NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
CONTENTS.
xiii
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
X.—Diseases of the Respiratory Tract:—Catarrh.
Mumps. Bronchitis. Pneumonia.
Traumatic
Pneumonia
....
XI.—Diseases of the Circulatory System :—Heart and
Larger Blood Vessels. Liver. Spleen. Kidneys.
Lymphangitis
....
XII.—Diseases of the Stomach and Intestines:—Indigestion.
Diarrhoea. Super-purgation. Constipation. Intes-
tinal Obstruction. Intussusception. Colic. Enteritis.
Peritonitis. Vomiting.
Choking. Poisoning.
Mookunda
....
XIII.—Diseases affecting the Brain and Nervous System :—
Inflammation of the Lining Membrane of the Air
Cavities of the Skull. Congestion of the Brain.
Apoplexy. Paraplegia. Reflex Paralysis. Para-
lysis of the Trunk and Ears. Sunstroke. Heat
Exhaustion. Heat Apoplexy. Lightning-stroke
XIV.—Diseases of the Eye :—The Eye.
Ophthalmia.
Inflammation, Ulceration, and Opacity of the
Cornea. Staphyloma. Cataract
XV.—Internal Parasites:—Symptoms of the presence of
Parasites
.....
PAGE
225
229
238
255
261
267
PART V.
INFECTIVE DISEASES.
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
I.—General Remarks
II.—General Septic Infection and Intoxication
III.—Anthrax
....
IV.—Hæmorrhagic Septicæmia
.
.
V.—Trypanosomiasis—" Thut''—Elephant Surra
VI.—Piroplasmosis—Tick Fever
VII.—Aphthæ
Epizootics — Foot-and-mouth Disease
Elephant-pox
VIII.—Rabies. Tetanus. Tuberculosis
IX.—Epidemic
Pneumonia.
Epidemic Dysentery
Rinderpest in Cattle
281
285
288
302
305
311
313
317
321
xiv
CONTENTS.
APPENDICES.
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
A.—Law Cases
.....
B.—Operations
...
C—Age
D.—Growth Increment
....
E.—List of Fodder Plants, Grasses, etc., eaten by Elephants
F.—Breeding
.....
G.—Case of Impaction and Rupture of (Esophagus
H.—Surra
.....
I.—Note on Infective Diseases with special reference to
Anthrax
.....
PAGE
325
328
328
329
330
331
332
332
333
LIST OF PLATES.
African and Indian Elephant. {From Messrs. Hagenbeck & Co.)
Frontispiece
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
I.—An Ideal Specimen of a Timber-working Elephant.
(From Messrs. The Bombay Burma Trading Corpora-
tion., Limited)
....
Facing page
II.—A well-known Elephant in Messrs. Macgregor's Yard,
Rangoon. {From Messrs. Macgregor & Co.)
III.—An Elephant, probably one of the Best-trained Animals
in Burma. (From Messrs. The Bombay Burma Trad-
ing Corporation,
Limited)
IV.—Fine Specimen of a Cow Elephant. (From Messrs. The
Bombay Burma Trading Corporation,
Limited)
V.—Elephants being Rafted. (From Lieut. Rawoson, R.G.A.)
VI.—Extracting a Heavy Log
....
VII.—Elephant Working in Jungle
PLATE VIII.—Ounging and Dragging
....
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
PLATE
IX.—Cow Elephant "Ma Pu" showing loss of cartilage
of ear, the result of extensive ulceration. (From Mr.
H. R. Kerr)
.....
X.—Fine Specimen of a Tai. {From Messrs. Darwood & Co.)
XI.—An Open Sore due to an Injury. {From Mr. Ouinn)
.
XII.—Fasciola Jacksoni
....
XIII.—Anthrax—Tetanus—Hæmorrhagic
Septicæmia—Surra
Trypanosomes
....
XIV.—Trypanosomes in Elephant Surra
XV.—Piroplasma (Cattle)
....
XVI (1, 2, 3 & 4).—Elephants at Work. {From Mr. H. R. Kerr)
9
25
34
50
57
80
109
163
191
196
203
274
2S8
305
311
334
ELEPHANTS AND THEIR DISEASES
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
SUPPLY. AGE. HEIGHT. WEIGHT. VALUE. PURCHASE.
SALES. MARKS OF IDENTIFICATION.
SUPPLY.
As in other countries, the introduction of steam-driven appliances
where possible, in competition with man-power or that of his
servants among the lower animals, has in Burma resulted in some
diminution of the uses to which the elephant is put. This, however,
has not been so great as at first sight might appear, nor has it had
the effect of lessening the demand for elephants in general.
Steam-power in the timber industry here can only be employed in
such places as the log depots and mills, portage of machinery being
anything but easy or cheap in other places, and it is here only that
the elephant has been ousted from his former important and much
admired duties. In Rangoon timber yards the number of elephants
employed for the dragging and stacking of timber is inconsiderable.
In jungle work, in hauling the logs from where they have been
felled to the banks of streams or to cart-roads for transport, the
elephant still proves indispensable, and for this work the consider-
able extension of operations by various companies interested in the
timber industry has brought about an increased demand. So much
is this the case, that the supply appears to be insufficient; for years
prices have been on the rise, and purchasers have had to go further
and further afield to furnish their requirements.
The Karens, Talmes and Laos tribes, inhabiting the country
between the rivers Salween and Me-Ping, the Karens on the western
side of the Salween, in Karenni, and to a smaller extent the Shans
to the north, and the Laos tribes in certain parts of the valley
of the Me-Nam, still continue to be a source of supply of more
or less trained elephants. In this somewhat sparsely populated
2
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
and little cultivated country, intersected by rivers and mountain
chains, the elephant finds a congenial home, and it is in this
country, inhabited by shy and retiring people, that a number of
elephants are bred in captivity. Elephants in these parts are used
chiefly for transport purposes between villages, and are a con-
spicuous element in all festivities held by Chiefs. Young tusker
calves, when not more than five or six years of age, find a ready
sale among the numerous Chiefs of the Shan and Laos tribes and
Siamese officials, at prices from three to five hundred rupees. As
much as twelve hundred rupees has been offered for a promising
ten-year old tusker. The wealth of many Chiefs consists largely of
elephants, some of them owning as many as one hundred animals,
and continually adding to the number. One of the great amuse-
ments of the Chiefs is to watch the training of their animals ; this
training begins at an early age, when the elephant is taught to
submit to a man riding on his back or neck ; he is then taught to
carry a saddle and small load, and later to drag timber. When an
animal is being taught to drag, he is taken with a trained elephant
to the sandy bed of a dried-up stream and put in harness ; if he is
obstinate and shows temper, the old elephant is given a long tow
rope which is attached to the youngster, and at a given signal he
moves off, towing the youngster, who frequently falls, but is
nevertheless towed along on his back or side as the case may
be ; after a few such lessons he learns how to drag, but it is not
till an animal reaches the age of twenty that any serious work is
expected of him. Till he is full-grown he is a pet and, if a fine
animal, an object of admiration in a cavalcade of elephants on
festival occasions.
During the last few years purchases for Burma have been made
in Assam and Siam.
AGE.
The limit of age in elephants, and the indications of the age an
individual has reached, are not accurately known. It is natural to
suppose that in the wild state they attain a much greater age than
in captivity. In the latter condition they not infrequently die
prematurely from preventible causes. That they do sometimes live
to a great age is pretty certain. An instance of this is recorded in
Beeton's " Dictionary of Natural History," namely, that amongst the
papers of Colonel Robertson (son of the historian of Charles V.),
who held a command in Ceylon in 1799, shortly after the capture
of the Island by the British, is one showing that a decoy was then
attached to the elephant establishments at Matura, which the records
proved to have served with the Dutch during the entire period of
AGE.
3
their occupation (extending to upwards of one hundred and forty
years), and was said to have been found in the stables by the
Dutch, on the expulsion of the Portuguese in 1656. This, however,
is an extreme example of longevity from which it would be unsafe
to generalize. Burmans and Karens, having considerable experience
with elephants, give the period of life from eighty to one hundred
and fifty years. The former designate the periods of growth as
follows :—
From 25 to 35 years, hsin-nu (
) = immature, i.e., young
and soft.
From 35 to 45 years, kyi-byi (
) = full grown.
From 45 to 50 years, hsin-daing (
) or mundi (
)
= "midday" or middle aged.
From 50 to 60 years, obyi (
) or mun-hve-byi (
) =
after midday or on the decline.
I think it is the general opinion of those who have experience
of these creatures that, with the age of seventy or eighty, they
generally show evidence of having reached the average term of
life ; but there are no data to substantiate this opinion, still less any
precise statistics available on the subject. The care bestowed
varies considerably, and to enable true conclusions with regard to
their age limit to be drawn, only those cases in which elephants have
received adequate care and attention should be considered. " The
elephant is full grown, but not fully mature, at about twenty-five
years of age, but is not in full vigour and strength till thirty-five."
—[Sanderson.)
There is little difficulty about judging the age of a young full-
grown elephant or a very old one ; but it is anything but easy to
tell those of middle age, especially if they are in poor condition.
Much information as to probable age can be gathered from the
general appearance, condition of the ears, trunk, tail, etc. The
appearance of an aged animal is as follows :—General condition
usually poor, the head lean, the skull appearing to have little but
skin over it, deep hollows are present over the eyes, and often on
cheeks (sides of face), the skin covering the forehead frequently
presents a cracked and warty appearance. There is often some
opacity of the eyes and an abnormal flow of water from them. The
edges of the ears, especially the lower, are much torn and frayed.
The skin of the trunk is rough, hard and warty, and the organ
appears to have lost much of its suppleness. The skin covering the
body is shiny and shrivelled. The legs are thinner than in youth,
and the enormous masses of muscle seen in youth are absent; the
girth of the limbs, especially just above the feet, is considerably
4
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
diminished. The skin around the nails presents a broken and warty
appearance. The tail is cakey, hard and the extremity often devoid
of hair. Sanderson notes on the peculiar action of aged animals :
" Instead of walking firmly, and planting the feet flat, they bring
the feet to the ground somewhat in the manner of a plantigrade
animal, touching with the heels first." This peculiarity may some-
times be observed in animals of middle age suffering from debility.
The most ready way of forming an approximate idea of the age
is by the amount of turn-over of the upper edge of the ear. In
young animals, sometimes up to the age of eight or nine years, the
edge is quite straight; it, however, then begins to turn over, and by
the time an animal is thirty, the edges curl over to the extent of an
inch, and between this age and sixty, this increases to two inches
or slightly more. The teeth afford some evidence as to age, but
this is of little practical value (see Appendix C).
What in Burma is considered a sure sign of middle age is the
condition known as kadoung-kyeik,
that is, the animal presents
somewhat the appearance of a Burman with his waist-cloth
(loongyi) tucked up. This appearance has to be seen to be under-
stood. The Burman belief is that once this condition appears the
animal is annually liable to become musth.
HEIGHT.
Extravagant estimates of the height of elephants have from time
to time been recorded ; their great bulk so far exceeds that of the
ordinary animals we are accustomed to see that the tendency is to
overestimate their size. The old method of measuring was also
most misleading : a rope was simply thrown over the back, the ends
brought to the ground on each side, and half the length taken as
the height. Much amusing information on this subject is contained
in Sanderson's excellent work. Madras elephants, he tells us, were
at one time said to be from 17 to 20 ft. high, and an animal at
Dacca was said to be 14 ft. Mr. Corse, a gentleman thoroughly
conversant with elephants, determined if possible to see one of
these enormous creatures. He accordingly took the trouble to go
to Dacca, and was rather surprised to find that according to his
measurement the animal said to measure 14 ft. did not exceed
10 ft. in height (a very good height). We may take it on the
authority of Sanderson, a most careful observer, who had unrivalled
opportunities of investigating such matters, that such a thing as an
elephant measuring 10 ft. at the shoulder does not exist in India,
nor, may I add, in Burma. The largest male he ever met with
measured 9 ft. 10 ins. and the tallest female 8 ft. 5 ins. Cingalese
HEIGHT.
5
elephants are said to seldom exceed 9 ft.,* and the ordinary herd
elephants do not average more than 8 ft.
Of 300 males measured in this Province, the average height was
7 ft. 10½ ins., girth 11 ft. 10 ins. ; and of 100 females, the average
height was found to be 7 ft. 5¾ ins., girth 10 ft. 11 ins. All these
animals were measured at the shoulder as is done with horses. An
elephant dealer, through whose hands some two thousand elephants
had passed, stated that he had only met with one animal measuring
9 ft. 4 ins. at the shoulder. Mr. C. B. Lacey informs me that in
Siam the tallest animal owned by the Bombay Burma Trading Cor-
poration measures 9 ft. 6 ins. at the shoulder. This fact shows how
rare it is to come across an animal 9½ ft. and over, for the Bombay
Burma Trading Corporation have records of a thousand and more
animals, yet this is the only one they possess measuring 9 ft.
6 ins. ; and at the present time they have some 2,000 or 3,000
elephants in their employ.
Details of measurements of 300 male elephants—
23 animals
57
"
94 "
67 "
59 "
300
or 7.67
19.0
31.33
22.33
19.67
100.00
per cent.,
"
"
"
"
height
"
"
"
"
Ft.
7
7
7
8
8
in.
0 and under
6
9
0
3 and above.
average
Ft.
7
7
7
8
7
in.
6
8
11
2
10½
Of the above number, there were only two animals 9 ft. and
over, namely, one exactly 9 ft. in height with a girth of 14 ft.
9 ins., the other 9 ft. 1 in. with a girth of 1 3 ft. 9 ins.
Details of measurements of 100 females—
48 animals or
35
"
13
4
100
48
35
13
4
100
percent.,
"
"
"
height
"
"
"
Ft.
7
7
7
8
in.
0
6
9
0
average
and under
"
"
"
Ft.
7
7
7
8
7
in.
6
8
11
3
5¾
The above measurements were taken haphazard from the
recorded measurements of considerably over 800 animals. The
males from 7 ft. and under 7 ft. 6 ins. were probably not fully
grown, yet were sufficiently so to be working, and in all probability
unlikely to grow- much more (see Appendix D).
Burmans give the height of elephants in cubits, the " cubit "
employed by them being the ordinary cubit plus a hand's breadth
or roughly 21 ins.
* Emerson Tennent—" Ceylon," 1859.
6
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
As stated above, these animals should be measured like horses, i.e.,
vertical measurement taken at the shoulder. Twice the circumference
of the foot is as nearly as possible the height at the shoulder.
This rule, however, does not always hold good in the case of young
growing animals. The following observations by Mr. B. P. Kelly,
of the Forest Department, are interesting:—" My young elephant,
a haing, born in September 1893, measured in February 1903,
6ft. 1¼ ins. Measurement in February 1904 showed 6 ft. 9 ins.,
growth increment for the year being 7¾ ins. A very peculiar thing
about the young beast is his enormous feet, out of all proportion
to his size. The generally accepted theory of twice round the feet
does not hold good in his case, for the circumference is 3 ft. 9 ins.,
twice round which, 7 ft. 6 ins., is 9 ins. over his height."
WEIGHT.
Gilchrist gives the weight of the carcase of an ordinary-sized
elephant as follows :—
"In conducting the weighing of the carcase in portions, as
stated below, every regard was paid to ensure a correct result, and I
consider the one given to be within a very few pounds of the exact
weight of the living animal :—
Head (including brain, which weighed 16½ lbs.)
Left fore-leg ...
Right fore-leg ...
Left shoulder ...
Right shoulder ...
Left hind-leg ...
Right hind-leg ...
Left ribs ...
Right ribs ...
Loins and part of buttock ...
Pelvis ...
Neck ...
Breast-bone ...
Heart ...
Lungs and diaphragm
Kidney
Intestines (small and large bowel)
Liver
Spleen
Stomach
Weight of carcase and organs
Dung weighed ...
Water in bowels and cavity of abdomen, about
Total weight
Pounds, Avoirdupois
Cwt.
4
2
2
0
1
2
2
1
2
3
3
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
34
2
2
38
qr.
0
2
2
3
0
2
3
1
0
0
1
3
3
1
3
0
1
2
0
3
0
1
1
3
Ib.
22
25
14
18
7
11
0
20½
26
16
19½
13
0
14
14
16
23
20½
4½
12
16
9
18
15
4,355
VALUE.
7
"The dimensions of the animal were as follows: —
Height
Length from top of forehead to insertion of tail
Round abdomen
Length of intestines—
Small intestines
Large intestines
Total length of intestines
Ft.
7
10
13
68
38
106
in.
4
I
8
0
3
3
"Skin about¾ of an inch to 1 inch thick, thickest about the
loins and buttocks.
" Depth of the carotid artery from the surface of the neck,
4 inches ; diameter of the carotid artery, ¾ of an inch.
" Jugular vein in close proximity to the carotid artery, about ½ an
inch. The dimensions of the animal taken while alive will show the
carcase thus weighed piecemeal was of more than average size."
The following weights of eight live animals with the measure-
ments of each were kindly furnished by Mr. Kerr, of Messrs. Steel
Brothers at Pyinmana, who succeeded in having the nett weights
taken on a weigh-bridge :—
Weights and Measurements of Elephants.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Sex.
Female
Do.
Do.
Do.
Male
Do.
Female
Do.
A proxi mat e
age.
30
20
35
30-35
30
40
30
30
Height.
Ft.
7
7
8
7
8
8
7
7
in.
8
1
3
3
4½
1
8½
8½
Girth.
Ft.
11
10
11
11
11
11
11
11
in.
2
3
3
2
7
3
4
8
Average height-7 ft. 9 1/10 ins.
Length
along
back.
Ft.
10
in.
8
9 10
10
10
11
11
10
10
9
6
4
0
4
0
Length
along
side
Ft.
7
6
7
7
..
..
7
7
in.
10
10
7
6
..
..
9
6
Weight in
pounds.
6,278
5,237.75
6,293.25
6,322.5
6,460.5
5.931.75
6,322.5
5,748.75
Remarks.
In good condition.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
In poor condition.
In good condition.
Do.
Average weight—2 tons14 cwt.
VALUE.
Elephants may conveniently be divided into two classes,
namely,—
(a) timber elephants :
(b) baggage or travelling elephants.
8
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Timber elephants may again be divided into two classes,
namely,—
(i) trained tuskers,
(ii) trained males and females.
Well-trained tuskers have at all times commanded a good price ;
they are much more useful both in the yards and forests, as with
their tusks they can "oung" (g3dd8s) (see Plate VIII), i.e., butt
and stack timber, carry butts and planks, assist in getting logs over
obstacles, or in clearing blocks in creeks. Prices vary according to
age, good points, temper, training, and length, thickness and sweep
of the ivory. Merchants have been ever ready to pay what a' few
years ago were considered fancy prices for well-trained elephants, but
of late the demand has been so great that prices hitherto considered
exceptional have now become, for the time being at least, ordinary
rates.
A full-grown well-trained tusker will command as much as
Rs. 7,000, and a well-trained female as much as Rs. 5,000. Elephants
that are trained to baggage work or slightly to timber may cost
Rs. 4,000. How long this abnormal state of the market will exist
it is difficult to predict. Though tuskers are largely employed in
dragging operations, still most of such work is generally performed
by tuskless males and females.
Most Burmese elephants are
trained to timber work, and to some extent to carrying baggage.
As before noted, purchasers of late have had to go far afield to
obtain what they want. Competition among firms in the timber
industry has been keener of late, added to which several new firms
have entered the field. Again, the business of catching and training
wild elephants, by the lesser lights, has been prohibited for some
time in Burma, and this no doubt has helped to diminish the
supply of trained elephants.
These causes operating together
have all tended to raise the price, and I have no doubt the price will
remain high so long as they are in operation. In the interests of
the timber industry in which Government is directly concerned, it
would appear highly desirable to do something towards trying to
reduce these abnormal prices.
PURCHASE.
Dealers in elephants, it is to be regretted, are not always above
suspicion ; and as elephants are subject to numerous ailments, which
are causes of unsoundness, and also sometimes obscure vices, too
much care cannot be exercised in the examination of animals about
to be purchased, It will therefore be advisable to enumerate some
[Facing page 9.
PLATE I.
AN IDEAL SPECIMEN OF A TIMBER-WORKING ELEPHANT.
Indications of enormous power in head and trunk ; neck short and thick ; stands well up at the shoulder ; sloping
down gradually behind ; short hind-limbs indicating great dragging power. Tusks and curve of back perfect.
Height about 7 feet 10 inches.
PURCHASE.
9
of the more prominent signs of health: These are constant motion,
such as swinging of the trunk and tail, flapping the ears, swaying
the body or the head from side to side, rubbing one leg against the
opposite one, or swinging it. The skin is soft, almost black in
colour, and the bristles covering the body are firm to the touch.
The mucous membrane of the tongue and mouth is of a rich pink
colour; the eyes clear and bright. The light-coloured spots and
blotches on the head and trunk are pinkish in colour. A moist
secretion exudes around and above the nails, and is easily observed
by throwing some dust on the parts ; this must not, however,
be confounded with an offensive discharge from beneath the
nails, a wet rot, which runs high up, the affected parts being
hot and painful. The appetite is good, and the animal sleeps
for a few hours every night, and immediately on waking commences
to feed.
The signs of indisposition are that the animal is listless, there
is general languor, absence of the incessant motion so characteristic
in health. The skin appears greyish in colour, hangs loosely, and is
dry and sometimes scaly ; the spots and blotches also assume this pale
colour. The trunk presents a shrivelled appearance. The colour of
the membrane of the mouth and that of the tongue changes to a
muddy colour or is deep red, with or without blotches on the palate.
The lower flap of the ear is very often cold to the touch, the
eyes are dull, appear retracted, and there is frequently an abnormal
flow of water from the eyes. The animal may be out of condition
and feverish, the appetite small or even wanting; proper rest is not
taken, and he may lie down and get up several times (generally a
bad sign). If the excretions be examined, the urine may be noticed
to be small in quantity and high coloured, and the dung hard and
coated with mucus, or diarrhoea may be present.
Elephants differ as widely in their points as do horses and other
animals. The chief points of a good elephant are as follows (see
Plates I, II, III, IV and X), namely, medium height, a good big
barrel, skin soft and wrinkled (described by Burmans as crocodile
skin), the head massive, full cheeks and a broad forehead ; the ears
large, eyes bright and kindly, and free from opacity or excessive
flow of tears; the trunk of good length, broad at the root, and
blotched in front with pinkish coloured spots. The neck short, thick,
and full; chest broad; the back straight and broad, broad loins ;
short forelegs, convex in front (described by Burmans as sj]go5.o^S,
i.e., set up like a lion or chinthay, qjccS, the attitude given to the
leogryphs in front of pagodas). The hind-quarters full, sloping
well down and supported by thick short limbs. The pads of the
feet hard, nails smooth and polished, action free, paces fast and easy ;