NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
CHAPTER II.
ATTENDANTS AND THEIR DUTIES-MANAGEMENT—NATURAL FODDER–GEAR–PACK-GEAR
-MISCELLANEOUS–RUNAWAY ELEPHANTS–GRAZING–QUICKSANDS–MOUNTING–CROS–
SING RIVERS—BOLTING-RESTRAINT–TO SECURE FOR OPERATIONS–DESTRUCTION.
Attendants and their duties.
EVERY domesticated elephant necessarily has its own particular
attendant oo-si (
) (the man who rides in front), or mahout.
In the case of Government animals and those of some private
owners, the oo-si is allowed an assistant, known as the pai-si ( )
(the man who rides behind). In India he is called cowardie. The
oo-si either is directly under the control of his employer, or, where
there are a number of animals indirectly through an overseer, gaung
(
) (head), or jemadar. The duties of an oo-si is the continual
immediate care of his elephant, both on and off work. In the former
case, he rides on the neck of the elephant, guides it on the march,
or directs it in dragging, pushing of timber, &c., and it is at all times
his duty to be on the alert for means of economizing the strength
of the animal, saving it unnecessary exertion and exposure. Off
work it should be his first care to see that the animal receives its
drinking water, bath, and a sufficiency of good clean fodder, also
to see that it is kept in the shade, or in a shed, his personal con-
venience being secondary. He must wash and examine every part
of the body daily, notice any departure from the normal state as
regards appetite, evacuations, external temperature of the body,
and report the same without delay. If the animal is turned loose
after work, he must, after careful inspection of the body, take him
to were the grazing is good, see that the drinking water is good
and near at hand, and also take care to fetter the elephant careful-
ly and securely, to prevent straying, fighting, &c. He is responsi-
ble for the proper adjustment of the harness and arrangement of
loads, also that no long continued, undue pressure takes place upon
any part; he must be on the look-out and report the first symp-
toms of fatigue, whether arising from exposure, overwork, overload-
ing, or from failing health. The oo-si should have experience of
the most approved methods of fettering, catching, subduing, and
approaching unruly animals. He should administer all medicines
directed to be given, but should not on any pretence whatever be
permitted to prescribe or give any drug, unless specially authoriz-
ed to do so.
ATTENDANTS AND THEIR DUTIES.
19
The pai-si has to attend to the instructions of the oo-si and as-
sist him in such manner as may be desired. He is generally em-
ployed on cooly work, i.e., collecting fodder, keeping the standings
clean. On the march it is his duty to precede the elephant, to
explore the route, with a view to the avoidance of quagmires and
quicksands, as well as of sharp stumps or stones. This important
duty is, however, frequently not carried out efficiently owing to lazi-
ness, the pai-si riding on the elephant. In the case of timber-work-
ing elephants, it is the duty of the pai-si to fix the dragging chain
on to the logs, and he is then frequently called the pai-chaik (
) or
the man who " hooks behind." It is in the capacity of pai-sis that
oo-sis serve their apprenticeship. The gaung or jemadar, when one is
kept, controls the oo-sis in the duties above detailed; he should
possess superior experience and judgment in the recognition of the
more ordinary ailments, also a knowledge of the uses of some of the
common drugs, as well as ability to dress wounds, &c., and perform
minor operations, such as opening abscesses. All who are directly
connected with the care of elephants should be firm, kind, and
above all even-tempered, qualities for which they have a ready per-
ception. I have known the training of a previously well-behaved
animal to be lost to such a degree that she would endure neither
load nor rider, simply owing to the accident of being placed in the
charge of an irascible fitful keeper, who first negligently indulged,
and then wantonly punished her. A rider who ordinarily shouts
out his words of command in a needlessly harsh and loud voice, and
who extensively and passionately employs the goad (see Fig. 6), is
usually of this class. In timber working, many elephants are ruined in
this way; hence the danger in changing drivers. The essence of good
riding consists in controlling the animal entirely by word of com-
mand, and the proper application of the knees and feet when neces-
sary. There is a word in Burmese which describes a good driver as
a " knee rider." Elephant-keepers are a peculiar class of men, who
require delicate handling, but with a little tact much good can be
got out of them. Elephant driving is an art which takes some learn-
ing ; good men know their value, so must be pampered a little ; they
are well aware of the fact that most Europeans are ignorant as
regards elephants and their management, and are consequently
very often a little above themselves. One point in connection with
elephants must never be lost sight of, namely, the importance of se-
curing a maximum degree of permanency of the particular atten-
dant of a particular animal. A keeper who is possessed even in a
moderate degree of the qualifications already enumerated, and who
has been with his elephant a sufficiently long time to have studied
the peculiarities of his charge, has become invaluable to his
20
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
employer. The knowledge in question can only be gained by expe-
rience, and lengthened individual observation ; it cannot be placed
on record or otherwise handed down ; hence any animal placed in
the hands of a succession of keepers is subjected to treatment ex-
tremely calculated to prove prejudicial to its health, temper, and
utility. Much ill success in the maintenance of elephant establish-
ments is to a great extent traceable to this cause ; accordingly it
will be found expedient to condone much in a good keeper.
The common offence for which mahouts are dismissed is the
appropriation to their own use, or sale for their own benefit, of the
" ratibs" (special allowances, such as flour, rice) allowed by
their employers. The best remedy for this is extra supervision
and, whenever practicable, to make certain of the animals receiving
their full daily allowance by having them fed in the presence of
some trusted person. If this cannot be done, flagrant as is dishon-
esty of this kind, a really good keeper should not be dismissed, un-
less his peculation is of such a degree as to affect the health of the
animal in his charge, thus evincing a lack of concern in its well-
being. Petty peculation, submission of false and exorbitant bills
for medicines said to have been purchased and given in emergency,
and regularly stealing a portion of the " ratibs " are drawbacks which,
in an elephant establishment, must be regarded as lesser evils. Ele-
phant attendants appear to be unable to abstain from these methods
of defrauding their employers, and any attempt to enforce honesty
by severe measures would eventually be visited upon the animals,
and thus a much greater evil brought about than that which it was
sought to avoid. Supervision will ensure the animals receiving the
food ordered for them, and, by keeping a supply of ordinary drugs
and "mussmil" ingredients, the attendants would soon recognize
that it was quite unnecessary for them to submit bills for medicine.
As a rule a driver is proud of his elephant, and it is astonishing
to see what a good man can make his animal do ; all his orders are
given in a quiet persuasive manner, and his hints (conveyed by his
knees and feet behind the animal's ears) are given in such a quiet
way as to make it almost appear that the movements of the elephant
are spontaneous.
There are many offences for which keepers should be severely
punished, or dismissed, namely, a man who takes no pride in his
animal, and shows no concern about its prosperity, evinced by
making the immediate wants of the animal subordinate to his own,
by cooking his food, sitting down to smoke before he has watered
and fed his elephant, by neglecting to bathe it when proper oppor-
tunity offered, taking the animal into water when the body is heated,
overworking or overloading it, failing to administer medicines
MANAGEMENT—NATURAL FODDER.
21
ordered, and neglecting to report any symptoms of ill health, in-
juries, &c.
Nevertheless keepers of almost tantamount value with their ani-
mals and to their employers are frequently dismissed or discour-
aged for offences which by comparison with the above are mere
bagatelles ; often too upon charges not thoroughly enquired into or
proved. Much care as may be exercised in the choice of a good
keeper, it is singular how little is occasionally bestowed on that of
the disposition and attainments of the person empowered to deal
summarily with him.
In this province, when elephants are purchased, they are general-
ly in the care of Burman, Karen, or Shan drivers. There is little
doubt that in regard to the handling and general management of
domestic elephants, they are rarely as good as the Indian mahout,
as seen in India, but they are in every respect better than the majority
of so-called mahouts met with here, who are readily discerned to be
adventurers as far as their pretensions to any previous knowledge
or experience of elephants goes. The few Indians employed are
generally on Government animals, or those working in yards. There
are many excellent keepers amongst the Burmans and Karens ;
many, however, are careless and lazy, and a few are impatient and at
times cruel. As a general rule they are kind, can stand the climate
and heavy jungle work, and are usually cheery, willing fellows:—
The pay of a gaung or jemadar ranges
according to qualifications from
The pay of an oo-si or mahout from
The pay of a pai-si or cowardie from
Per mensem.
Rs.
... 20
...
12
.. 10
Rs.
to
to
to
40
18
12
Burman employers usually supply their men with food, and in ad-
dition give them a few rupees monthly.
It is a good plan to give a good mahout a bonus at the end of
the year, but I think it would be preferable to give such men a small
increase of pay. Increments of pay are thought much more of by
these people.
Management.
This comprises diet, natural and artificial, bathing, exposure, shel-
ter, sleep, &c.
Natural fodder.
If an elephant is to be kept in health, it is essential above all
things that he be allowed a plentiful supply of good food, otherwise
careful management in other respects will be of little or no avail.
22
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Remarks on the subject of fodder apply principally to those animals
which are tethered and fed at their standings, namely, animals
working in yards, and of course most Government animals. In
this province all others have to forage for themselves, that is,
when work is finished the mahouts are supposed to take them
always to a part of the jungle where good fodder is procurable.
The fore-feet are simply hobbled with the cane fetter (@§°^s, htoo)
(Fig. 5) which is lashed between the legs with a piece of rope, or
when animals are given to straying far, a long chain is sometimes put
on a hind-leg, the free portion dragging-behind. In Karenni, Shan
States, Siam, and Tenasserim iron locks and fetters are also used.
This operation completed, the animals are set free. In order that
they may be readily found when required, a bell or large wooden
clapper (ogcodoS, hka louk) is suspended from the neck; this in the
stillness of the jungle can be heard for a considerable distance.
With regard to the plants most appreciated, this can only be stud-
ied by observing the fodder usually chosen by wild animals, and this
without doubt consists mainly of grasses, tree fodder being of secon-
dary importance. Wild animals wander about a good deal according
to the season of the year ; at times they keep to the hills, at others
they are to be found in the low country ; generally speaking they
spend the greater part of the day in dense shady jungle, where they
rest and browse on the leaves and branches of young trees. They
traverse the bamboo tracts, but except when the young shoots are
sprouting at the beginning of the rains, or where regeneration of the
bamboos has recently taken place, they do not remain very long in
these localities. They visit the water morning and evening, and my
experience is that when possible, in coming to drink and bathe, they
select those places where there are patches of so-called kaing grass
(d^SsoS) (Hind., Kussullut).
It may justly be concluded that the succulent stems of the kaing
form the most important item of the elephant's daily food, so much
so that we may accept it as the staple for animals in captivity, when
this grass is procurable, as it is at nearly all times of the year
(the months perhaps in which the fires rage being excepted,
mid-February to April). So fond are wild elephants of this grass,
that I have on several occasions during the rains, when the sky
is dull and overcast, known a herd to remain for days in large
stretches of it. If wild animals be watched when grazing, it will be
observed that, after tearing off a bunch of grass close to the roots,
they remove the dirt adhering to the stems by beating it against
their legs or sides, after which they simply bite off the lower third
which is fresh, sweet, and succulent; tame ones naturally do the
same if allowed sufficient fodder to permit of such waste, a rare oc-
curence. A large margin should always be allowed, as elephants are
NATURAL FODDER.
23
given to trampling and soiling a certain amount of their ration; this
they refuse to touch; if the residue be weighed after an animal has
finished his meal, it will be found to be a good slice off the ration;
hence, if only the bare allowance be given, an animal may gradually
lose flesh owing to his being half-starved. With regard to grass,
then, he should not be stinted. I may state that at least from three
hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds of kaing, where procurable,
freshly cut morning and evening, should be a necessary portion of
the daily fodder. The quantity mentioned is a preliminary index to
what the average animal will consume. The true criterion as to
quantity is, however, not to be sought in any fixed standard such as
height, but in the animal's ability to dispose of it during twenty-four
hours, presupposing always that the fodder is to his taste, fresh,
sweet, clean, and succulent. Some kinds of grass, such as kyu ( )
(Hind., null) for instance, myet-thin-dong (
), and rushes
like wet-la-myet (
) may also be given, when it is difficult
to procure kaing; most of them, however, are far less appreciated
by elephants.
In Rangoon, fodder is usually brought in boats, and consists
invariably of wet-la (
) and myet-thin-dong (
). With
reference to the former, it is a poor substitute for kaing and probably
accounts for a good deal of the indifferent health and reduced capa-
city for work exhibited by many of the yard elephants (which in my
opinion are through ignorance half-starved). In out-stations the
animals are sent out to graze or taken out into the jungle, and,
when fodder is collected, they carry it into camp. Those in charge
must not be led away by the sight of the mahouts bringing in large
loads of fodder on their elephant's backs ; nothing short of personal
inspection and weighing is satisfactory; contractors are in most
instances quite as bad as mahouts; every bundle must be opened
out and examined and all dirty worthless stuff rejected, such as
slimy grass, insect-eaten leaves, and branches and leaves that have
been soiled by birds. I know from experience that mahouts are
frequently too lazy to obtain good grass, even when it can be
procured a mile distant from camp; this is notably the case when
on the march; they think as long as they can deceive the person
in charge by bringing in a load of worthless stuff (which plan often
answers their lazy inclinations admirably), their duty is done, and
it is a matter of little consequence to them how much or how little
the animals may eat. These men , owing to the fact that it is
easier to lop off branches than to collect good grass, are fond of
reporting that there is no good grass near camp. Every means
must be taken to ascertain the truth of such statements, as, though
grass may not be plentiful in the immediate vicinity, it may be
24
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
abundant only a short distance away. The other varieties of food
which elephants consume in their natural state are numerous,
such as leaves, bark of trees, palms, canes, creepers, fruits, &c.;
even could we ascertain what they all were, it is most unlikely
that we could procure them in great abundance for use in the
depots. Branches of certain trees may be given to augment or
vary the ordinary grass fodder, and may on emergency replace it.
Of those readily procurable may be mentioned the peepul, banian,
and other varieties of the ficus (which genus is well-represented
in Burma), the sindong-ma-nwe (Tinospora nudiflora), jack tree,
young shoots and feathering tops of a great variety of bamboo,
palms, paddy, millet, and maize straws, all kinds of grain, growing
or dry, sugarcane, plantain leaves and stems, fruits, such as pine-
apples, plantains, melons, cane and other jungle fruits, are all much
appreciated. Whenever circumstances permit of elephants being
set free to graze and choose their own fodder, the opportunity
should not be neglected; nothing is more conducive to their health,
so much so that enfeebled and diseased animals will more often
recover by this practice than by any other treatment.
Other varieties of green fodder may be used, such as—
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Kussullat
Rakhshee, Ghond...
Ghut (Eleusine) ...
Nagar Mootha
Null
Peepul
Goolar
Banss
Kuss, Kusa
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Kaing.
Wet-la.
Sin-gno-myet.
Myet-thôn-tin-gwa.
Kyu-bin.
Nyaung-ni.
Tha-hpan-thi,
Wa-ywet.
Myet-thin-dôn.
It has, of course, already been explained in the foregoing pages
that whenever kaing grass is procurable it should be given in pre-
ference to anything else. The daily quantity of green fodder should
differ in accordance with the quantity of dry fodder (straws) allow-
ed ; yet I can strongly recommend that, whenever practicable, each
animal should have as much green grass as it can consume.
Sanderson made numerous experiments with regard to the quan-
tity of the fodder elephants will eat, and gives most interesting
information on the subject. He states : " 800 lbs. may be looked
" upon as the minimum weight of good fodder that should be placed
" before full-sized elephants per diem. " He has seen a tusker eat
800 lbs. in eighteen hours; he also remarks on the insufficiency of
the fodder usually placed before them, and I entirely agree with
what he says.
NATURAL FODDER.
25
It may be said with truth that most grasses, the leaves and
branches of many trees, in fact most green stuffs, are acceptable.
No amount of grain will compensate for a continued short allowance
of fodder. When good fodder is abundant, the extras may be
reduced in quantity or entirely dispensed with.
The leaves and branches of the peepul tree (nyoung-ni) are reputed
to be heating, and should therefore be given sparingly. Plantain
stems and leaves are not recommended in cold weather. When dry
fodder is given for a short time, such as stems of maize, millet,
a change to green fodder will be necessary. Sanderson points out
that branches and leaves are best for food when the twigs snap
rather than bend under pressure; the branches are not relishedwhen
the sap runs. Only the inner bark of the stems of the larger
branches is eaten, but the whole of the smaller branches.
Artificial Food.—In so far as the domesticated elephant is in an
artificial state, his natural diet must be modified and supplemented,
and more particularly so in the case of working elephants. If the
animal in his natural condition, in which he develops a very small
degree of energy, requires the whole day and the greater portion of
the night to feed, whereby he may be able to replace that energy,
then, in the domesticated state when a greater consumption of en-
ergy is demanded and a reduced time prescribed for the repair of the
loss, food must be supplied in a more concentrated form. Whatever
the practice of native owners may be to the contrary, common
sense, no less than the percentages of mortality among native-owned
elephants, points to the propriety of giving working elephants a daily
"ratib." The "ratib" may consist of rice, paddy, or coarse flour.
Our object is to supply increased nourishment without undue stimula-
tion. Rice fulfils these conditions very well, and gives good enough
nutritive results with a minimum expenditure of energy on the diges-
tion. Twenty to thirty pounds of rice per diem is the "ratib" most in
favour, although paddy is also occasionally given either alone or with
an equal quantity of rice. If the rice or paddy is coarsely bruised, it
is more easily digested. The husk of paddy is believed by many to
cause irritation of the bowels, especially when given dry. It may on
rare occasions do so. Government elephants when given rice are
allowed some paddy straw in which the grain is enclosed in small
bundles to prevent waste. This I think is superfluous, as in my ex-
perince they do not waste much. Wheaten flour is commonly given
in India; it is made up into native cakes or chupattees; it may be
given in the form of a loaf (cake), which may be sweetened with
raw sugar, known as gur or jaggery (
), or mudh (honey)
(
) ; dhall (
) and onions (
) when cooked may be
incorporated with the loaf. During the hot season tamarind pulp
4
26
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
(
) which acts as a cooling laxative, may also be added. A
loaf from three to six pounds in weight, consisting of flour and
other needful ingredients, which may be added in lesser proportion,
may be given daily when much muscular exertion is demanded.
Medicines are sometimes mixed up with the " ratibs " and " mus-
sauls." The best time to give " ratibs " is after some of the ordinary
fodder has been consumed.
Aromatic spice balls known in India as " mussauls " (
)
(see Appendix) are also given occasionally. They consist of a
variety of vegetable substances, many aromatic, such as—
Ginger (
),
Assafœtida (
),
Aniseed (
),
Turmeric (
),
Carraway seed (
),
Onions (
),
Black pepper (
)
Coriander (
),
Cardamoms (
),
Garlic (
),
Cloves (
),
Nutmeg (
),
and others. These mussauls are very useful in the hot season,
being stimulant to the digestive organs, and thus promoting diges-
tion. The ingredients are usually mixed with clarified butter (ghi)
(
), jaggery, or honey. As useful as these undoubt-
edly are, where an indication exists, they should only be used
sparingly. The long continued daily administration of these " mus-
sauls " tends to blunt the sensitiveness of the digestive organs, creates
new wants, and reduces the full natural reactive powers of the system.
It is essential that they be given a liberal ration of salt, at least
two to three ounces per diem. In fact a " ratib " may have to be
given merely as a vehicle for the salt in order to establish the
habit. Salt greatly assists the assimilative powers and, moreover,
is most useful in helping to free the intestines from parasites
to which elephants are very subject. Wild elephants in common
with other wild animals are frequent visitors to salt-licks, where they
eat the earth which is impregnated with natron.
As already noted in a previous paragraph, petty peculation and
appropriation of a portion of the " ratib " allowed by owners is a crime
common to most elephant attendants and is, when the "ratib" cannot
be given in the presence of a trusted person, one of the great draw-
backs to allowing such extra food.
Times of Feeding.—With regard to the time of feeding, elephants
should be allowed to feed at all times, except when at work. If
ample fresh fodder be brought in morning and evening, and the ani-
mal is left alone, then of the twenty-four hours all but four to six
will be devoted to munching. When continuous exertion of any
kind is demanded, then before and after work are the most appro-
priate times for supplying fresh fodder.