NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
8
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Details of measurements of 300 male elephants—
23 animals or 7.67 % height 7'-0" and under 7'-6".
57 „
94 „
67 „
59 „
300
„
19 %
„ 31.33%
„ 22.33%
„ 19.67%
100.00
„ 7'-6" „ „
7'-8".
„ 7'-9" „ „ 7'-11".
„ 8'-0" „
„
8'-2".
„ 8'-3" and above.
average 7'-10 ½".
Of the above number there were only two animals nine feet and
over, namely, one exactly nine feet in height, with a girth of 14' 9",
the other 9 1", with a girth of 13' 9".
Details of measurements of 100 females—
48 animals
35
„
13 „
4
„
100
or 48 %
„ 35%
„ 13%
„ 4%
100
height 7'-0 "and
„
7'-6 " „
„
7'-9 " „
„ 8'-0 " „
average
under 7'-6".
„ 7'-8".
„ 7'-11".
„ 8'-3".
7'-5 3/4".
The above measurements were taken haphazard from the re-
corded measurements of considerably over eight hundred animals.
The males from 7' and under 7' 6" were probably not fully grown,
yet were sufficiently so to be working, and in all probability unlikely
to grow much more.
Burmans give the height of elephants in cubits; the " cubit"
employed by them being the ordinary cubit plus a hand's breadth
or roughly twenty-one inches.
Marks of Identification.
Particular attention must be paid to all marks as a means of iden-
tification, as " elephant-stealing" about the frontiers is a popular and
very remunerative pastime. In the forests, when the day's work is
finished, the foresters as a rule put cane fetters on their animals,
suspend a bell or wooden clapper (
), hka-louk, from their
necks, and then turn them loose to graze ; no watch is kept over
the animals at night. The thief or thieves (who thoroughly under-
stand the habits of elephants) hang about close by, waiting till the
animal selected strays, when they go up, remove or cut through the
hobbles, mount him, untie the clapper, and then head for the frontier.
The hills, clad as they are with dense jungle, afford ample shelter;
the owner, when he suspects that the animal is stolen, usually has
the good sense not to waste time in pursuit. Accomplished thieves
make a good deal of money, for they steal an elephant in our terri-
tory, sell him in Siam, steal him again a month or so after, bring
him across our frontier, and once more dispose of him to some one
at a place many miles distant from where they originally stole the
beast. Distinctive marks are as a rule not very numerous on these
creatures. Government animals are not branded, but those owned
VALUE—PURCHASE.
9
by firms frequently are. The shoulder is the usual place. There
is an idea that brands do not do well on the skin of the elephant;
this is not the case when carefully done. I have seen many ele-
phants carrying clear brands free from blemish. Elephants with any
blemishes about the shoulders should always be looked upon with
suspicion, as they are likely to be stolen animals, the brands having
been tampered with. All brands should be large and clear.
Value.
Elephants may conveniently be divided into two classes, namely,—
(a) timber elephants;
(b) baggage, or travelling elephants.
Timber elephants may be divided into two classes, namely,—
(1) trained tuskers,
(2) trained males and females.
A well-trained tusker always commands a good price; he is so
much more useful both in the yards and forests, as with his tusks he
can "oung" (
), stack timber, assist in getting logs over obsta-
cles, &c. Prices vary considerably with the demand, and range
from Rs. 1,800 to Rs. 3,500,* according to age, good points, train-
ing, length and thickness of the ivory. Merchants are always
prepared to purchase and to pay very fancy prices for really well
trained animals. Though tuskers are largely employed in dragging
operations, still it is tuskless males and females that perform most
of this class of work. Their prices vary according to the degree
of training, and run from Rs. 1,100 to Rs. 1,700 for females, and
from Rs. 1,400 to Rs. 2,500 for males. Most Burmese elephants
are trained to timber work.
The animals employed for baggage and travelling are often
Siamese ; small and fast paced females. Prices range from Rs.
800 to Rs. 1,200.
Purchase.
Dealers in elephants, it is to be regretted, are not always above
suspicion, and as elephants are subject to numerous ailments, which
are causes of unsoundness, and also sometimes obscure vices, too
much care cannot be exercised in the examination of animals about
to be purchased. It will therefore be advisable to enumerate some
of the more prominent signs of health. These are constant motion,
* Quite lately prices have run to Rs. 5,000.
2
10
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
such as swinging of the trunk and tail, flapping the ears, swaying
the body or the head from side to side, rubbing one leg against the
opposite one, or swinging it. The skin is soft, almost black in
colour; and the bristles covering the body are firm to the touch.
The mucous membrane of the tongue and mouth is of a rich pink
colour; the eyes clear and bright. The light coloured spots and
blotches on the head and trunk are pinkish in colour. A moist
secretion exudes around and above the nails, and is easily observed
by throwing some dust on the parts; this must not, however, be
confounded with an offensive discharge from beneath the nails, a
wet rot, which runs high up, the affected parts being hot and painful.
The appetite is good, and the animal sleeps for a few hours every
night, and immediately on waking commences to feed.
The signs of indisposition are:—that the animal is listless, there
is general languor, absence of the incessant motion so characterstic
in health. The skin appears greyish in colour, hangs loosely, and is
dry and sometimes scaly ; the spots and blotches also assume this pale
colour. The trunk presents a shrivelled appearance. The colour of
the membrane of the mouth and that of the tongue changes to a
muddy colour or is deep red, with or without blotches on the palate.
The lower flap of the ear is very often cold to the touch, the
eyes are dull, appear retracted, and there is frequently an abnormal
flow of water from the eyes. The animal may be out of condition
and feverish; the appetite small or even wanting, proper rest is not
taken, and he may lie down and get up several times (generally a
bad sign) If the excretions be examined, the urine may be noticed
to be small in quantity, and high-coloured, and the dung hard and
coated with mucous, or diarrhoea may be present.
Elephants differ as widely in their points as do horses and other ani-
mals. The chief points of a good elephant are as follows, see plates
A, B, C, and D, namely, medium height, a good big barrel, skin soft
and wrinkled (described by Burmans as crocodile skin), the head mas-
sive, full cheeks, and a broad forehead; the ears large, eyes bright,
and kindly, and free from opacity or excessive flow of tears, the trunk
of good length, broad at the root, and blotched in front with pinkish
coloured spots. The neck short, thick, and full; chest broad; the
back straight and broad, broad loins; short forelegs, convex in front
(described by Burmans as
, i.e., set up like a lion or chin-
thay
., the attitude given to the monsters in front of Pago-
das). The hind-quarters full, sloping well down, and supported by
thick short limbs. The pads of the feet hard, action free, paces
fast and easy ; the tail should be of good length, free from hardness,
and provided with a good tuft of bristles. Animals such as described
IDIOSYNCRASIES.
will not often be met with; still, when selecting, it will be as well to
obtain those possessing most of the good points enumerated.
The undesirable points are numerous. Some animals are flat-
sided, others have high arched backs, with very prominent spinal
ridges, see figure 31 ; others are narrow-chested, with lean low
fore-quarters, or are leggy, and devoid of those enormous masses of
muscle seen on the fore-limbs of a good elephant. In some animals
the legs are of almost uniform girth throughout; tall, leggy beasts,
and those with bad fore-quarters are invariably rough in action and
slow in their paces; they are, moreover, much more liable to gall,
and are generally indifferent workers. Elephants with thin, light-
coloured skins, even if they possess many good points, should be
avoided ; they are as a rule not strong, and frequently fall sick.
Those animals possessed of lean heads, hollow cheeks, small restless
eyes, shortish thin trunks, should be treated with suspicion, as they
very often are bad-tempered.
Forsyth in his work " The Highlands of Central India" men-
tions that there is no end to the tricks carried out by dealers,
of which he had some experience at the Sonpur Fair; some he re-
marks on are man-killers reduced to temporary harmlessness by the
daily administration of pills containing opium and Indian hemp.
Sores of the feet plugged, cracks "paid" with tow, and sorebacks
surface-healed. It is most important, therefore, that in examining a
beast the utmost care should be exercised to see that the back and
other parts liable to gall are free from sores, scars, and tenderness ;
in fact the whole body must be inspected, the ears examined for
sores and scabs, the ear holes for discharges, and the eyes must be
free from dimness.
The soles of the feet should be well tapped all over before and
after exercise; if any tenderness is manifested, the part must be
thoroughly examined. Tender patches from excessive wear may
readily be detected by the parts being smooth, and pinkish in colour.
The skin around the nails, as also the nails, must be inspected.
Food and water should be presented to see that the trunk is quite
sound, as this most important organ may have been injured by
bamboos, spear wounds, da cuts, etc.
Idiosyncrasies.
Some elephants are full of nasty tricks; intending purchasers must
therefore be on their guard, and endeavour to ascertain the pecu-
liarities of any particular beast before taking possession. Most
Burmese elephants prefer being approached from the right side; very
12
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
few from the left; some may be approached from right and left, and
others only from the right or left. A new keeper unacquainted with
such peculiarities incurs the likelihood of being attacked if the animal
be bad-tempered, or of scaring him if of a nervous disposition.
The following peculiarities in some animals reduce their value, as
they are regarded with superstitious dread by the Burmese. It is
thought that the ownership of such creatures may cost their masters
loss of life or substance.
(1) A loose fold of skin, descending from the throat down to
the fore-legs, known as pyazwe (
) (resembling bees settling in a
swarm).
(2) Same as above, but the fold of skin is continued between
the fore-legs on to the abdomen, called kalaga (
) (like a
purdah).
(3) Moving the head up and down, and simultaneously from left
to right, called moungdoung (
) (like the action of pounding
rice in an ordinary Burmese rice mortar).
(4) Swinging the trunk only to the left and right, called pa-ket-
hlwe, (
) (swinging the cradle).
(5) A restlessness of the whole body, somewhat after the fashion
of bears, called sa-gaw-waing (
) (action of a winnowing tray).
(6) Holding the trunk up in the air and putting it into the mouth,
called tein-nyun-sa (
) (literally to eat the clouds), star gaz-
ing.
The conformation of an animal naturally affects its value. Wet-
kon (
) (pig's back), or flat backs, are considered best suited
for carrying purposes.
Nga-phai-kon (
) (like the back of the nga-phai fish, i.e.,
an even curve), or those with a slight curve of the back, are considered
best for dragging purposes, as it is supposed that the dragging gear
fits this class of animal better than others.
Those animals with backs described as pyat-that-kôn (
)
(like the curve of a pyat-that, or sharp curve) may be employed for
dragging or carrying, but great care must be exercised in attending
to the gear, as such animals easily gall.
A loose fold of skin across the lower part of the neck, called payit
(
), is not a bad omen and rather raises the value of the animal.
Some elephants have four nails only on each foot; this decreas-
es their value, as five nails on each foot raises the same ; four on
each of the front feet and five on the hind ones does not interfere
with their value.
The male elephants called han ( ) and haing ( ) are often
from 30 to 40 per cent cheaper than tuskers. Generally speaking
SALES—BREEDING.
13
they are inclined to be ill-tempered. These are probably the ani-
mals mentioned by Steel as always found single. I think their
solitary life is usually not of their own seeking, but is brought about
by the presence of powerful tuskers which resent their mixing with
the herd, for, if they can decoy a cow from a herd, or pick up with
a tame female, they will do so.
A register recording age, height, sex, marks, year and place of
purchase, price, name, and residence of vendor, should be kept for
reference.
Sales.
Elephants are bought and sold like other cattle, that is, the pur-
chaser pays for the animal and takes it away. When Europeans
contemplate purchasing elephants, it is advisable to come to some
arrangement with the vendor regarding a trial of the animals offer-
ed for sale. A good plan is to advance the vendor fifty, or even
one hundred rupees for a week's trial of an animal; at the end
of which period, should the intending purchaser decide not to buy,
he forfeits his advance. This course is recommended for several
reasons; the animal produced for sale may have been lost or stolen ;
a vicious beast may be drugged with opium, or ganja, or it may be
a weakly old creature fattened up for sale. The intending purchaser
at least has an opportunity of observing the idiosyncrasies of the
animal, also his working capabilities. Elephant-dealers, and some
owners, are not above "doctoring" animals for sale. Some
years ago Government directed that no sales of elephants should
have effect except on fulfilment of certain formalities prescribed for
the purpose. The object was, if possible, to place a check upon
the extent to which elephant-stealing had attained. The measures,
however, having failed, the regulations have been set aside. There
is an impression current that a bill-of-sale is necessary in the case
of an elephant; this, however, is an error. Registration is prescribed
for the sale of immoveable property only. The solitary advantage
the purchaser could derive from registering his purchase would be,
that in the event of the animal having been stolen property, his
honesty in the transaction would be open to no question.
Breeding.
At one time it was much doubted whether elephants ever bred in
captivity. That it does happen, and not infrequently in Burma and
14
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Siam, is beyond question. It is true that under certain circum-
stances, e.g., when animals are constantly tied up, &c., it is very
rare for them to breed ; but with elephants, the property of large firms
engaged in the timber industry, and those owned by contractors the
case is different; after work the animals are permitted to roam
about the jungles, where they lead a more natural life, and under these
conditions calves are often dropped. There are many well-known
cases of elephants now working, whose mothers were working for
years before their birth. In Burma, where wild elephants are numer-
ous, cases of wild males taking up with tame females are not in-
frequent, and tame elephants appear to have little or no difficulty in
gaining admission to wild herds. As long as a sufficient number can
be procured by capture, it would be absurd to attempt to breed them.
Owners, especially of working elephants, have been known to offer to
give away calves owing to the expense attending their keep, and
the remoteness of the prospect of some return upon the outlay ; and
the offer has for similar reasons frequently been refused.
In the female the loose external generative opening hangs down
in much the same situation as that occupied by the penis in the
male. This peculiarity led to a good deal of speculation as to the
manner in which union of the sexes took place ; so much so, as to
suggest a deviation from the analogy of other animals for this pur-
pose. The question as to the manner in which the fecundation of
the female is brought about, was set at rest at Thayetmyo, where
two elephants were observed in the act, and in the position common
to quadrupeds, but in order to place the matter beyond the possi-
bility of contradiction, Mr. Porter, Schoolmaster of the Bedford
Regiment, took an excellent photograph; the trunks and tails came
out rather indistinctly ; this Mr. Porter afterwards informed me was
due to the fact that they were in constant and rapid motion. The
congress lasted some time. Sanderson witnessed the action on four
occasions, and on none of these did the males exhibit any signs of
musth, which goes to prove that it is not only when under this in-
fluence that male elephants court the society of the female. One
jump is considered to be sufficient. Sanderson states : " There is
" ample proof that it is not the male elephant that comes into season."
Owing to the periodical attacks of musth, many people have sup-
posed that such is the case; and he remarks that " the period of
" heat is not marked by any particular signs in the female, which has
" probably helped to strengthen the erroneous opinion spoken of. In
" approaching a male elephant, a female desirous of his attentions
" utters certain sounds, and courts his society ; but only those conver-
" sant with elephants would notice this." I have never observed any
apparent signs of heat' in the female, and several friends I consulted
informed me that, though they had seen a great many elephants, and
PREGNANCY.
15
been amongst elephants many years, they had not seen anything
noticeable amongst female elephants beyond the fact already stated
that the female when in that state utters certain peculiar sounds.
Pregnancy.
Sanderson states that female elephants usually give birth to their
first calf at sixteen years of age, and continue to breed till they reach
the age of eighty. They breed about every two and a half, or three
years. I have seen two calves (wild) at heel, the elder one I do not
think was more than three years of age. Sanderson has seen three.
The same authority observes that the female will not permit a bull
to approach until eight or ten months after calving. Burmans and
Karens put it down at even a longer period.
Elephants in calf may be worked up to almost their full term, but
it is only fair to relieve them from work six weeks or so before the
calf is expected. Towards the end of pregnancy, females become
very lazy and sluggish; the size of the animal, taken together with
the fullness of the mammary glands, and the presence of milk,
should afford sufficient indications of approaching parturition.
The dams, after calving, should be given a good rest, and a plen-
tiful allowance of good nourishing fodder.
The mammary or milk glands are situated on the chest, a trifle be-
hind the fore limbs. The young suckle with their mouths, and
not with the trunk.
The duration of pregnancy may be said to vary between eighteen
and twenty-two months. Sanderson gives it at eighteen months
for a female calf, and twenty-two for a male. Burmans and Karens
state that it may extend to two and a half years.
Mr. Petley kindly gave me notes on two cases:—
(a) A female was covered during the first fortnight of April
1896, and a male calf was born on the 6th February
1898; 22 months.
(b) Mr. D. S. Pritchard witnessed the tusker "Yegyan"
cover the female elephant "Bohgadon" near the Yat-
sauk bazaar, during the month of February 1896; she
dropped a calf (female) during December 1897; Mr.
Pritchard saw the calf an hour after birth ; 22 months.
(c) Steel, quoting from the Asian of the 5th June 1883,
gives two cases, the duration of pregnancy being. 583
and 680 days respectively.
16
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
(d) In the Indian Forester for April 1899, Vol. XXV,
page 158, signed C. B. S., a case is recorded. A
female turned out with others to graze was covered in
May 1897. The act was observed every evening for
about a week, from about the 18th to the 25th May.
Neither of the animals showed signs of sexual excite-
ment previously, though the male paid assiduous court
to the female for a few days before coition was permitted.
They were both working regularly dragging timber, and
gave no trouble. A female calf was born on the 3rd
November 1898. The day the youngster was born,
the mother had carried a light load for a short march.
The calf was so weak, that it had to hold on to a bam-
boo with its mouth to keep itself upright. After a
day it could stand and suckle. Period of gestation a
little over 17 calendar months.
(e) In two other instances brought to my notice, the periods
were 19 and 21½ months respectively; in the former
case the calf was a female, in the latter a male.
The greater number of calves are dropped during the last quarter
of the year.
Parturition.
Generally speaking, the period of labour is short, and the act of
parturition occupies but a short time. One calf occurs at a birth as
a rule.
Mr. Lidderdale kindly wrote to me describing the birth of a young
elephant at Pazundaung. The cow had been working in the timber-
yard during the afternoon, and after work was as usual tethered in
her shed about 6 P.M. About 11 P.M. she became very restless,
and groaned loudly ; at about 3 A.M. she suddenly broke her hind
shackles, so those on her fore-feet were removed, after which she
walked out of the shed into some deep mud about five yards distant,
where she promptly assumed the recumbent posture and gave birth to
a female calf, in caul, which, I believe, is not an infrequent event (head
and fore-feet presented). The act of parturition occupied but a few
minutes. The Burman attendant, who had been present at other
cases, immediately ruptured the membranes, &c., the calf remaining
lying on its side (the mother standing over it) for an hour or so,
after which it managed to stand up, and in a short time could walk.
The "after-birth" (achin) came away fifteen or twenty minutes
after the birth of the calf. The dam ate it.
MILK.
17
An intelligent Burman gave me the following description:—
" When the full time has arrived, most animals are very restless,
and in great agony for some few hours, and often, an hour or so be-
fore birth, there is a discharge from the passages. When about to
give birth, the female seeks soft ground. The calf may be presented
head and fore-feet first, or the hinder parts may appear first. If
the membranes are not ruptured by an attendant, and the calf set
free, the female will do so with her foot. The young one lies from
one to two hours after birth, occasionally moving ears, trunk, and
limbs; after which it gets on its legs, and can walk."
Elephants even in their wild state may die in labour. Last year I
found the remains of a cow elephant in the jungle, and a Burman
well known to me informed me that he had seen the carcass a few
days after the animal died and that the cause of death was due to
her inability to expel the calf.
A young one can walk well enough after a few days to follow the
mother on a short march, and here I may mention that in their wild
state, when a calf has been dropped, the herd remain in the vicinity
until it is able to follow the mother, which is generally in about forty-
eight hours. Elephants generally eat the after-birth.
At birth the calves are usually covered with longish hair, and
stand from two and a half to three feet at the shoulder. The mother
should not be marched till two or three days after birth of calf.
Sanderson weighed several calves when two days old, and found
the average weight to be two hundred pounds. For several months
they live entirely on milk, and even for some time after they take to
eating grass, their chief support is milk. The trunk of the young
animal is very short, from ten to fifteen inches in length. Mothers
rarely resent their youngsters being handled. The calves soon be-
come playful and very mischievous.
Milk.
" The milk of the elephant is said to be very rich with an agree-
able taste and odour, its butter and sugar being largely increased
at the expense of the water as compared with other milks"—(Steel
and Symonds).
3