NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
SECURING FOR OPERATIONS.
53
I only tried it once, and this was at Pakokku. The elephant,
a fine powerful and most troublesome tusker, was suffering from
a severe wound on the spine, also two enormous abscesses on
the back ; he would not permit any interference.
While the
mahout was trying to dress the wound, the elephant started
the bear-like motion and the man fell off and was injured. The
cooly could do nothing beyond applying fetters ; the animal could
not be induced to assume the recumbent posture, so we determined
to try and throw him. Two heavy tuskers were brought in case
matters became serious. The animal was tethered by one fore-leg
to a tree with a good stout chain ; fetters were then placed on all
four legs, a long chain being fixed on one fore-fetter ; this chain was
passed through all the fetters ; the free end was given to a very fine
old elephant, " Rajgopal "; he immediately started to walk away ; the
men about then took their spears mounted on long bamboo shafts
(Fig. 19), and whenever opportunity offered they touched a fore or
hind foot causing him to draw it away. As " Rajgopal " had a steady
strain on the chain, we soon got the legs so far under the beast that
he was obliged to sink down amidst much shrieking and trumpeting.
The abscesses were promptly opened and dressed, the wound
owing to the presence of maggots was opened up and the maggots
removed, after which he was allowed to get up, which he only
succeeded in doing after several efforts. The shaking he got or the
relief afforded by the operation quietened him down ; he did not try
to injure any one, and next day after a little trouble he allowed the
FIG. 18.—Crush.
Employed for handling and breaking in unruly elephants, especially those not allowing
men to mount them. Can also be used for operations.
FIG. 17.—Poles in position at A and B.
FIG. 18.—Poles in position above, withdrawn below C and D.
FIG. 19.—Common spear with which every elephant cooly should be provided, in case of
his charge becoming unmanageable by getting mustk, etc.
54
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
cooly to mount and dress the wounds. This elephant after a course
of tonics made an excellent recovery (see Appendix B).
The kya-pazat is used for the recapture of escaped elephants.
Some animals after being free for a time,
though permitting men they know to ap¬
proach them, will not allow them to mount,
so this kind of kya-pazat is used (see Fig.
20) ; the head is similar to an ordinary
pitch-fork, but barbed like a fish-hook, it
is wide enough to stick on to a limb ; a light
chain or rope is attached to a ring on it.
The head can be fixed on a long bamboo.
The man sneaks about the jungle after his
animal and when opportunity offers sticks
the pitch-fork on a hind limb ; the handle
soon comes out, but before long the rope
or chain gets entangled in bushes, and the
animal cannot get away.
A more barbarous method employed
by Karens and Shans is to load a gun
with a piece of pointed cane, pyingado or
thingan.
If it does not lame the animal
sufficiently to effect his capture it upsets
his temper and makes him a nasty customer to meet.
Most mahouts arm themselves with a light iron hook fixed into
a cane or bamboo handle about 2 ft. in length
(Fig. .21). It should only be employed in
emergencies. Some drivers only use a pointed
stick.
From time to time endless other coercive
appliances have been devised for purposes of
restraint (Fig. 22) ; though patience and
gentleness should be exercised in dealing with
any animal, it is still more necessary in these
creatures, and everything should be tried
before forcible measures are resorted to.
FIG. 20.—Kya-pazat (tiger's
mouth).
FIG. 21.—Driving hook
with iron head and
wooden shaft.
FIG. 22.—Iron chain collar with
sharp points.
BOLTING.
55
The following are the instructions laid down for securing
elephants in the "Manual of Mountain Artillery," 1882 :—
(i) Anklet on one fore-foot only ; the other ankle linked
through the ring of a long chain, hook-end secured
round a tree, post, or into the ring-bolt. For day use.
(ii) Long chain round one hind-leg to tree, post, or ring-
bolt. For day use.
(iii) Above, with anklets on both fore-feet.
(iv) Anklet on one fore-foot only, the other linked on ring-bolt,
(v) Both anklets on fore-feet, coupling chain through ring-bolt,
(vi) Above, with long chain on one hind-leg (only allowed in
special cases).
Instructions for securing elephants for transport by train or sea
are given in the Government Regulations on the subject.
BOLTING.
This is one of the most dangerous, but fortunately rare, vices of
the elephant. It is nearly
always the result of fear.
Small animals such as fox-
terriers are particularly dis¬
tasteful to them and, ridicu¬
lous as it may appear, often
cause them to bolt. On
one occasion in the Shan
States I saw a tusker carry¬
ing my kit suddenly run
away trumpeting ; the only
cause I could assign was
that a couple of cackling
hens ran out close to him
from under a hut. In the
open it is poor fun being
on the back of a runaway
elephant, but in jungle, it
is needless to remark, a
very serious matter. Blind-
folding with a cloth often
answers in checking their
flight, but all animals known
to be liable to bolt should
have a fairly long heavy
chain attached to a hind
FIG. 23.—Soolays or Andoos.
56
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
leg ; the free end should be attached to the saddle within easy
reach of the driver, so that if occasion arises he can release it in
the hope that it may be caught in some bush or stump. Sanderson
cured a bolter by having a hoop of iron made with sharp spikes to
encircle a hind-leg, soolays of the Burmese (see Figs. 23 and 24).
This was kept in osi¬
tion round the leg
by being suspended
from the pad by a
rope, and it fitted the
leg so loosely as not
to inconvenience the
elephant except when
required.
To the
ring was attached a
chain 15 ft. long, at
the other end of
which was a pick-axe
head.
This grap-
pling-iron was slung
to the pad by a cord in a slip-knot, handy to the mahout who could
set the anchor free with a pull at the cord. In the Karen Hills I
noticed that unruly beasts and those given to bolting generally have
a hole about the size of a rupee pierced through the lobe of one ear.
A piece of cord is passed through the hole, and the free ends kept
handy by the driver. On giving trouble the driver hangs on to the
string; the method appears to be fairly effective. The oo-sis, when
bringing certain animals in from grazing, pass a cord through the hole
in the ear, take hold of the free ends and lead the animals into camp.
A method employed in Siam with nervous elephants is very effective :
a bent hook like a magnified fish-hook hangs loosely on the ear close
to the head; a string is attached to the eye on the straight end.
When the animal is nervous and shows signs of wanting to bolt, the
cooly pulls on the string.
Some mahouts take the trouble to teach their elephants certain
methods by which they alone can approach and catch their animals
when out grazing. For instance, a driver seeing his elephant hails
him, upon which the animal at once charges down on his keeper
with (to a stranger) apparently alarming intent, but having done this
he permits himself to be caught.
Other elephants will permit their fetters to be removed from the
near or off-side only, and some will only allow approach from behind,
or the driver must pass under the elephant's uplifted trunk, before
he proceeds to remove a fetter.
FIG. 24.—Hind fetter for one foot only. It consists of two
bent pieces of iron joined on one side by a short
strong chain or rope and fastened off on the other by
a line which is tied to a tree. The bent pieces of
iron have four sharp points turned inwards, which on
the elephant attempting to move enter the leg.
[Facing page 57.
PLATE V.
ELEPHANTS BEING RAFTED.
CROSSING RIVERS.
57
These little eccentricities are useful in a way, in that they help
to prevent a casual thief, or a professional, who has perhaps not had
an opportunity of studying the habits of certain animals he desires
to steal, from capturing them.
CROSSING RIVERS.
The impropriety of taking an elephant into water, whether for
fording or other purpose, or permitting him to squirt water over the
body when heated, has already been noted; a number of serious
ailments, of which cramp is not the least formidable, may follow the
disregard of this precaution. Before crossing a river, if the animals
be heated they should be halted, allowed to cool, and have their gear
removed. A good landing place on the opposite bank should be
selected, and if the river is wide or moderately so and in flood,
due allowance must be made for current. It is always a good plan
to send in a well-trained animal with an intelligent driver to lead
the way ; the remaining elephants should be sent in batches of twos
or threes. A rope should be tied round the neck, or round the girth,
and a second rope attached, the free end of which the mahout can
hold when the animal is in deep water. If the elephants have had
a longish swim, or a stiff current to contend against, they should be
allowed a short rest. With an unruly animal I found the plan
recommended by Steel answer well, namely to put the troublesome
elephant between two quiet animals and to tie them neck to neck ;
the attendant should carry a knife in case it may be necessary to
cut the rope. In rivers where the fords are not well known, a quiet
elephant and a good swimmer, with an intelligent driver, should be
first sent across to explore the route. Elephants are good and
powerful swimmers. In deep water the driver should stand, as the
animals are fond of ducking themselves.
When materials are
available for making rafts these may be employed for transporting
them across long stretches of water (see Plate V).
QUICKSANDS.
If an elephant, for want of being preceded by an attendant to
explore the route, should chance to get into a bad quicksand or
quagmire, the best plan is to throw him large billets of wood or
branches of trees, which he can work down under his feet until he
has obtained a sufficiently strong footing to extricate himself. On
such occasions it is dangerous to approach within reach of his
58
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
trunk, as he will seize every object he can for the purpose just
stated. It may be necessary to sacrifice the load.
DESTRUCTION OF ELEPHANTS.
It occasionally happens that owing to severe injury or incurable
disease an animal has to be destroyed. To those who may be
called upon to do this it is necessary to know the shots by which the
brain may be readily reached. The brain is not large and is
situated low and far back. The places usually selected are the fore-
head, ear, and behind the ear (see Figs. 25 to 28).
DIAGRAM FROM "SANDERSON" SHOWING POSITION OF THE BRAIN WITH
REFERENCE TO THE SHOOOTING OF ELEPHANTS.
FIG. 25.—Head in natural position.
FIG. 26.—Frontal shot indicated by
dotted line. Side shot indicated
by blank space.
FIG. 27.—Position of head when
charging.
FIG. 28.—Frontal shot indicated by
dotted line.
DESTRUCTION OF ELEPHANTS.
59
(a) Front or forehead.—The
point to aim at is the centre of
the forehead, near the top of the large bump at the
base of the trunk, which if a line is drawn between the
eyes would be about 3 inches above them. Both the
person shooting and the animal should be on more or
less level ground, the animal also facing and carrying
the head in the natural position.
(b) Ear, temple or side shot.—The animal standing on more
or less level ground and head held in natural position ;
the best spot to aim at, if the person shooting be also
on level ground, is the ear-hole, in a line to pass
through the opposite ear-hole. Other side shots may
be taken in the region of the temple, depending on
position of person shooting.
(c) The rear or behind ear shot.—Sanderson
describes as
follows :—" The spot behind the ear is in the hollow
just over the large lump or swelling at the junction of
the jaw and neck. It must be taken at about an angle
of 45 degrees with the elephant's course from behind."
When charging the head is elevated and the trunk curled up,
so it is necessary to fire at least a foot lower than when the head
is held in the natural position. If a tusker, fire between the tusks.
The chief thing in shooting an elephant is to approach as close
as possible in order to make certain of the shot, as the mark at a
little distance is easily missed. Cover should be taken, and the
best time to stalk the beast is while he is feeding ; great care must
be paid to the direction of the wind, which should be from the
animal ; the wind should be taken every few yards with feathers,
wood-ashes, or any very light material.
With regard to the weapon to be used, there are many advocates
for small bores, and a rifle such as a 303 with nickel bullet, owing
to its great penetration, will kill an elephant as efficiently as a much
larger bore ; still picked shots are required and luck also, and we
seldom hear of the animals wounded by small bores and not bagged.
A small bore is a poor weapon when face to face with an infuriated
elephant. To inexperienced persons, I recommend the heaviest
weapon they can conveniently carry, such as a 470 cordite (nickel
bullets), a 577 express, with steel-tipped bullets, or better still, an
8-bore with hardened lead bullets. It is desirable to have a second
rifle at hand in case of accidents.
The body shot should be taken rather low, a little above and behind
the elbow just near the wrinkle usually observed in that region. This
shot should not be taken where people are about, as even with a 4-bore
bullet placed in this position an animal may run for 60 or 80 yards.
DIAGRAM OF SKELETON OF ELEPHANT.
[Facing page 61.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Lower Maxilla.
Upper Maxilla.
Cervical Vertebræ.
Dorsal Vertebræ.
Lumbar Vertebræ.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Sacrum and Pelvis.
Coccygeal bones.
Scapula.
Humerus.
Radius,
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Ulna.
Carpal bones.
Digital bones.
Sternum.
Femur.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Patella or knee-cap.
Tibia.
Fibula.
Os calcis (one of the tarsus)
Digital bones.
PART II.
Outlines of Anatomy and Physiology.
CHAPTER I.
THE SKELETON.
THE anatomy and physiology contained in this and the following
chapters is merely intended to convey a general knowledge of the
animal's structure, the position of the various organs and their
functions, sufficient for the reader unacquainted with these subjects
to recognize the structures probably affected in such injuries or
diseases as may come under his observation.
External form is dependent upon an internal basement structure.
This consists of a number of definitely but diversely shaped masses
of a hard substance called bone. This basement structure is known
as the skeleton. The bones entering into its formation are of
various forms and sizes, depending on the uses for which they are
intended. They are divided into four classes : long, short, flat and
irregular. The first named are situated in the limbs ; they have a
shaft and two extremities. Examples :—Arm bone (humerus), thigh
bone (femur). The scapula or shoulder blade, pelvis, and frontal
bones of the head are examples of flat bones. The bones of the
vertebral column are examples of the irregular type of bones, and
those of the knee and hock are short bones. Bone is a tough, hard,
elastic substance consisting of animal matter impregnated with
earthy salts. The earthy salts may be removed from the bone by
immersion in dilute hydrochloric acid ; the figure of the bone remains
unchanged, but instead of being hard, it will be found to resemble
cartilage or grizzle, and may be twisted in any direction. The
composition of bone is as follows :—
Earthy matter
Animal matter
...
...
Total
66.7
33.3
100.0
— (Ashby).
The ends of the bones are constructed in different ways to
permit of more or less motion. In some parts there is a ball and
socket arrangement ; in others, hinge-like joints, and so on.
62
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
The skeleton gives support to the animal frame, and affords
fixed objects for the attachment of various parts. In order to admit
of motion, the bones are connected one to another by means of
strong bands known as ligaments.
Locomotion is effected by means of muscles, which have usually
two separate attachments to bones, so that when they contract, they
become shorter and broader, and the points of attachment are thus
brought nearer.
Articulations.—The various bones that form the skeleton are
connected together in different ways : such connections are known as
joints or articulations.
FIG. 29.—Skull of elephant.
THE SKELETON.
63
In the skull we find the bones united by a dovetailed arrange¬
ment (sutures), the edges of the bones are serrated, the projections
of one bone fitting into depressions of the other, which are held
together by the periosteum (the membrane covering bone). In
joints such as these no motion is required.
The connection between bones in the spinal column is an
example of another form of joint. Here only a very limited amount
of motion is required, and we find that the contiguous surfaces of
the bones are connected by interposed cartilaginous tissue running
from one bone to the other.
And lastly, we have movable joints. In these joints we have
the surfaces of the extremities covered with a thin layer of cartilage,
or grizzle (a firm elastic substance of a bluish colour: it helps to
lessen friction, gives freedom to movement, and to diminish shock),
which is surrounded by a capsular ligament, and this is attached to
the edges of the articular surfaces. This ligament is lined by a
membrane which secretes synovia, a lubricating fluid commonly
called joint oil. The amount of motion permitted varies least in the
knees, and greatest in the ball and socket joints, as shoulder, hip.
Skull (see Figs. 29 and 30).—The construction of the skull
differs widely from that of most animals. The cranial much exceeds
the facial portion in size, its upper part forming an expanded dome,
the remainder being formed of bony cell structure (air sinuses),
FIG. 30.—Section of skull, after Owen.
64
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
which separate the outer from the inner table of the skull ; the
structure is so disposed as to afford great strength with little material.
During early life these cavities are small, but with age they increase
greatly.
The nasal bones are short, triangular, and pneumatic, forming
the lump or boss seen immediately above the root of the trunk.
The cavities or sinuses are broken up into numerous subdivisions by
irregular partitions, and are lined with a delicate membrane ; they
communicate freely with one another and with the nasal cavities, and
while their aggregate bulk constitutes a very considerable portion
of the skull, so very thin and light are they, that if a section be
made of that portion of the head which includes the greater portion
of them, it will be found to weigh from 8 to 11 lbs., whereas
that of the entire skull often exceeds 100 lbs. in weight. The
average weight of five skulls of male elephants was found to be
114 2/5 lbs. ; one of these, however, was an exceptionally large head,
weighing 175½ lbs., i.e., upper jaw 59 lbs., lower jaw 116½ lbs.
Owing to the peculiar structure of the skull referred to, a large
extent of bony surface is provided for the attachment of muscles,
without materially adding to the weight of the head, and by
means of the air contained in the sinuses the skull is rendered
buoyant, the animal being thus enabled to support the enormous
weight of the teeth and lower jaw. The large amount of
cell structure interposed between the outer and inner tables
of the skull affords such an important organ as the brain great
protection.
The bony nostrils are formed by the nasal and premaxillary bones ;
the nasal chambers are very short and vertical. The turbinal bones
situated within the nasal aperture are rudimentary, and it is here
that we find the apertures admitting air into the extensive air
chambers of the skull.
The lachrymal bone is small, protuberant, and imperforate.
The cavity in which the brain is lodged is situated low and far
back. The brain is oval in shape (see Fig. 31), and the division
between the large and small brain is vertical, i.e., they lie on a level
plane without overlapping. " The olfactory lobes from which the
nerves of smell proceed are large, whilst the nerve of sight and
muscular nerves of the muscles of the eye are singularly small for so
vast an animal ; and one is immediately struck by the prodigious
size of the nerve which supplies the proboscis with its exquisite
sensibility, as well as by the great size of the motor portion of the
nerve which supplies the same organ with its power of movement
and action."—(Emerson Tennent.)
In animals of ordinary size
the brain weighs from 15 to 17 lbs.
THE SKELETON.
65
The lower jaw is short, the ascending portion being almost as
large as the horizontal branch ; the junction between the two is
short and pointed. The dental canal is wide and excavated to
accommodate the enormous grinders and to afford space for the
formation and growth of the succeeding teeth.
Teeth : (Dentition.—2/0, c.—0/0, m.—6-6/6-6.)—The
teeth
are large, complex, and special in their mode of replacement.
Steel in his " Indian Veterinary Manual " gives an excellent
description of the process, which I take the liberty of quoting:
" Generally on each side of each jaw two or three teeth may be
seen ; the front one is small, often loose, and is sometimes shed,
because the growth of the second gradually cuts off the supply of
nutriment by compression of the fangs. The second or main tooth
consists of a number of subdivisions composed of dentine coated
by enamel, arranged in a linear series from before backwards.
All these are buried in an enormous bed of cementum, layers of
which are between each subdivision, and coating every part of the
surface, except the depressions for the pulp cavities and the table
or grinding surface of the tooth." In the Indian elephant the
enamel on the tables is arranged in transverse ridges. Only two
teeth as a rule can be seen on each side of the jaw ; these are
pushed out and replaced by others growing from behind. Many
male elephants possess tusks ; these are placed in the premaxillary
bone ; they grow from a persistent pulp.
The statement of Corse in " Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopædia "
with reference to the growth of the teeth, and quoted by Steel
("Indian Veterinary Manual,'' page 28), is most interesting: "The;
5
FIG. 31.—Brain of the elephant, showing origin of important nerves,
from J. Emerson Tennent.