NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
10
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
the tail should be of good length, free from hardness, and provided
with a good tuft of bristles. Animals such as described will not
often be met with ; still when selecting, it will be as well to obtain
those possessing most of the good points enumerated.
The undesirable points are numerous. Some animals are flat-
sided, others have high arched backs, with very prominent spinal
ridges (see Fig. 1) ; others are narrow-chested, with lean low fore-
quarters, or are leggv, and devoid of those enormous masses of
muscle seen on the fore-limbs of a good elephant. In some animals
the legs are of almost uniform girth throughout ; tall leggy beasts
and those with bad fore-quarters are invariably rough in action and
slow in their paces; they are, moreover, much more liable to gall,
and are generally indifferent workers. Elephants with thin, light-
coloured skins, even if they possess many good points, should be
avoided ; they are as a rule not strong, and frequently fall sick.
Those animals possessed of lean heads, hollow cheeks, small restless
eyes, shortish thin trunks, should be treated with suspicion, as they
very often are bad-tempered.
FIG. I.—Elephant with prominent spinal ridge. After Sanderson.
PURCHASE.
I I
Forsyth in his work, " The Highlands of Central India," mentions
that there is no end to the tricks carried out by dealers, of which
he had some experience at the Sônpur Fair; some he remarks on
are man-killers reduced to temporary harmlessness by the daily
administration of pills containing opium and Indian hemp, sores
of the feet plugged, cracks " paid " with tow, and sore backs surface-
healed. It is most important therefore that in examining a beast
the utmost care should be exercised to see that the back and other
parts liable to gall are free from sores, scars and tenderness ; in
fact, the whole body must be inspected, the ears examined for sores
and scabs, the ear holes for discharges, and the eyes must be free
from dimness.
The soles of the feet should be well tapped all over before and
after exercise ; if any tenderness is manifested, the part must be
thoroughly examined. Tender patches from excessive wear may
readily be detected by the parts being smooth and pinkish in colour.
The skin around the nails, as also the nails, must be inspected.
Food and water should be presented to see that the trunk is quite
sound, as this most important organ may have been injured by
bamboos, spear wounds, da cuts, etc.
Any individual idiosyncrasy which may exhibit itself, if bearing
on the utility of the animal, should be taken into consideration.
Some elephants are full of nasty tricks ; intending purchasers must
therefore be on their guard, and endeavour to ascertain the pecu-
liarities of any particular beast before taking possession. Most
Burmese elephants prefer being approached from the right side ;
very few from the left; some may be approached from right and
left, and others only from the right or left.
A new keeper
unacquainted with such peculiarities incurs the likelihood of being
attacked if the animal be bad-tempered, or of scaring him if of a
nervous disposition.
The following peculiarities in some animals reduce their value,
as they are regarded with superstitious dread by the Burmese. It
is thought that the ownership of such creatures may cost their
masters loss of life or substance :—
(1) A loose fold of skin, descending from the throat clown to
the fore-legs, known as pyazive (
, resembling bees settling in
a swarm).
(2) Same as above, but the fold of skin is continued between
the fore-legs on to the abdomen, called kalaga (
like a
purdah).
(3) Moving the head up and down, and simultaneously from left
to right, called moungdoung (
, like the action of pounding
rice in an ordinary Burmese rice mortar).
12
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
(4) Swinging the trunk only to the left and right, called pa-ket-
hlwe (
, rocking the cradle).
(5) A restlessness of the whole body, somewhat after the fashion
of bears, called sa-gaw-waing (
, action of a winnowing
tray).
(6) Holding the trunk up in the air and putting it into the mouth,
called tein-nyun-sa
(
, literally to eat the clouds), star
gazing.
The conformation of an animal naturally affects its value.
Wet-kôu (
, pig's back), or flat backs, are considered best
suited for carrying purposes.
Nga-phai-kôn (
, like the back of the nga-phai fish,
i.e., an even curve), or those with a slight curve of the back, are
considered best for dragging purposes, as it is supposed that the
dragging gear fits this class of animal better than others.
Those animals with backs described as pyat-that-kôn (
,
like the curve of a pyat-that, or sharp curve) may be employed for
dragging or carrying, but great care must be exercised in attending
to the gear, as such animals easily gall.
A loose fold of skin across the lower part of the neck, called payit
(
), is not a bad omen and rather raises the value of the animal.
Some elephants have four nails only on each foot; this decreases
their value, as five nails on each foot raises the same ; four on each
of the front feet and five on the hind ones does not interfere with
their value. Out of a total of 623 Indian, Burmese and Siamese
elephants, only three possessed twenty nails 5-5/5-5, 500 had eighteen
5-5/4-4, 104 sixteen 4-4/4-4, and 16 seventeen toes 5-4/4-4.
The male elephants called han ( ) and haing (
) are often
from 30 to 40 per cent. cheaper than tuskers. Generally speaking,
they are inclined to be ill-tempered. These are probably the
animals mentioned by Steel as always found single. I think their
solitary life is usually not of their own seeking, but is brought about
by the presence of powerful tuskers which resent their mixing with
the herd, for if they can decoy a cow from a herd, or pick up with
a tame female, they will do so.
A register recording age, height, sex, marks, year and place
of purchase, price, name and residence of vendor, should be
kept for reference.
SALES.
Elephants are bought and sold like other cattle, that is, the
purchaser pays for the animal and takes it away. When Europeans
contemplate purchasing elephants, it is advisable to come to some
{Facing page 12.
DIAGRAM OF SOME BACK CURVES.
I. Kha-dan or Wet-gôn. II. Nga-pe-gôn. III. Kôn-pyat-that. IV. Hngel-pyaw-gaing.
MARKS OF IDENTIFICATION.
13
arrangement with the vendor regarding a trial of the animals offered
for sale. A good plan is to advance the vendor fifty or even
one hundred rupees for a week's trial of an animal; at the end of
which period, should the intending purchaser decide not to buy, he
forfeits his advance. This course is recommended for several
reasons ; the animal produced for sale may have been lost or stolen ;
a vicious beast may be drugged with opium or ganja, or it may be
a weakly old creature fattened up for sale. The intending purchaser
atleast has an opportunity of observing the idiosyncrasies of the
animal, also his working capabilities. Elephant-dealers, and some
owners, are not above "doctoring" animals for sale. Some years
ago Government directed that no sales of elephants should have
effect except on fulfilment of certain formalities prescribed for the
purpose. The object was if possible to place a check upon the
extent to which elephant-stealing had attained. The measures,
however, having failed, the regulations have been set aside. There
is an impression current that a bill-of-sale is necessary in the case
of an elephant ; this however is an error. Registration is prescribed
for the sale of immovable property only. The solitary advantage
the purchaser could derive from registering his purchase would be
that, in the event of the animal having been stolen property, his
honesty in the transaction would be open to no question.
MARKS OF IDENTIFICATION.
Particular attention must be paid to all marks as a means of iden-
tification, as elephant-stealing about the frontiers is a popular and
very remunerative pastime. In the forests, when the day's work is
finished, the foresters as a rule put cane fetters on their animals,
suspend a bell or wooden clapper (
), hka-louk, from their
necks, and then turn them loose to graze ; no watch is kept over
the animals at night. The thief or thieves (who thoroughly under-
stand the habits of elephants) hang about close by, waiting till the
animal selected strays, when they go up remove or cut through the
hobbles, mount him, untie the clapper, and then head for the frontier.
To persuade the elephant that there is every need for hurry, a man
behind makes use of an instrument somewhat resembling a cat-o'-
nine-tails. It consist of a wristband carrying numerous tails at the
end of each of which is a cube of lead. The hills, clad as they are
with dense jungle, afford ample shelter; the owner, when he
suspects that the animal is stolen, usually has the good sense not
to waste time in pursuit. Accomplished thieves make a good deal
of money, for they steal an elephant in our territory, sell him in
Siam, steal him again a month or so after, bring him across our
14
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
frontier, and once more dispose of him to some one at a place many
miles distant from where they originally stole the beast. Distinctive
marks are as a rule not very numerous on these creatures. Govern-
ment animals are not branded,* but those owned by firms frequently
are. The shoulders or quarters are the usual places. There is an
idea that brands do not do well on the skin of the elephant ; this is
not the case when carefully done. I have seen many elephants
carrying clear brands free from blemish.
Elephants with any
blemishes about the shoulders or quarters should always be looked
upon with suspicion, as they are likely to be stolen animals, the
brands having been tampered with. All brands should be large and
clear.
Efforts have constantly been made to place in the hands of stock-
breeders a more humane and more satisfactory means of branding
their animals than by the time-honoured method of the hot iron.
Experiments have been made from time to time with caustic
branding compositions which should prove painless and leave a plain
and permanent brand. In Burma certain compositions have been
tried by brushing the paste over a stencil ; the operation seems to
produce no pain but the length of time taken for the scab to fall off
is considerable. Perhaps the patented branding compositions may
be tried. The inventors claim that—
(a) The brand may be used in any weather.
(b) No fright as brand is painless.
(c) The brand is not even deep enough to prove injurious to
hides when tanned.
The " Rodin " Branding Composition for life-time marking of
animals may be obtained from Messrs. Hauptner.†
Mode of application.— Clip any hair at the seat of operation;
stir the composition well before pouring a portion into a shallow
dish or plate to ensure the branding stamp being evenly dipped.
Apply the branding stamp armed with the composition, and press
firmly for a few moments.
Messrs. Hauptner will supply dish, figures or letters of any size
or any combination " To order"
* Quite recently Government has been carrying on some experiments on
Kheddah elephants with branding compositions.
† Messrs. Hauptner, N. W. Luisen-Strasse, 53, Berlin.
CHAPTER II.
GENERAL HYGIENE :—ON THE CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE.
FEEDING. NATURAL FODDER. ARTIFICIAL FOOD. TIMES OF
FEEDING. WATERING. WORK AND EXERCISE. POWER OF
ENDURANCE. PACES. REST AND SLEEP. EXPOSURE. BATHING
AND GROOMING. ATTENDANTS AND THEIR DUTIES.
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE.
Though a certain amount of predisposition to disease may be
assigned to a change from freedom and a natural life to domesti-
cation and an artificial one, and to accidental causes which cannot
perhaps be anticipated and accordingly prevented, there undoubtedly
is a very considerable amount of disease which can be directly
attributed to conditions to which the domesticated animal is subjected,
and which, with proper care and humane consideration, can be
greatly or wholly avoided. Twenty years' experience in this
Province, during which time I have had abundant opportunities for
observing domesticated elephants and their treatment by masters
and mahouts, has compelled me to believe that in many instances
(and I say so with reluctance) a maximum amount of labour is exacted
with a minimum regard bestowed upon their wants and creature
comforts—in other words, they are '' sweated." This failing is
mainly due to ignorance on the part of supervisors with regard to
the habits and peculiarities of their charges, and consequently they
are incompetent to criticise the actions of mahouts and attendants.
Employers seem to gauge the capacity of the animals for work
by their huge bulk and strength, and imagine that their constitutional
strength is commensurate, or fail to give this important matter its
due consideration. The result of these shortcomings, whether the
neglect be wilful or due to ignorance, is shown by the only too
frequent ill-health tame elephants suffer from.
My experience of elephants as transport animals is that they
are decidedly good. Provided they receive proper care and super-
vision, they do not as a rule fall sick, and are capable of performing
a vast amount of work. They have few vices, are gentle, obedient,
and patient. Too frequently, however, they do not even receive
the ordinary attention bestowed on other transport animals, being
left to the tender mercies of the native attendants, and they are in
16
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
consequence often neglected, and as a result unjustly condemned.
Though of such great size and strength, if neglected they rapidly
go to pieces. They are constantly disabled from sore backs and
feet, the majority of such cases being due to want of a little care
and supervision. As with all animals, the first and most important
matter to attend to is that they be allowed an ample allowance of
drinking water and abundance of food, and above all, the greatest
care must be taken to ensure that they receive their allowance. On
service, where animals cannot be permitted to graze, it is imperative
that the persons in charge should see that they receive a sufficiency
of food and water. Elephants require only a small amount of sleep,
but to ensure their obtaining it all food should be presented to them
at an early hour of the evening, as otherwise they spend the night
munching their food and get no sleep at all. Care must be taken to
see that they are carefully loaded, not overloaded (which is too often
the case), not recklessly exposed to heat, that parts exposed to irritation
are regularly examined before and after work, also that they are not
overworked, and are at all times saved unnecessary labour; then, and
then only, will those in charge be repaid for their care and attention.
FEEDING—NATURAL FODDER.
If an elephant is to be kept in health, it is essential above all
things that he be allowed a plentiful supply of good food, otherwise
careful management in other respects will be of little or no avail.
Remarks on the subject of fodder apply principally to those animals
which are tethered and fed at their standings, namely, animals
working in yards, and of course most Government animals. In this
Province all others have to forage for themselves, that is, when work
is finished the mahouts are supposed to take them always to a
part of the jungle where good fodder is procurable. The fore-
feet are simply hobbled with the cane fetter (
, kyein htoo)
(Fig. 15) which is lashed between the legs with a piece of rope, or
when animals are given to straying far, a long chain is sometimes put
on a hind-leg, the free portion dragging behind. In Karenni, Shan
States, Siam and Tenasserim, iron locks and fetters are also used.
This operation completed, the animals are set free. In order that
they may be readily found when required, a bell or large wooden
clapper (
, hka-louk) is suspended from the neck; this in the
stillness of the jungle can be heard for a considerable distance.
With regard to the plants most appreciated, this can only be studied
by observing the fodder usually chosen by wild animals, and this
without doubt consists mainly of grasses, tree fodder being of secon-
dary importance. The habits of wild elephants are peaceful, their
FEEDING—NATURAL FODDER.
17
wants can lead to no rivalry, and fodder in the places they resort to
is obtained in luxuriant profusion and without effort. They wander
about a good deal according to the season of the year; at times
they keep to the hills, at others they are to be found in the low
country ; generally speaking they spend the greater part of the day
in dense shady jungle, where they rest and browse on the leaves
and branches of young trees. They traverse the bamboo tracts, but
except when the young shoots are sprouting at the beginning of the
rains, or where regeneration of the bamboos has recently taken
place, they do not remain very long in these localities. They visit the
water morning and evening, and my experience is, that when possible,
in coming to drink and bathe, they select those places where there
are patches of so-called lining grass (
, Hind. kussulluf) and
(
kyu, Hind. null).
It may justly be concluded that the succulent stems of the kaing
form the most important item of the elephant's daily food; so much
so, that we may accept it as the staple for animals in captivity when
this grass is procurable, as it is at nearly all times of the year
(the months perhaps in which the fires rage being excepted,
mid-February to April). So fond are wild elephants of this grass,
that I have on several occasions during the rains, when the sky
is dull and overcast, known a herd to remain for days in large
stretches of it. If wild animals be watched when grazing, it will be
observed that after tearing off a bunch of grass close to the roots,
they remove the dirt adhering to the stems by beating it against
their legs or sides, after which they simply bite off the lower third
which is fresh, sweet and succulent; tame ones naturally do the
same if allowed sufficient fodder to permit of such waste—a rare
occurrence. A large margin should always be allowed, as elephants
are given to trampling and soiling a certain amount of their ration ;
this they refuse to touch. If the residue be weighed after an animal
has finished his meal, it will be found to be a good slice off the ration ;
hence, if only the bare allowance be given, an animal may gradually
lose flesh owing to his being half-starved. With regard to grass
then, he should not be stinted. I may state that at least from three
hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds of kaing, where procurable,
freshly cut morning and evening, should be a necessary portion of
the daily fodder. The quantity mentioned is a preliminary index to
what the average animal will consume. The true criterion as to
quantity is, however, not to be sought in any fixed standard such as
height, but in the animal's ability to dispose of it during twenty-four
hours, presupposing always that the fodder is to his taste, fresh,
sweet, clean and succulent. Some kinds of grass, such as kyu ( ,
Hind. null) for instance, myet-thin-dong (
), and rushes
2
18
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
like wet-la-myet (
) may also be given, when it is difficult
to procure kaing; most of them however are far less appreciated
by elephants.
In addition to the supply of good food being plentiful, it
must also be varied ; but here again the conditions of food-supply in
Rangoon, as I have observed, do not agree with my ideas on the
subject. In Rangoon, fodder is usually brought in boats, and con-
sists invariably of wet-la (
) and myet-thin-dong (
).
With reference to the former (Paperus pangoree, Cyprus tegetum),
it is one of the least nutritious kinds of fodder that could be supplied,
as it is full of watery sap, is a poor substitute for kaing, and
probably accounts for a good deal of the indifferent health and
reduced capacity for work exhibited by many of the yard elephants
(which, in my opinion, are through ignorance half-starved). For a
creature to derive sufficient sustenance from it, a very large bulk
must be ingested, which unduly taxes its digestive capabilities ; added
to this, being cut in stagnant marsh lands, it may have adhering to it
the ova of many varieties of noxious intestinal parasities, as well as
germs of disease, and is often provocative of diarrhoea. Thus, for
want of proper supervision it usually happens that a considerable
quantity of dead stalks and other unwholesome material is mixed with
it. I have observed that usually the custom is to allow so many
bundles for each animal, but I have never seen yet a European
supervising the weighing of the fodder to ensure that each animal
receives an adequate allowance, which I have often found was not
the case. How often is any other kind of fodder supplied ? I fully
realize why this food is presented year in and year out : it is
undoubtedly the easiest procurable near Rangoon, but with a little
more trouble and very little extra expense, if employers would
insist upon it, far superior fodder could be and should be substituted
or mixed with this wet-la.
In out-stations the animals are sent out
to graze or taken out into the jungle, and when fodder is collected
they carry it into camp. Those in charge must not be led away by
the sight of the mahouts bringing in large loads of fodder on their
elephants' backs ; nothing short of personal inspection and weighing
is satisfactory ; contractors are in most instances quite as bad as
mahouts ; every bundle must be opened out and examined and all
dirty worthless stuff rejected, such as slimy grass, insect-eaten
leaves, and branches and leaves that have been soiled by birds. J
know from experience that mahouts are frequently too lazy to obtain
good grass, even when it can be procured a mile distant from camp ;
this is notably the case when on the march ; they think as long
as they can deceive the person in charge by bringing in a load of
worthless stuff (which plan often answers their lazy inclinations
FEEDING—NATURAL FODDER.
19
admirably), their duty is done, and it is a matter of little con-
sequence to them how much or how little the animals may eat.
These men, owing to the fact that it is easier to lop off branches
than to collect good grass, are fond of reporting that there is no
good grass near camp. Every means must be taken to ascertain
the truth of such statements, as though grass may not be plentiful
in the immediate vicinity, it may be abundant only a short distance
away. The elephant is far too much in the hands of his mahout,
receives insufficient supervision, and I venture to state that, were
more consideration given to the above remarks, more work could be
exacted, better health maintained, and there would be less need
to refer to the subsequent pages. The other varieties of food
which elephants consume in their natural state are numerous,
such as leaves, bark of trees, palms, canes, creepers, fruits, etc. ;
even could we ascertain what they all were, it is most unlikely
that they could be procured in great abundance for use in the
depots. Branches of certain trees may be given to augment or
vary the ordinary grass fodder, and may on emergency replace it.
Of those readily procurable may be mentioned the peepul, banian,
and other varieties of the fiats (which genus is well represented
in Burma), the sindong-ma-nwe (Tinospora nudiflora), jack tree,
young shoots and feathering tops of a great variety of bamboo,
palms, paddy, millet and maize straws, all kinds of grain (growing
or dry), sugarcane, plantain leaves and stems, fruits such as pine-
apples, plantains, melons, bael, jack, palmyra, cocoanuts, yingan and
other jungle fruits are all much appreciated. Whenever circum-
stances permit of elephants being set free to graze and choose their
own fodder, the opportunity should not be neglected ; nothing is
more conducive to their health; so much so, that enfeebled and
diseased animals will more often recover by this practice than by
any other treatment.
Other varieties of green fodder may be used, such as—
Kussullut
Rakhshee, Ghond ...
Ghut (Eleusine) ...
Nagar Mootha
Null
Peepul
Goolar
Flcus
Banss, Bamboo
Kuss, Kusa
Tarra
Dhull
Kaing.
Wet-la.
Sin-gno-myet.
Myet-thôn-tin-gwa.
Kyu-bin.
Nyaung-ni.
Tha-hpan-thi.
Wa-ywet.
Myet-thin-dôn.
Gon-min.
Taw-hnget-pyaw.