NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
NATURAL FODDER.
27
I have repeatedly observed yard elephants after work waiting for
an hour or two for their food. This is a malpractice which cannot
be known to employers, for they could not countenance a practice
so cruel and one so likely to be damaging to their own interests.
The Commissariat scale of rations for elephants in Bengal,
Madras, and Burma is given in Appendix 39, Volume 5, paragraph
1917, Commissariat Transport, and is as follows.
(1) Elephants when not on the line of march will be allowed two
ounces of salt and one ounce of oil each. The following are the
scales of green or dry fodder, as the case may be, provided that the
latter does not consist of straw alone, i.e., without grain in it:—
Large elephants, i.e., those Over 8½ feet in height ...
Medium-sized, those between 7½ and 8⅓ feet ...
Small elephants, those below 7½ feet ... ...
Fodder.
*Green.
lbs.
650
575
500
Dry.
lbs.
330
290
250
* Sugar-cane, green wheat, &c.
(2) When plantain stems, branches of trees, or jungle grass is
given, the fodder allowance will be regulated as follows:—
When such fodder is procurable free of charge.
Large elephants
Medium-sized elephants
Small elephants
lbs.
1,300
1,150
1,000
When it has to be paid for.
The quantities are not to exceed
in value the cost of sugarcane
ration calculated at the price cur
rent rate.
(3) The dry fodder is to be issued only when green fodder is not
obtainable.
(4) The following is the daily scale of rations for elephants on
command :—
On command.
Large elephants ...
Medium-sized elephants ...
Small elephants ... ...
Grain.
lbs.
15
15
15
Dry.
lbs.
200
175
150
Green.
lbs.
480
400
320
Bhusa.
lbs.
...
...
...
Salt.
oz.
2
2
2
Oil.
oz.
1
1
1
28
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
(5) Elephant attendants will get a special allowance of four annas
a day when fodder is to be cut by them, and is provided free of
charge. The allowance is admissible when animals are at graze.
(6) Commissariat Transport Officers are authorized to refuse to
draw the allowance of four annas per diem for attendants if their
elephants are not kept in good condition.
(7) When the cost of the fodder ration for elephants in Canton-
ments exceeds that of the command scale of rations, elephants in
Cantonments should be fed on the latter scale.
(8) The rules in the preceding paragraph do not apply to ele-
phants with heavy batteries, which are allowed rations on the scale,
Appendix 38, paragraph 1917.
Appendix 38, paragraph 1917, gives the scale of rations as fol-
lows :—
Cattle.
Ele-
phants
First class
Second class
IN CANTONMENT.
Grain.
lbs.
*15
*15
Fodder.
Dry.
lbs.
200
150
Green.
lbs.
480
320
Bhus a.
...
...
Salt.
oz.
2
2
Oil.
oz.
1
1
ON COM-
----.
Grain.
lbs.
15
15
Fodder, oil
and salt.
lbs.
...
...
AT GRAZE.
Gr ai n.
lbs.
15
15
Oil and
salt.
...
...
* Atta or rice.
When dhan or paddy is given to elephants in lieu of rice or flour,
the allowance is to be doubled. When paddy or rice is issued, 10lbs.
of grass is allowed per elephant per diem for tying up the grain in
small bundles to prevent waste.
As already pointed out, this system of regulating an elephant's
food requirements, as shown in the above tables, cannot be satisfac-
tory, as small, thick-set animals often require as much food, if not
more, than those of greater stature.
Watering.—If an elephant be bathed morning and evening, and
the water be good, he will generally drink the chief portion he re-
quires on those occasions, which amounts to from thirteen to eight-
een gallons at a time. If the water available at the bathing place
be stagnant, he should be given drinking water from a better source
beforehand or be washed outside. Spring or well water is the best.
Many ailments are traceable to the use of bad water. Elephants like
running water, and prefer to drink the water of tributary streams to
NATURAL FODDER.
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that of the large rivers. At all times the water offered should be
as sweet and clean as can be procured, though they are not averse
to drinking muddy water (wild ones have little else during the rainy
season). During the dry season good water-holes (such as the
Burmans dig for their own use) should be dug in the sandy beds of
streams ; failing these, well water must be given. On no account
are they to be permitted to drink from the tanks and pools used by
cattle. In their natural state they drink shortly after sunrise and
before sunset. Domestic animals ought to be watered at least twice
daily, three times when possible, namely, morning, midday, and
evening. They should be watered about three quarters of an hour
before they are fed. On the march, if any animal attempt to drink,
although he be heated, he may be allowed to do so (this does not
apply to squirting water over the body). A lengthened hot march
(over seven hours) should not be attempted unless water is procur-
able on the way. When travelling with elephants during the hot
season, marches should be regulated in accordance with the pro-
spects of good water-supply.
Bathing and Grooming.—Bathing is one of the natural func-
tions of the elephant, and most important to his health. In the wild
state the animals pay daily visits to the deep cool pools in hill
streams, and even the large rivers, and immerse their bodies, lashing
the water about them, or squirting it over themselves. Inactive
as the exhalatory functions of the skin appear to be, dirt speedily
produces much irritation, and, continued want of a bath, general
indisposition. It is of advantage that the water be deep enough
to admit of immersion of the whole body in the crouching position,
if not otherwise. They should on no account be kept in places
where facilities for bathing fail. They may, when in health, be
taken into the water in the early morning, as they appear to pos-
sess no sense of chilliness, for, if left to themselves, they will not
hesitate to enter water shortly after daybreak. Sunset is the
best hour for the evening bath. While bathing, the attendants
should rub the body over with a soft stone, or the husk of a cocoa-
nut ; the animal will squirt water over himself constantly. The
natural orifices and feet must be kept clean. When a halt has
to be made at a place where no body of water exists, the atten-
dants must draw water from wells and pour it over the animals.
Bathing is never to be undertaken when animals are in a heated
condition. If a river is encountered on the march, they should be
halted and not permitted to enter till their bodies have cooled.
When dry, after bathing, it is customary for the attendants to smear
oil all over the upper portion of the head, the idea being that it
has a very cooling effect and soothes the irritation with which the
30
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
scurfy state of the head is so commonly attended. If this part was
kept thoroughly clean, and protected from the sun by a pad, this
remedial anointing might perhaps be dispensed with. It must be
remembered that the application of oil deepens the colour of the
skin to a perfect black, thus vastly increasing the capability of the
surface for absorption of heat. If a sun pad is necessary under
ordinary conditions, it is doubly so after oiling.
Rest and Sleep.—Rest extraordinary comes into question only
before and after work extraordinary: Sleep in the case of the
elephant is confined to a very few hours ; generally speaking from
about 11 P.M. to 3 A.M., but often only for a couple of hours. It
is of the utmost importance that the animal should have his sleep,
such as it is, and this will be interfered with prejudicially if too fre-
quent night marches, or other night work, be required, or if the feed-
ing hours are too often curtailed by long continued work at any
period of the day. To keep an animal waiting for his fodder on
coming off work is already mentioned as one of the worst offen-
ces of which a mahout can be guilty, for by that means the animal's
feeding time is wantonly subjected to further diminution, and the
opportunity for sleep as well lessened in proportion. If the animal
have not time to eat a sufficiency before midnight, it will continue
eating all night, supposing that enough fodder has been provided.
Care should be taken to see that the standing selected is on a slope,
the ground even, free from stones, and that the elephant is allowed
plenty of room.
Exercise and Work.—When elephants are idle, it is essential that
they have daily exercise, as they frequently fall out of condition
from sheer want of it, especially so, if under these circumstances
ratibs be allowed. In some cases the daily journey for fodder will
suffice. When, however, this is too short, and no work can be
found, it will be necessary to give them a march for an hour or so
in the early morning and the cool of the evening. In the hot
season they should be rested between 10 A.M. and 4 P.M. It is
cruel to work them in the heat, and is also dangerous, as they are liable
to go down with heat apoplexy. Where there is work, and in a great
many instances there is more than the animals kept for it can pro-
perly accomplish, the following system may be tried. Assuming
that the gear is a good fit, that the parts where it presses are healthy,
and the animal in other respects in full health and vigour, it will, as
just mentioned, be conducive to the maintenance of both that he
should perform a daily task, be it marching, dragging, or pushing.
An hour or so morning and evening of continuous exertion, such as
the animal can compass without evident strain, is about what might
be demanded without giving any extra diet. The question of the
NATURAL FODDER.
31
amount of additional work he can do will then resolve itself into that
of how many hours taken from his legitimate occupation of munch-
ing green fodder can we make reparation for by offering a more
generous diet This is a clear issue, and makes the answer easy.
We can by these means assuredly not more than double or treble
the duration of the working hours. The healthy elephant with
good treatment, liberal allowance of fodder, can work regularly for
six or seven hours a day without injury. But the question just
answered is, in practice, rarely ever asked. The more common
question, which, too, for reasons assignable, we are bound to answer
is not, what are the limits of fair work, but what constitutes overwork,
particularly in respect to carrying. In a campaign, sometimes these
rules cannot be adhered to, for conditions may arise demanding the
utmost strain upon the elephant's capabilities. It is useful to know to
what degree ordinarily the powers of the elephant may be taxed
within twenty-four hours, without depriving ourselves of his services
for the next twenty-four hours or longer period. The reply is com-
plicated, and can be given only in the form of an illustrative table ;
so many are the elements of each problem, so variable may these
separate elements be, upon one and the same occasion, as to make
the laying down of rigid rules inadvisable. There are to be considered
(1) the load ; (2) the configuration of the ground over which the road
lies; (3) the nature of its surface; (4) the time of day; (5) the ex-
istence or absence of shade ; (6) the number of days' rest enjoyed im-
mediately before, and in prospect immediately after, the march; (7)
the quality and quantity of fodder and water available. From which
collectively may be deduced the number of miles the animal can
safely traverse. It must never be lost sight of, that the elephant
is a nocturnal animal, therefore all work should, as much as possible,
be done in the early morning and evening. It must also be borne
in mind that in continuous exertion like marching, fatigue comes on
almost imperceptibly ; we are then more likely to be deceived in
measuring the staying power of the elephant than in work of a
spasmodic and intermittent kind, such as dragging or pushing timber
on the ground. If a log be too heavy, the animal will snort, refuse,
or move it but a short way at a time ; but, in carrying a load that at
the first start off sits easily, the animal becomes exhausted almost
unconsciously to himself. After a pause on the march, he is unable
to overcome the stiffness that immediately supervenes, and, if he be
goaded too much, may drop down suddenly to rise no more. A
good attendant will generally give timely notice of the possibility of
such an occurrence.
The elephant is by conformation a beast of burden, and, though
he goes in draught, he is out of place in it, as it throws him into an
32
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
unnatural position, and he loses much of the advantage his size,
weight, and strength give him. Elephants are employed for
draught in the heavy siege batteries. Opinions vary as to the
absolute weight an animal can carry. Of course the greatest weight
he can sustain can be moved over short distances only, and medium
loads over less space than light ones. I, however, have rarely met a
person travelling with elephants not his own, but referred to the
loads as " light loading you know," " loads that a cooly could move,"
and so forth. Under some circumstances it is as much as an ele-
phant can do to move the weight of his own body, not to speak of
a heavy load, or a log of timber. Taking the weight of an average
animal to be four thousand pounds, or that of about forty Indian
coolies, it is obvious that the latter can carry much more over a
greater distance than the former. Doubtless the coolies could also
drag greater weights if their efforts could be united simultaneously.
A cooly can well carry half his own weight, but an elephant could
not sustain the weight of twenty men for any time ; ten ordinary
men, with the indispensable gear, would be a decidedly heavy load.
The Government loads vary from 1,000 to 1,200 lbs., but 1,000
pounds including everything is a comfortable load, and, if elephants
are to be worked for any time, it is inadvisable to make them carry
even so much.
Appendix A is a table illustrating the manner in which different
circumstances should be taken into account in deciding the length
to which a march may be extended. It is not the intention to
devise a rule whereby to limit the discretion of thoughtful and con-
scientious servants, who will seldom commit an error of judgment
in this direction ; but to prepare a key by means of which the care-
less or uninterested may more readily be brought to book.
As regards dragging in the hills, if about three hours in the morn-
ing and three in the evening, and not more, be devoted to work, it
will doubtless occur that the number of logs worked out in a season
will fall below the average. Figures quoted with reference to this
heading can have but little general application ; local circumstances,
such as the configuration of the ground, the distribution of the
logs, and of the floating streams, will decide. A few facts may
neverthleess be interesting. Two hundred logs, say, two hundred
and fifty tons per animal, dragged ex situ to the floating streams in
the course of the season, may be regarded as an exceptionally
favourable figure. It could not be accomplished except in a dis-
trict newly opened up, where dead trees were still standing in con-
siderable numbers in proximity to the streams. But, taking Burma
jungles in their ordinary form, an elephant might have to drag the
logs some miles to the streams and would probably die before he
NATURAL FODDER.
33
collected half that amount. In some cases the hill streams are fit
for floating timber, and the work is about a third less than in others,
where a second land journey has to be made from the confines of
the hills, through the plain to the point where the stream becomes
suitable for floating. The principal and the most trying part of the
dragging work, namely, that of the isolated trees from their original
sites, up and down hill to the preliminary depôts, should be under-
taken in the cold-weather months, when the deepest leaf covering
is on the ground, which, moistened by heavy dews, allows the logs
to slide more easily.
A small dragging cart (Fig. 36) has been employed with profit
even in the hills, and there is little doubt that, by bringing thought to
bear on improving such appliances, and placing less reliance on
sheer brute force, elephant labour might be economized (see Figs.
36a and 36b) both in regard to the number of animals needed and
the strain placed upon the powers of each.
Before and after work it is necessary to inspect all parts liable to
gall, and, if the animal has been carrying a load, the attendant should
shampoo the back with his feet and hands. The trunk and feet
should be carefully examined for cuts, bruises, and foreign bodies,
such as thorns, bamboo spikes, and during the rains the body for
leeches, which are very plentiful in some parts of the province, the
bites from which at times cause nasty sores.
Powers of endurance.—Though such large animals, their power
of endurance is much less than is generally supposed, as they are
constitutionally delicate. Through lack of appreciation of this fact,
these animals have not received the attention they justly deserve;
and owing to the popular impression that they are extremely
strong, the error obtaining in this respect has led to their being too
highly tasked, and much of the ill-health and mortality prevalent
amongst them may in a great measure be attributed to this cause.
The smaller kinds of animals employed for transport are born
and bred in captivity, and have thus by custom, training, and other
causes become more or less inured to hardships, but with elephants
the case is entirely different; here, we have animals that have lived
a natural life for many years, when one day (unfortunately for
themselves) they are surrounded in their native haunt's and captured.
Soon after capture they are trained, put to work, frequently over-
worked, often neglected, and altogether submitted to conditions in
every way foreign to their nature and well-being. It should not
be a matter of surprise that the mortality runs high. Therefore,
it cannot be too forcibly impressed on the persons entrusted with
their care, that untiring and vigilant supervision over the attendants,
5
34
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
not merely giving orders but seeing them carried out whenever
circumstances permit, is the means above all others for the proper
preservation of the efficiency of the animals ; they must remember
that the class of men usually attending the elephants, if left to
themselves, are, from general indolence, carelessness, or from a
desire to avoid the fatigue and hardships of jungle-life, or a campaign,
quite liable to render their elephant's unserviceable; ample super-
vision, and systematic checks can alone prevent malpractices. A
little neglect will often deprive an owner or a force of the valuable
services of many animals.
As regards elephants employed in forest operations in Burma,
the life of the elephant is frequently the only security capitalists
have against advances made for timber to be worked through their
aid. The percentage of deaths that annually occur amongst ele-
phants employed in this branch of industry is probably from ten
to twenty per cent. Not an inconsiderable number of such deaths
are due to over-exertion and exposure, and ignorance on the part
of native owners as to the powers of endurance of an animal and
their inability to detect the first symptoms of exhaustion; while
in many instances they attempt to exact from a poor beast the last
effort of strength it is capable of exerting. With reference to tim-
ber-dragging operations in Burma and Siam, the duration of daily
employment naturally varies with the time of year, physical aspect
of the country, and the food and water-supply. In timber-yards in
Rangoon and Moulmein, where elephants are much exposed to the
sun, they usually work from three to four hours in the morning and
three hours in the afternoon. In forests, where the shade of the
trees afford shelter from the direct rays of the sun, and where the
country is not too hilly, or the drag too heavy, the hours of work
generally extend from about seven or eight o'clock in the morning
till three o'clock in the afternoon during the working season, i.e.,
from about the month of June to the middle or end of February.
During the hot season the animals are allowed to rest, or at most
they may be employed for a couple of hours in the morning in shady
places and where good water and grazing are at hand, so that on
being released from work they can be set free to eat to their heart's
desire. In all such matters, however, it only requires common-
sense and a little intelligent supervision to soon be in a position to
ascertain the powers of endurance of each animal one may have to
deal with, as these powers vary in individual elephants as much as
in human beings, except that, in the former case, when once an ani-
mal's strength is overtaxed, the evil is less readily remedied owing to
the difficulty of treatment.
NATURAL FODDER.
35
Paces.-The only pace of the elephant is a walk, any increased
pace he may put on is a fast shuffle. He can neither trot, canter,
nor gallop.
Exposure.—As already observed, the elephant is by nature a
nocturnal animal, and is therefore most impatient of the sun. He
appears to be more himself during the night, and in the mornings
and evenings than during the day, even when protected by shade ;
at these times he is more active, and can in every way perform
more work. Animals tethered in the sun will show their dislike to
it by heaping bundles of fodder, blankets, in fact anything that will
afford protection on to their heads, and constantly kick up sand
which they collect, and throw on their heads and backs. When
working in the heat they frequently place the trunk in the mouth, and
squirt watery fluid over their bodies. Perhaps no elephants are ex-
posed more to the sun and weather than those working in timber-
yards, where they are at work from early morning till eleven o'clock
and again from 1 or 2 P.M. to 5 P.M. The work, however, varies,
sometimes light, at others heavy ; occasionally they get a rest, owing
either to there being no work, or to some part of the mill machi-
nery having given way. It is possibly owing to the frequency of
these rests, the variation of the work, and the extras in the way
of food they receive, that they stand it longer than might be
expected ; but on the whole the mortality is high. If the animals
are picketed out during the hot season, when the glare is very
great, it is advisable to hang moist cloths or shades over the eyes.
It is also desirable that elephants working in the sun be provided with
a pad of material similar to the guddeela, or of a lighter material, say,
cotton, large enough to cover the neck and head and hang down
a span or two around the latter. A careful attendant will often
be seen spreading his turban or jacket over his animal's head to
shield it from the sun. Exposure to rain, and even having to dis-
pense with other shelter than that of a tree, provided the drainage
be good, does not seem to act prejudicially. On the other hand,
exposure to cold night winds in open sheds erected upon bare, un-
sheltered and elevated sites, which again become heated to a pro-
portionate degree during the day, has been justly regarded as a
source of disease. Artificial shelter is required only where good
natural shelter fails. The best shelter is a grove of evergreen trees,
standing on a slight slope, where the drainage is good, and so large
as to permit of the standings being frequently changed. But for
elephants working in yards, sheds have to be built. They should be
erected on sheltered and well drained sites, and ought to be provid-
ed with jhamps on the north-east and south-west sides, and have
raised, hard, sloping floors of concrete or laterite. Floors made of