NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
ii
PARAS.
Propagation by cuttings
15-17
Propagation by buds
18, 19
Propagation, hardening of rooted cuttings
20
Seeds, rearing of
10-13
Shading young plants after planting
31
Sites, selection of, for Plantations
4
Sites, aspect of
5
Sites, rainfall of, or irrigation
6
Sites, elevations of
7
Sites, soils of
8
Transmission of plants
68-71
Wardian cases, treatment of plants in
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
P L A T E .
Propagation by seeds and layers
I
Plan of a Propagating house
I I
Propagation by cuttings and buds
I I I
Cowdung pots, and mould for making the same
I V
Box for conveying plants from the nurseries, and sections of nursery bets.
V
Methods of permanently planting out, and box for conveying plants l ong
distances
VI
Methods of shading, staking, and pruning
VII
Manner of taking off the bark, and mossing the trees
VIII
Construction of "Barking, knife"
I X
NOTES
ON THE
PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION OF THE MEDICINAL
CINCHONA OR PERUVIAN BARK TREES.
IN submitting to the public a brief outline of my experience in the
cultivation of these valuable plants, I would observe that I do not
presume to furnish a complete guide to their management, as, before
this can be done, much has yet to be ascertained of the requirements
of the plants under cultivation. My object in this pamphlet is merely
to place in the hands of all who are interested in the extension and
increase of this valuable product, a knowledge of the management
of the plants in their earlier stages, or up to the period to which our
experience in their cultivation extends.
2. An almost unlimited number of seeds being now produced
by our plants on the Neilgherries, and the Government of Madras
having placed the Cinchonas within the reach of the general public,
by authorizing their distribution at the low rate of one anna each, the
time has, therefore, arrived for the rapid increase of Cinchona cultivation;
it however has been felt that the distribution of the plants and seeds
might, in many instances, lead to disappointment and failure, if unac-
companied by instructions for their cultivation and management.
3. Habit of the Plant.—Cinchona plants, when young, are deli-
cate, and liable to suffer from damp, from ineffectual circulation of air,
and from want of light ; while they are alike injured when exposed
to too great currents of air, or the direct rays of the sun. Hence, the
plant must be reared in places shaded from the direct rays of the sun,
exposed to moderate currents of air, and kept in a medium state of
moisture, excess on either side being injurious in their earlier stages of
growth. When the plants have attained the ago of eight or nine
months, they are much more hardy, bearing a considerable amount of
neglect without injury, and are greatly benefited by exposure to sun-
2
shine and free currents of air. The roots of the plants, however, are
easily injured, and invariably decay when bruised or bent ; hence, in the
operation of transplanting, it is of importance, to ensure success, that the
roots be placed straight and carefully in the soil. When once fairly
established in the ground, (which is not before eighteen months or two
years after planting,) the plant is very hardy, the spreading fibrous
roots giving it a firm hold of the ground, sufficient to support it against
all ordinary storms, and enabling it to bear alike, without injury,
seasons of drought or rain ; they, however, thrive best in seasons of
alternate showers and sunshine. None of the Cinchonas will bear to
be shaded by living trees, and therefore should be planted on clear
ground, and fully exposed to the light of the sun ; this gives the plants
a robust habit, which they can never obtain when planted under living
shade.
4. Selection of sites for Plantations.—This is perhaps the most
important task which has to be performed, as much of the future success
of the plantations will depend on the suitability of the sites selected.
In the first instance, the Cinchonas require rich forest, or good grass-
land, the surface soil consisting of an open, dark or chocolate-colored
loam, of from two to three feet in depth, resting upon an open sub-soil,
in order to give efficient drainage, as nothing is more injurious to
Cinchonas than stagnant water at the roots ; therefore, any land with
a retentive sub-soil is altogether unsuited to their growth. The site
must be well sheltered from prevailing winds, the necessity for this
arises from the leaves of the fled and Grey barks being so large and
tender when young, that heavy gales of wind act on them with such
force as not only to break and damage the leaves themselves, but to
twist and seriously injure the plants. The Yellow and Crown barks
being small-leaved species, bear the wind better, and could be grown in
more exposed situations ; a certain amount of shelter, however, is desir-
able for the successful cultivation of all the species.
5. Sites, aspect .—Referring to the Neilgherries in particular, the
aspect of the plantations should be north or north-west ; a north-east
exposure will also be found suitable, where the winds accompanying
this monsoon are not severe. The reason why a northern exposure in
these latitudes is beneficial, is from the fact that it is much more moist,
during the dry season, than a southern aspect ; because the sun's decli-
nation is southerly during our dry and cloudless season of the year.
Thus, on the northern slope, the rays of the sun do not penetrate and
3
parch the soil. A northern aspect has also the advantage of preserv-
ing a much more uniform temperature than a southern, because the
excessive radiation and evaporation on the southern slopes greatly
reduces the temperature at night, while in the day they are heated to
excess by the action of the sun's rays, striking the surface as they do at
nearly right angles. The practical effects of aspect on the plants are
so great, that they cannot be overlooked with impunity, and in order
to impress this upon the minds of all who may have the selection of
localities for Cinchona cultivation, I may mention that the difference
of temperature is almost incredible ; for example, at this elevation
(7,500 feet) a thermometer laid on the surface of the southern face of
a hill exposed to the sun at 3 P.M., will frequently indicate from 130º
to 140° Fahr. ; the same thermometer, if left in its position and examined
at 6 A.M., will generally be observed to indicate from 30° to 40° Fahr. ;
while on a similar slope, if selected with a northern aspect, the
thermometer, under the same circumstances, at 3 P.m., will indicate 70°t
o 80° Fahr., and at 6 A.M. from 40° to 50° Fahr. All authors agree
that Cinchona delight in an equable temperature, and this has been
unmistakably established by the plants under cultivation. The vital
importance of aspect is, therefore, fully explained. While on this
subject, it may be observed that a hollow or land-locked valley is also
unsuitable to the cultivation of Cinchonas, because the cold air, gene-
rated at night on the sides of the neighbouring hills, being of greater
specific gravity than the warm air, rolls clown and fills the valley,
thereby reducing the temperature of the valley to a degree injurious to
the plants, especially in the clear winter nights.
6. Site, Rainfull, or I rrigation.—Local circumstances, such as
aspect and position of the plantation, drainage, &amp;c., in a great degree
compensate for a deficiency or excess of moisture. Attention paid to
these conditions will enable Cinchona to be grown with like success in
a climate where the rain-fall may not exceed 30 inches, as in one where
the rainfall may reach as high as 200 inches ; and even in localities
where a shower of rain may not fall for nine months in the year, as in
one where the showers may extend throughout the year. A moderate
amount of rain, however, from 60 to 100 inches in the year, falling
uniformly in showers is, as a rule, most beneficial for the growth of
Cinchona ; they delight above all things " in showers and sunshine,"
this has been fully established by the rapid growth and fine healthy
appearance of the plants during the showery months of October and
4
November. Long continued rain is decidedly injurious to the health
of the plants, as also continued drought ; but of the two, the latter is
less so, as the plants can be made to thrive well under artificial irriga-
tion. When it is necessary to irrigate, the streams should only run in
the centre of the rows of trees, allowing the water to reach the roots by
percolation, because if the water is allowed to flow near the stems of
the plants, it frequently causes them to rot.
7. Elevations.—The elevation best suited for the growth of
Cinchona Succirubra, or 'Red bark,' is about 6,000 feet. The plant,
however, will grow at considerably greater elevations, and also down to
4,000feet, but they have been found to thrive best at elevations averaging
from 5,000 to 6,200 feet, on slopes facing the north, and well sheltered
from the north-east and south-west monsoons. The 'Crown barks,'
Cinchona Officinalis, and its varieties, Condamenia, Uritusinga, and
Crespilla, at elevations from 6,000 to 8,350 feet, the latter being the
highest elevation at which the plants are grown on these hills. The
'Yellow bark' ( Cinchona Calisaya) grow from 5,000 to 6,000
feet. The 'Pitayo bark' (Cinchona Lancifolia) has been planted
out at an elevation of 7,600 feet. The 'Grey barks,' Cinchona Peru-
viana, Nitida, and Micrantha, have grown well in the localities in
which they were originally planted, at elevations varying from 4,500
to 6,000 feet, flourishing best at the highest elevation and in sheltered
positions facing the north. The Cinchona Pahudiana continues to
flourish at elevations of 5,000 and 7,400 feet. These elevations are
named from our observations on the Neilgherries, where an altitude of
4.500 feet, in a sheltered locality, gives a mean temperature of about
66° Fahr., 6,000 feet about 39°, and 7,500 feet of about 53°, the
minimum temperature never falling under 32° Fahr. It may be
mentioned that the temperature of any given locality is a more certain
guide to the selection of a site than elevation.
8. Soils.—The Cinchona Succirubra, or 'Red barks,' thrive in a
dark-brown, deep vegetable mould, resting upon an open sub-soil'
The Cinchona Crespilla in dry peaty land, the Cinchona Officinalis also
grows freely in this soil, but prefers a deep brown mould; this species
also grows well in the laterite soils so common on the plateau of the
Neilgherries. The 'Yellow' and. 'Grey barks' prefer the same soil
as the Cinchona Succirubra, while the Pahudiana indicates a preference
for a dry and gravelly soil.
9, Propagation. —It is of the utmost importance that a correct
5
knowledge should be disseminated as to the principles of propagation,
as the increase and multiplication of every valuable or newly-imported
plant form an object of the utmost importance, and by such means
only can they be produced in quantities sufficient to test their utility
and commercial value. The Cinchonas are propagated by seeds, layers,
cuttings, and buds.
10, Propagation by Seeds.— To produce germination in all seeds,
moisture, heat, and air are necessary. Moisture must be supplied, but
not in an unlimited quantity, or the seeds will rot, as is the case with
seeds when sown in too damp a soil, when the power of respiration in
the seed is impeded by excess of water, and it is unable to decompose
the quantity of water it absorbs, which collects in the seed and
becomes putrid. There must, therefore, be some water, but not
too much, and it is generally considered that a mixture of sand
and loam is the best soil in which to raise seeds, because the sand
keeps the loam from adhering together when watered, and thus allows
the excess of water to pass through (or drain off), while the loam
retains as much water among the cavities of the soil as is required
for the purposes of germination. Clay or clay-loam retains too
much moisture, and seeds sown in such soils are sure to decay.
Again, the quantity of moisture must not be too great ; it should be
uniform also, that is, the seed-beds not soaked with water one day and
the next day allowed to become dry, because the changes the seeds un
-dergo in germination must take place without interruption, or the seeds
will die. To preserve uniformity in this respect great care is required,
especially with Cinchona seeds, which require to be grown either in a
glass-house or under thatched pandals (hurdles), placed in a sloping
direction over the seed-beds, so as to throw off the rain, the beds being,
of course, open on the sheltered side to admit the necessary light
and air.
11. Cinchona seeds are very small and light, being smaller and
more oblong than the seed of the common Birch, and, like it, they con
-sist merely of a wing with a minute embryo in the centre. The seeds,
when fresh, should be steeped for twelve hours in water prior to being
sown, but when the seeds have been kept some time, or come from a
great distance, they should be steeped for about six hours only. The
steeping of the seeds in water facilitates germination ; it is, however,
liable to injure too old seeds, which may be sown without steeping,
The most convenient way to steep the seeds is to place them loosely in
6
a bag, and immerse the same in water. When the seeds have been
soaked the prescribed time, take the bag out and drain off the water ;
the seeds will be found to have swollen considerably, and in order to
separate them, mix them with about twice their bulk of dry sand. In
this way the moisture around the seeds is absorbed, and, on being stir-
red gently the seeds separate from each other freely, and intermix with
the sand. In this condition they are sown on the surface of the soil in
pots (prepared as hereafter described,) and lightly covered over with a
mere sprinkling of fine sand. After sowing, the pots are slightly water-
ed with the syringe, the watering being repeated in dry weather four
or five times a day, in order to maintain uniform moisture.
12. The soil we have used with most advantage in rearing Cin-
chona seeds, is composed of leaf-mould, or the earth produced by rotten
leaves, sifted and mixed with four times its own volume of sand. The
leaf-mould, in the first instance, was exposed to the sun for two or three
days, and when thoroughly dry, was heated to about 212° Fahr.,
order to destroy grubs and larva of insects ; after being allowed to
cool, watered sufficiently to make it moist, but only to that degree
that the particles of soil would not adhere together when pressed firmly
with the hand, that is, the earth on being laid down was sufficiently
dry to break and fall into its usual form. The leaf-mould and sand in
this state of moisture were mixed together, and the pots filled, the
surface lightly pressed down, and the seeds sown thereon and covered
with a sprinkling of sand, as above described. The pots then plunged
into beds of moist sand, sufficient water given to damp the surface, but
not to penetrate or consolidate the soil in the pots. Under this treat-
ment some of the seeds begin to germinate strongly on the sixteenth day
after sowing, others continuing to come up through the space of two
months afterwards. One ounce of clean seeds produce, on an average,
from 20,000 to 25,000 plants. The principal art appears to be to keep
the soil in a uniform state of moisture, but never wet ; the least excess
of which causes the seeds to mould and damp off, while, as a matter
of course, if kept too dry, they become parched up.
13. As soon as the seeds germinate and develop the seed-leaves,
they are carefully pricked out into pots filled with fresh earth (prepared
as above); this operation is a very delicate one, the seedlings being care-
fully raised out of the original seed-pot by means of a small stick with
a rectangular notch at the point, to embrace the seed-lobes, as illus-
trated at A in Plate I., Figure I, The plant thus removed to the new
pot, a hole is made in the earth by a small round stick, and the root
placed in the hole is firmly secured in the soil as at B, with the seed
-lobes well above the surface. In this way from one to two hun-
dred seedlings are transplanted into a nine-inch pot, and then treat
-ed, in every respect, the same as the seeds when first sown ; that is, they
are never watered heavily, the surface being merely sprinkled, and the
pots plunged into beds of damp sand to keep the soil in that medium
state of moisture as when first placed in the pots. The seedlings should
be exposed to free currents of air, especially in moist weather. The
necessity for this care is to prevent the seedlings from damping
off, to which they are very liable when treated otherwise ; it also
facilitates their growth and the formation of roots, as the earth in
which they are placed being so open that it is readily affected by the
action of the atmosphere, and thus kept in the most favorable condition
for promoting vegetation. When thus treated, seedlings make an
average growth in one year of over thirty inches, while many of those
raised and grown on a retentive soil have not attained the height of three
inches in the same period. Cinchona seeds germinate best at a tem
-perature varying from 65° to 75° Fahr., they will also germinate, though
slowly, at a temperature of 55° Fahr., and will sustain a temperature of
80° Fahr. ; seedlings raised in a higher temperature than this are weak,
and more or less unhealthy.
14. Propagation by Layers.—When it is desirable rapidly to in-
crease the number of original plants, layering, in the first instance,
should be adopted, as it has the effect of. causing the plants to throw
out a large number of branches,thus giving a supply of wood well adapted
for propagation by cuttings and buds. When the plants have attained
a height of from ten to fifteen inches, they may be propagated by being
layered, as illustrated in Plate I., Figure II. ; in this way they are
found to root readily in about six weeks, or two months at the latest,
and the plants being bent down, break or throw out shoots from every
bud along the whole length of the stem, and not only this, but many
latent buds are developed, and a fine growth of young wood produced
f o r s u c c e e d i n g l a y e r s a n d c u t t i n g s , e a c h l e a d i n g b r a n c h o r s h o o t b e i n g
also layered as it gains sufficient size. The principle of layering is some-
w h a t d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t u s u a l l y p r a c t i s e d , a s w h e n c u t t h e j u i c e o f t h e C i n c h o n a s f l o w s s o f r e e l y f r o m t h e w o u n d , t h a t i f m e r e l y p l a c e d i n t h e
soil it is apt to cause mildew and rot. To remedy this, a piece of per-
fectly dry brick is placed in the cut as soon as it is made, this absorbs
8
the juice, and effectually prevents the ill-effects abovementioned. The
layers, when well rooted, are removed from the parent plant, potted off
and kept in a close atmosphere for a few days until they become estab-
lished. In removing the layers great care must be taken, for if they
are cut off before the shoots, shewn in Figure II. at A and B, have at-
tained a good size and their leaves fairly developed, the stock or parent
plant is almost certain to die off. The reason of this is, the sap flows
into the plant with equal vigor, but cannot be elaborated because of
the removal of the leaves attached to the layer, and consequently it
ferments and causes decay in the parent plant,
15. Propagation by cuttings .—Cuttings of from three to five inches
in length if planted in beds in the open air, about half an inch of
the top of the cutting being kept above the ground, the lower portion
firmly secured in the soil, and the top partially shaded. Under these
conditions they will form good roots in from three to five months, and
when a rapid increase of the plants is not an object, this is, perhaps,
the safest and cheapest plan of propagation ; but where the object is
to increase the plants rapidly, a propagating house, as in Plate II., is
indispensable ; the cost of a structure of the description and size given
being from Rs. 800 to Rs. 1,000, where labor and material can be
procured at a reasonable price. The plate above referred to gives full
particulars of the construction and application of this building. The
fuel used being wood, the furnace is, however, equally well suited for the
consumption of peat or coal. With. the aid of a propagating house, the
youngest wood that can be procured is the best adapted for making
cuttings, as young tender shoots, a fortnight or three weeks old, form
roots in a very short space of time, the majority of these cuttings
being invariably rooted within a month. It is, however, difficult to deal
with this description of wood, and to secure success requires a great
amount of care. The earth in which these cuttings are placed is pre-
pared, as before described, for the seeds ; it is however kept a little drier.
The cuttings as soon as made are placed all over the surface of the pot
in a thin layer of brick-dust, as at Figure I., Plate III, or around the
sides of the pots, the cut end of each being pressed firmly on a piece of
dry brick, as shewn in the illustration in Plate III., Figure III. Each
pot, by the first method, contains from 100 to 120 cuttings, and by the
second method, from 20 to 25 cuttings. As the pots are filled, they
are immediately removed to the propagating frames, and plunged into
beds of damp sand on a bottom heat which must not exceed 75° Fahr.
I6. The cuttings are now carefully watched, the surface and the
leaves being moistened by a fine syringe when the atmosphere in the
frames appears dry ; they are, however, never heavily watered, it being
verynecessary to ensure success to avoid this, as we have invariably found,
that when the earth is so watered it causes the cuttings to damp off,
it also retards their rooting. The cause of this appears to be that the
cuttings not only suffer from excess of damp, but when the soil is
watered in the usual way after the cuttings are placed in the pots, by
its expansion and adhesion from the action of the water, its particles
are forced far too close together to be beneficial for the development
of roots. With young wood, our losses with cuttings have not averaged
three per cent. In removing the cuttings from the stock plants, one or
two pairs of loaves and buds should, if possible, be left between the
plant and the part cut; this is done in order not to decrease the suc-
ceeding supplies of young wood, which would be the case if the cut
was made close to the parent stem. Another circumstance very neces-
sary to be attended to in order to ensure success, is to be careful to
place each cutting, as it is made, into the pot with the cut-end in brick
dust or on a piece of dry brick ; this must be attended to, because
where the cut is made, the juice begins to flow, and. this juice, if not
immediately absorbed, causes mildew and rot. When the cuttings are
placed in the frames, they are exposed to as much light and air as they
can bear without flagging, when they begin to flag the cases are of
course shut, and the action of the external air cut off.
17. When a large number of plants is produced, and consequent-
ly much labor employed in this operation, we have found it necessary,
in order to economize and lessen the cost of propagation, to abandon
the system of placing the cuttings on a piece of brick as described above.
The method then adopted is to fill the pots, as formerly, with prepared
soil, but only to within an inch or three-fourths of an inch of the sur-
face. This space is then filled up with pounded brick dust, into which
the cuttings are inserted, as at A in Figure IV.,B representiu
g the stratum of brick dust ; C, the ordinary soil ; D, moss to
f a c i l i t a t e d r a i n a g e ; E , t h e p o t s h e r d o r d r a i n i n gm
a t e r i a l . U n d e r t h i s t
r e a t m e n t o f
cuttings are found to root freely, while a man can pot off in a day nom
f our to five times the number he could under the former method. This
simple expedient is of great importance in extensive propagating opera-
tions, as it reduces the cost to nearly one-fifth of that incurred by placing
the end of the cutting on a piece of brick, and at the same time econo-