkaloids, which generally amount to as much as three
to four per cent., and thus fair average samples are valued in the
market at 1s . 6
d . t o 8
s . p e r p o u n d o f d r y b a r k . T h i s s o r t i s a l s o h a r d y ,
its range of growth extending from 3,000 to 8,000 feet ; the plant,
according to Mr. Spruce, prefers open ground with " plenty of air,
light, and room, wherein to develop its proportions, the bark is thin
in proportion to the diameter of the trees when growing at low eleva
tions, and thick in proportion when growing at high elevations."
The amount of alkaloids is also much affected by elevation.
Mr. Spruce informs us " that Senor Cordovez (who has analyzed the
Red bark, collected at various altitudes) found that the greater the
height at which the tree grows, the larger is the proportion of alka
loids contained in the bark."
51. Cinchona Calisaya, or " Yellow Bark of Bolivia." This
species grows to the height of a large forest tree, and is considered the
most valuable of all the medicinal barks. The present price of Cali-
saya or " Yellow Bark," varies from 2 s. to 4 s. per pound. Of this spe-
cies we have now on the Neilgherries four varieties, very distinctly
marked. Our Calisaya, considered to be a valuable kind till this year,
is now ascertained to have been the Josephiana, a comparatively
worthless variety ; but, in December 1865, Mr. C. Markham and Mr.
J. W. B. Money brought to the Neilgherries two separate parcels of
Calisaya seed, which have germinated largely. Among these there
are numerous plants of the Calisaya Vera, and of the Calisaya Verde,
and the remainder are of a different variety not yet ascertained. A
c-cording to Mr. Markham and Dr. Weddell, " the tree Calisaya grows
on declivities and steep rugged places of the mountains 5,000 to 6,000
feet above the sea, in the hottest forests of Caravaya and Bolivia."
Subsequently Mr. Markham, in writing of this species, states : " There
" can be no doubt that the correct method of cultivating the Cinchona
" is planting them out, in the open ground, with plenty of light and
" air. They may require shade from the direct rays of the sun at
''first. The only really fine well-grown plant of Cinchona Calisaya
" that I saw in Caravaya, was one that had been planted in a small
" clearing entirely exposed ; those in the forest were poor straggling
" things in comparison."
52. Cinchona Officinalis, a Uritusinga, the " Cascarilla, fina,"
or " Original Loxa Bark" introduced by J. E. Howard, Esq. This spe-
cies, which in the days of La Condamine, was a noble and lofty forest
tree, is now almost extinct, the trees of a large size having entirely
disappeared from the Andes ; it is rich in alkaloids, good specimens
giving a total of 3·8 per cent., and in this respect it equals the Cali-
saya bark of Bolivia ; it was common on the mountains of Uritu-
singa, and grows at elevations from 6,000 to 8,000 feet. A general
opinion prevails among the Cascarilleras, that the bark of this species
" differs in quality according as it is exposed to the morning or even-
ing sun."
53. Cinchona Officinalis, ß . Condamenia, the " Cascarilla Colo
rada del Rey," or " Cascarilla Amarilla," the " Rusty Crown Bark" of
English commerce and of equal value to the preceding species, to
which it is nearly allied, inhabiting the same localities, but perhaps
growing at greater elevations. In the days of Pavon, this was a slen
der tree of little more than twenty-four feet in height, and is considered
to be the species that produced the bark which cured the Countess of
Cinchon. At the present time, Mr. Cross informs us, but few trees
are to be seen of these dimensions. The plants from which the bark
of commerce is now taken are, in general, not more than eight to ten
feet in height: When the plants are cut down, three or four young
shoots, or suckers in general spring up, but this does not always
happen, as some of the more industrious Cascarilleras frequently pull
up the roots, and bark them also. The bark is taken from the
smallest twigs, thus the annual growths are sometimes taken, especi
-ally if they are strong. Mr. Cross also observes that the alluvial
deposit in the ravines, where this species is found growing, is shallow,
and in many places not more than six inches in depth.
54. Cinchona Officinalis, δ. Crispa (C. Crispilla) or "Fine Crown
Bark." This species is a small shrub, and contains a smaller quantity
of alkaloids than the preceding, still it brings a high price in the
market, being a " very fragrant and pretty-looking bark." It grows
at great elevations (from 7,000 to 10,000 feet) in a deposit of peat,
and where the temperature sometimes falls to 27º Fahr.
55. Cinchona Lancifolia from Java, or " Pitayo Bark." This is
a valuable species, it is also hardy and easily cultivated, inhabiting
the high and cold regions of the Andes. Dr. Karsten observes, that
" it descends only to a height of 2,000 metres (6,170 feet) above the
sea, from the cold summits of the mostly snow-capped mountains,
where it sometimes reaches the upper limits of the growth of trees,
that is, 3,500 metres (10,797 feet). Mr. Howard observes that this
species produces a bark which rivals in their rich product of quinine
the barks of Bolivia, and consequently commands a very high price."
Cinchonas yielding Quinidine and Cinchonine.
56. Cinchona Nitida, "Quina cana legitima," or " Genuine
Grey Bark." This is a lofty tree, abounding in the higher regions of
Huanco ; its predominant alkaloid is quinidine, and is consequently
of less value than the preceding species, which belong to the class
yielding quinine—the analysis of the bark from which our seeds
were gathered gave 2·22 per cent. of alkaloids, consisting chiefly of
Cinchonine. Mr. Howard has, however, found quinine in samples of
the fine Grey barks of commerce.
This species grows in exposed places at elevations from 6,000 to
8,000 feet, and is said to delight in " free air, cold, water, and sun-
shine."
57. Cinchona species without name. Allied to the above, and
raised from seeds gathered by Mr. Pritchett near Huanco. Mr.
Howard is of opinion that this species may prove to be identical
with Cinchona Obovata of Pavon. It is said to be a " good bark,"
and extensively imported with the Grey bark of commerce.
58. Cinchona M icrantha, the " Cascarilla Provinciana," or "Grey
Bark." This is a lofty tree, inhabiting warm and damp forests,
where it attains a great circumference, one tree frequently yielding
from 200 lbs. to 250 lbs. of dry bark. The bark is generally rich in
alkaloids, yielding as much as 2·70 per cent., principally consisting
of Cinchonine. In the cultivated plant this product has greatly im-
proved ; Neilgherry bark of this species yielding 5·82 per. cent of
crystallized sulphate of quinidine, according to the analysis of Mr.
Howard.
59. Cinchona Peruviana, the " Cascarilla Pata de Gallinaza,"
or " Finest Grey Bark." This species attains the height of an ordinary
sized tree in the forest of Cocheros, where it is still abundant, grow
- i n g a t a l o w e r e l e v a t i o n t h a n C i n c h o n a N i t i d a , a n d y i e l d s a b a r k o f
considerable value.
The bark of the trees our seeds were collected from, when ana
-lyzed by Mr. Howard, yielded three per cent. of alkaloids, comprising