NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
ii.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER X.
Page.
The alimentary tract— Diarrhœa— Super-purgation — Constipation — Belly-
pain, colic or gripes—Flatulent colic—Indigestion—Acute indigestion—
Chronic indigestion—Stomatitis—Disorders of the teeth—Inflammation of
the bowels—Dysentery—Epidemic dysentery—Intestinal obstruction—Peri-
tonitis—Vomiting—Poisoning
...
...
...
...
128—143
CHAPTER XI.
Internal parasites—Symptoms of the presence of parasites
...
...
144—150
CHAPTER XII.
The liver—Jaundice—Hepatitis, or inflammation of the liver—Hydatids
... 151—153
CHAPTER XIII.
The eye—Ophthalmia—Inflammation of the cornea—Ulceration of the cornea
—Opacity of the cornea—Staphyloma—Cataract...
...
... 154—159
CHAPTER XIV.
The temporal glands—Congestion of the temporal glands or musth— Inflam-
mation of temporal glands
...
...
...
... 160—162
CHAPTER XV.
The skin—Inflammation of the skin—Abrasions—Wounds—Ulcers and
special sores—Cracked sole—Cracked heels—Ulceration of forehead—
Ulceration of the ear—Ulceration of the tail—Abscess (purulent)—Abscess
in the foot—Abscess (serous)—Boils—Warty growths around the nails-
Ingrowing and over-grown nails—Moisture around and under the nails—
Eczema—Urticaria (nettle-rash)—Pityriasis (scurf)—External parasites—
Tender feet—Inflammation of the feet ...
...
...
... 163—189
CHAPTER XVI.
Miscellaneous—Sprains—Fracture—" Gunruss " and " Chowrung "—Cramp
—Mookundah ...
...
...
...
...
... 190—192
CHAPTER XVII.
Weights and measures—Preparation of medicines and mode of administra-
tion—Instruments
...
...
...
...
... 193—197
APPENDICES.
List of drugs employed in the treatment of elephants, with their native names,
actions, uses, &c...
...
...
...
...
... 201—218
Internal remedies and external applications; also a number of formulæ for
mussauls, &c.
...
...
...
...
...
...219—235
A list of diseases with their names in Hindustani and Burmese ...
...
236—242
Number of miles traversable on level ground with light, medium, and heavy
loads...
...
...
...
...
...
...243—248
Number of miles traversable on undulating ground with light, medium, and
heavy loads
...
...
...
...
...
... 249—254
Number of miles traversable on mountainous ground with light, medium, and
heavy loads
...
...
...
...
...
... 255—260
A list of useful drugs to be kept in Sick Elephant lines
...
... 261—262
CONTENTS.
iii.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Plate A.—An ideal specimen of a timber-working elephant.
Plate B.—An elephant, probably one of the finest workers in the province.
Plate C.— Fine specimen of a Te' (dragging elephant).
Plate D.—Fine specimen of a female elephant.
Figure 1.—" Kya-pazat."
Figure 2.—" Kya-pazat" or " Andoos " (forefoot fetter).
Figure 3.—Hind fetter for one foot only.
Figure 4.—Chain hobbles for forelegs.
Figure 5.—Fetter for forelegs made of cane or strong creepers.
Figure 6.—Driving hook made entirely of iron.
Figure 7.—Driving hook with iron head and wooden shaft.
Figure 8.—Iron chain-collar with sharp points.
Figure 9.—Fettering chain, about 12 feet long, used for one hind leg only.
Figure 10.—Common spear with which every elephant coolie should be provided.
Figure 11.—Poles in position at A and B.
Figure 12.—Poles in position, withdrawn below A and B.
Figure 13.—Elephant dragging saddle in present use.
Figure 14.—Sanderson's pattern guddee.
Figure 15.—Saddle for elephants.
Figure 16.—Neck rope.
Figure 17.—Crupper rope.
Figure 18.—Iron pipe-crupper.
Figure 19.— Travelling howdah used by Burmese and Shans.
Figure 20.—Karen howdah for carrying grain.
Figure 21.—Skull of elephant.
Figure 22.—Section of skull.
Figure 23.—Brain of elephant.
Figure 24.—Elephant's stomach after Camper.
Figure 25.—Trachea, pneumo-gastric nerves, œsophagas, &c.
Figure 26.—Showing position of brain with reference to the shooting of elephants.
Figure 27.—Under view of elephant "bot."
Figure 28.—Ascaris lonchoptera.
Figure 29.—Amphistorna Hawkesli.
Figure 30.—Liver fluke.
Figure 31.—Soreback, showing healed cicatrices.
Figure 32.—Elephant with prominent spinal ridge.
Figure 33.—Loss of some spinal processes from soreback.
Figure 34.—Enema funnel.
Figure 35.—Wooden gag for administration of medicine.
Figure 36.—Wooden timber cart for removal of logs.
Figure 36(a).— Four-wheeled cart for transporting timber.
Figure 36(b).—Two-wheeled cart for transporting timber.
Index
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...
...
...
...
pages i—vii.
NOTE.
As already stated in the preface, it has been my endeavour and
object to try and make this work a practical guide to the better
treatment of elephants in health and disease. It must be apparent
to those who have much to do with elephants how meagre is the
information concerning their diseases and treatment, and this work
is in this respect far from being as complete as I should wish;
however, much can be done now to augment our knowledge on the
subject, more especially by those gentlemen who constantly have
a large number of elephants under their care. I therefore appeal
to them to assist by kindly favouring me with careful notes on
cases, specimens of parasites, &c., in order that, should it be found
desirable to bring out another edition, it may be more complete.
Suggestions, notes on cases, specimens—in fact any information
concerning elephants—will be most gratefully received and acknowl-
edged. Parasites can easily be preserved by placing them in a bot-
tle with any ordinary spirit to which about one-third part of water
may be added.
FYTCHE ROAD,
RANGOON, BURMA.
G. H. EVANS,
Supdt., Civil Veterinary Department.
A
TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL USES-SUPPLY—AGE-HEIGHT—MARKS OF IDENTIFICATION—VALUE—PURCHASE—
IDIOSYNCRASIES-SALES—BREEDING—PREGNANCY—PARTUR1TION—MILK.
General uses.
AN animal possessed of such strength and docility as the ele-
phant must be useful wherever he thrives. In a country like this
his services can readily be appreciated, large areas being covered
by dense impenetrable jungle, immense marshy tracts, steep hills,
deep ravines, and intersected by rivers, large and small. In the
absence of waterway in a country such as described, he is more
than useful, he is indispensable. Mules, ponies, and bullocks can
travel along bridle-paths, and at times over very rough ground;
buffaloes can drag timber, &c., over level ground, but an elephant
can be ridden, drag timber, or carry a cart-load through dense
pathless forests, and over the worst ground. His immense size
and weight enables him to make a fair track as he moves along; and
he can cross wide rivers, ford fast-running streams, carry men and
baggage across swamps and heavy marshland, penetrable to no
other kind of transport animal. On the back of an elephant, the
engineer, forester, or surveyor is raised above the surrounding
undergrowth, which otherwise would shut out his view in all direc-
tions, and thus can more rapidly form a conception of his surround-
ings. He can take with him heavy instruments, and strike across
country in any direction he pleases. In this province elephants are
very extensively employed in the timber industry ; in fact the indus-
try may be said to depend in a great measure on the ability to pro-
cure elephant labour.
The valuable timbers are scattered over
such extensive areas, that it is impossible to construct sufficient
useful roads of transport and timber slips, as it would be necessary
to make a road or slip to each single or small group of logs; and
the great importance of having elephants for timber operations
2
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
consists in their peculiar suitability to the work of collecting logs to-
gether over great stretches of hilly country. It is necessary to see
some of these immense logs to understand the amount of labour
required to drag them through jungle, over ridges, down ravines, to
the floating streams. Again, when a stream is in flood and the logs
become jammed and piled up, or are stranded on sandbanks, the
volume of water coming down, and the strength of the current are
so great that elephants only can perform the Herculean task of
entering the stream to clear a block or " dike " (%>5), push stranded
logs into the stream, and guide them round sharp turnings. When
the timber arrives at the rafting stations, elephants, owing to their
immense strength, materially assist in sorting the timber for the rafts.
In the large saw-mills machinery is replacing most of the work done
by elephants, but in the smaller ones they are still employed to drag
the logs from the river, and after they are squared, they remove and
stack them almost as neatly as a human being. In all these ope-
rations they are efficient and cheap.
My experience of elephants as transport animals is, that they
are decidedly good. Provided they receive proper care and super-
vision, they do not as a rule fall sick, and are capable of perform-
ing a vast amount of work. They have few vices, are gentle,
obedient, and patient. Too frequently, however, they do not even
receive the ordinary attention bestowed on other transport animals,
being left to the tender mercies of the native attendants, and they
are in consequence often neglected, and as a result unjustly con-
demned. Though of such great size and strength, if neglected, they
rapidly go to pieces. They are constantly disabled from sore backs
and feet, the majority of such cases being due to want of a little care
and supervision. As with all animals, the first and most important
matter to attend to is, that they be allowed an ample allowance of
drinking water and abundance of food, and, above all, the greatest
care must be taken to ensure that they receive their allowance. On
service, where animals cannot be permitted to graze, it is imperative
that the persons in charge should see that they receive a sufficiency
of food and water. Elephants require only a small amount of sleep,
but to ensure their obtaining it all food should be presented to them
at an early hour of the evening, as otherwise they spend the night
munching their food and get no sleep at all. Care must be
taken to see that they are carefully loaded, not overloaded (which
is too often the case), not recklessly exposed to heat, that parts
exposed to irritation are regularly examined before and after work,
also that they are not overworked, and are at all times saved un-
necessary labour; then, and then only, will those in charge be repaid
for their care and attention. In this and adjacent countries these
SUPPLY.
3
creatures are valuable, as in most places except perhaps parts of the
north of Siam, food and water are abundant. The physical condition
of the country, the absence of roads, deep forests, marshy tracts, deep
and wide rivers, steep hills and deep ravines, all point to the elephant
as being the transport animal best calculated to surmount such
difficulties. The advantages in employing them are—
(a) They are plentiful, can fairly easily be obtained by hire
or purchase, require no rations to be carried—fodder in
most places being plentiful—and most of them are
trained to jungle work and accustomed to roughing it.
(b) When reasonably loaded, they inarch at a fairly good
pace, and in difficult country could keep up with
troops, or would not be left far behind. As they
require little sleep, they might, with light loads, be em-
ployed on a forced march.
(c) On the line of march they occupy little space, and are
thus economical as regards escorts. Their great
strength permits of their being employed on odd
jobs.
(d) They can be best employed at the base of operations,
and along the line of communications, as they are
less exposed to capture or attack, and can be more
easily fed.
(e) They only require the same care and supervision
necessary to the efficiency of any other kind of trans-
port animal.
Objections—One of the chief objections to their employment is
that they will not, as a rule, stand fire ; they are easily
alarmed; the sight of small animals to which they are
unaccustomed often causes them to bolt.
(b) They can be seen in open country from a considerable dis-
tance, and their large carcasses afford fine targets for an
enemy.
(c) They cannot be employed in cold climates.
Supply.
The Karens, Talmes, and Laos tribes inhabiting the country
between the rivers Salween and Me-Ping, the Karens on the
western side of the Salween, in Karenni, and to a smaller extent
the Shans to the north, and the Laos tribes in certain parts of the
valley of the Me Nam, are the chief sources of supply of more or
less trained elephants. In this somewhat sparsely populated and lit-
tle cultivated country, intersected by rivers and mountain chains, the
4
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
elephant finds a congenial home, and it is in this country, inhabited
by shy and retiring people, that a number of elephants are bred in
captivity. Elephants in these parts are used chiefly for transport
purposes between villages, and are a conspicuous element in all fes-
tivities held by Chiefs. Young tusker calves, when not more than
five or six years of age, find a ready sale among the numerous
Chiefs of the Shan and Laos tribes, and Siamese officials, at prices
from three to five hundred rupees. As much as twelve hundred
rupees has been offered for a promising ten-year old tusker. The
wealth of many Chiefs consists largely of elephants, some of them
owning as many as one hundred animals, and continually adding to
the number. One of the great amusements of the Chiefs is, to
watch the training of their animals ; this training begins at an early
age, when the elephant is taught to submit to a man riding on his
back or neck ; he is then taught to carry a saddle and small load,
and later to drag timber. When an animal is being taught to
drag, he is taken with a trained elephant to the sandy bed of a dried-
up stream, and put in harness ; if he is obstinate and shows temper,
the old elephant is given a long tow rope which is attached to the
youngster, and at a given signal he moves off, towing the youngster,
who frequently falls, but is nevertheless towed along on his back or
side, as the case may be ; after a few such lessons, he learns how to
drag; but it is not till an animal reaches the age of twenty that any
serious work is expected of him. Till he is full grown he is a pet
and, if a fine animal, an object of admiration in a cavalcade of ele-
phants on festival occasions.
Elephants used also to be brought from the Mèkong Valley,
quite a large number annually finding their way from this source
through Siam to Burma; but in the future it is improbable that
many animals will be obtained from this direction. In a recent re-
port of Her Britannic Majesty's Minister at Chiengmai, I noticed
the following paragraph :—
" Elephants were at one time imported from Luang Prabang in large
numbers. The French authorities now discountenance the export, natu-
rally wishing to retain so useful an animal in French territory. The price
of elephants has accordingly risen twenty-five per cent. Prices of timber-
working tuskers now range from Rs. 2,000 to Rs. 3,000, and of good tra-
velling females from Rs. 1,300 to Rs. 2,000. The number of elephants of
all classes in Chiengmai, Lampun, and Lakhon may be roughly estimated
at two thousand five hundred, and the demand for them is so great, that
there are a number of buyers in the market, who are unable to supply
their requirements at anything approaching reasonable prices. Some ten
to twenty wild elephants are captured annually by the trained catchers of
the Chiefs of Nan, but the supply, so the Chief of Nan informed me when
I visited that place, is becoming scarce, with the result that Chiengmai
AGE.
5
buyers are now looking to the west or Moulmein side rather than to the
east or Nan and Luang Prabang side for the supply."
Domestic elephants are plentiful enough, and the supply under
ordinary circumstances is equal to the demand ; but of late years
the demand in the timber industry has been, and is still, so exces-
sive, that prices have run up very considerably, but it is anticipat-
ed that in the course of a few years they will fall to, or even below,
the ordinary rates. One point, however, must never be lost sight
of, namely, that the supply of these animals must always be kept
up. As necessary as it is to provide a future supply of timber, so
needful is it to preserve the means of turning the timber, when
matured, to account.
Age.
The limit of age in elephants and the indications of the age an
individual has reached are not accurately known. It is natural to
suppose that in the wild state they attain a much greater age than
in captivity. In the latter condition they not infrequently die pre-
maturely from preventible causes. That they do sometimes live to
a great age is pretty certain. An instance of this is recorded
in "Beeton's Dictionary of Natural History," namely, that amongst
the papers of Colonel Robertson (son of the historian of Charles
V), who held a command in Ceylon in 1799, shortly after the cap-
ture of the Island by the British, is one showing that a decoy was
then attached to the elephant establishments at Matura, which the
records proved to have served with the Dutch during the entire
period of their occupation (extending to upwards of one hundred and
forty years), and was said to have been found in the stables by the
Dutch, on the expulsion of the Portuguese in 1656. This, how-
ever, is an extreme example of longevity from which it would be un-
safe to generalize. Burmans and Karens, having considerable ex-
perience with elephants, give the period of life from eighty to one
hundred and fifty years. The former designate the periods of
growth as follows :—
From 25 to 35 years, hsin-nu (
) = immature, i.e., young
and soft.
From. 35 to 45 years, kyi-byi (
) = full grown.
From 45 to 50 years, hsin-daing (
) or mundi (
)
= " midday " or middle aged.
From 50 to 60 years, obyi ( ) or mun-lwe-byi
(
) =
after midday or on the decline.
6
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
I think it is the general opinion of those who have experience of
these creatures that, with the age of seventy or eighty, they gene-
rally show evidence of having reached the average term of life;
but there are no data to substantiate this opinion, still less any
precise statistics available on the subject. The care bestowed
varies considerably, and to enable true conclusions with regard to
their age limit to be drawn, only those cases in which elephants have
received adequate care and attention should be considered. " The
" elephant is full grown, but not fully mature, at about twenty five
" years of age, but is not in full vigour and strength till thirty-five"
—(Sanderson).
There is little difficulty about judging the age of a young full-grown
elephant, or a very old one ; but it is anything but easy to tell those
of middle age, especially if they are in poor condition. Much in-
formation as to probable age can be gathered from the general ap-
pearance, condition of the ears, trunk, tail, &c. The appearance of
an aged animal is as follows:—General condition usually poor, the
head lean, the skull appearing to have little but skin over it, deep
hollows are present over the eyes, and often on cheeks (sides of
face) ; the skin covering the forehead frequently presents a crack-
ed and warty appearance. There is often some opacity of the eyes
and an abnormal flow of water from them. The edges of the ears,
especially the lower, are much torn and frayed. The skin of the trunk
is rough, hard, and warty, and the organ appears to have lost much
of its suppleness. The skin covering the body is shiny and shrivel-
led. The legs are thinner than in youth, and the enormous masses
of muscle seen in youth are absent; the girth of the limbs, especially
just above the feet, is considerably diminished. The skin around
the nails presents a broken and warty appearance. The tail is cakey,
hard, and the extremity often devoid of hair. Sanderson notes
on the peculiar action of aged animals : " Instead of walking firmly,
" and planting the feet flat, they bring the feet to the ground some-
" what in the manner of a plantigrade animal, touching with the heels
" first." This peculiarity may sometimes be observed in animals of
middle age suffering from debility.
The most ready way of forming an approximate idea of the age
is by the amount of turn-over of the upper edge of the ear. In
young animals, sometimes up to the age of eight or nine years, the
edge is quite straight; it, however, then begins to turn over, and by
the time an animal is thirty, the edges lap over to the extent of an
inch, and between this age and sixty, this increases to two inches
or slightly more. The teeth afford some evidence as to age, but
is of little practical value.
HEIGHT.
7
Height.
Extravagant estimates of the height of elephants have from time
to time been recorded; their great bulk so far exceeds that of the
ordinary animals we are accustomed to see that the tendency is to
overestimate their size. The old method of measuring was also
most misleading; a rope was simply thrown over the back, the ends
brought to the ground on each side, and half the length taken as
the height. Much amusing information on this subject is contain-
ed in Sanderson's excellent work. Madras elephants, he tells us,
were at one time said to be from seventeen to twenty feet high, and
an animal at Dacca was said to be fourteen feet. Mr. Corse,
a gentleman thoroughly conversant with elephants, determined, if
possible, to see one of these enormous creatures. He accordingly
took the trouble to go to Dacca, and was rather surprised to find
that according to his measurement the animal said to measure
fourteen feet did not exceed ten feet in height (a very good height).
We may take it on the authority of Sanderson, a most careful ob-
server, who had unrivalled opportunities of investigating such mat-
ters, that such a thing as an elephant measuring ten feet at the
shoulder does not exist in India, nor I may add in Burma. The
largest male he ever met with measured 9' 10", and the tallest
female 8' 5".
Of three hundred males measured in this province, the average
height was 7' 10½", girth 11' 10"; and of one hundred females, the
average height was found to be 7' 5¾", girth 10' 11." All these
animals were measured at the shoulder, as is done with horses. An
elephant dealer, through whose hands some two thousand elephants
had passed, stated that he had only met with one animal measuring
9' 4" at the shoulder. Mr. C. B. Lacey informs me that in Siam
the tallest animal owned by the Bombay-Burma Trading Corpora-
tion measures 9' 6" at the shoulder. This fact shows how rare it is
to come across an animal 9½ feet and over, for the Bombay-Burma
Trading Corporation have records of a thousand and more animals,
yet this is the only one they possess measuring 9' 6"; and at the
present time they have some two or three thousand elephants in
their employ.
Twice the circumference of the foot is as near as possible the
height at the shoulder. As stated above, these animals should
be measured like horses, i.e., vertical measurement taken at the
shoulder.