NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
250
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Treatment.—Similar
to spasmodic colic, only that assafœtida in
doses from ½ to 2 ounces, and ginger 1 ounce, may be combined
with opium in lieu of other drugs ; or hyposulphite of soda in from
1 to 3-oz. doses mixed in a bucket of gruel or water may be given
every hour or two.
The bowels should be relieved by enemas (Formulae 80 and 81)
and when the attack has subsided a purgative should be given.
In all cases of colic attention must be paid to the water and fodder,
and if either be found indifferent the animal should be removed to
other pasture. After an attack of colic food should be given spar-
ingly for a few days and gruel only the day following the attack.
Tonics, nux vomica, iron, etc., may be given with advantage to
restore tone to the intestines.
If colic be not relieved early, the case may end fatally. Steel
records entanglement of the bowels as a cause of death. This is
usually brought about by the violent manner in which the animal
throws himself about when in acute pain.
ENTERITIS OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS.
Causes.—Obstruction,
severe constipation, neglected diarrhoea,
parasites, action of acrid plants or drugs, chills, etc. It is said to
be not infrequent in the hot season if elephants are fed largely on
the leaves and branches of the peepul, nyaung-bin (Ficus religiosa).
Symptoms.—During
the early stages some constipation and
passing of mucus or slime, later on diarrhoea with slime, belly-pains
which differ from ordinary colic in that the pain is continuous and
increases in intensity as the diseased condition of the bowel advances.
Distension of the abdomen is often a marked symptom. Fever is
always present, which at once distinguishes it from colic. The
respiration is quickened and the pulse very hard.
Prognosis.—Unfavourable,
frequently fatal.
Treatment: Preventive.—Consists
in attention to avoiding causes
noted above.
Curative : Local.—For the relief of pain as described under
that condition, i.e., fomentation, turpentine stupes, mustard plasters.
Occasional enemas of warm water may afford relief. Diarrhoea as
described under that condition.
General.—Opium in 2-dr. doses every two hours till 8 or 10
drachms has been administered ; it not only relieves the pain,
but keeps the bowels quiet, an important matter in this malady.
Chloral hydrate 4 drachms combined with the opium is more effica-
cious. Ganja is perhaps more useful than either. Messrs. Parke
PERITONITIS.
251
Davis & Co. prepare a most reliable fluid extract, and of this 6 to 8
drachms may be given, repeated as necessary. Plenty of linseed
gruel should be allowed, also stimulants. Purgatives must on no
account be given. If the animal recovers, bring him gradually on
to his full ration. No harm will be done by keeping him short till
he has quite recovered.
PERITONITIS.
Inflammation of the glistening membrane which lines the abdo-
minal cavity and is reflected over the bowels, etc.
Causes.—It may occur as an independent disease, due to exposure
to wet and cold, or resulting from inflammation or obstruction of the
bowels, but more commonly in elephants it is caused by punctured
wounds of the abdomen, the result of goring, or falling on sharp
stakes (septic peritonitis).
Symptoms.—Very
similar to those of obstruction just mentioned ;
high fever is an early sign.
Prognosis.—Unfavourable,
usually running a rapid and fatal
course.
Treatment—Must
be according to the symptoms and consists
in relieving pain as laid down under that condition. As the bowels
require perfect rest, enemas must not be used and food must be
given in the form of gruels only. Stimulants such as brandy, rum,
may be administered at intervals. Wounds must be carefully treated
as laid down under " Punctured wounds " (see page 181).
VOMITING AND CHOKING.
Though emetics appear to have no action on the elephant, vomit-
ing in a severe form is occasionally met with. Gilchrist and Hawkes
describe the condition, the cause being ascribed to washing an
animal immediately after coming off a journey when much heated.
In two cases of hæmorrhagic septicaemia vomiting of green matter
at intervals was observed.
Symptoms.—An elephant, apparently quite well, suddenly com-
mences to vomit freely ; great irritability of the stomach is manifested
by the animal being unable to retain liquids or solids for some
hours after the commencement of the attack. When the irritability
subsides, the animal will take food, but after swallowing the pellet
it may become impacted in the gullet and soon after even the
power of swallowing is lost. A lump may sometimes be felt in the
252
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
neck indicating the seat of the impaction. There is great distress
and the condition is accompanied by hiccough. It may occur at
any season of the year.
Prognosis.—Unfavourable
unless relief is promptly afforded ;
death ensues in from three to four days. For some hours previous
to death the surface of the body is extremely cold.
Treatment.—All solid food should be withheld until the animal
is well over the attack, after which small quantities may be given
sparingly care being taken to watch for any symptoms of difficulty
in swallowing ; plenty of well-boiled rice or gruel may be given
after the acute symptoms have subsided.
To try and allay the vomiting, the following may prove bene-
ficial :—
Subnitrate of bismuth
Bicarbonate of soda
...
...
...
...
4 drs.
4 drs.
Mix with honey ; a little should be rubbed into the mouth
every half hour.
Extract of belladonna 2 drachms rubbed down in glycerine and
mixed with a few ounces of treacle may be given in a similar
manner.
If the animal can drink, half an ounce of bicarbonate of soda may
be added to a bucket of water and repeated in a few hours.
Should an obstruction be observed in the neck, the hands must be
well oiled and the swelling gently massaged or manipulated from
above downwards in the hope of facilitating its onward progress.
When the animal is better, enemas may be employed to relieve the
bowels and several days' rest allowed.
On post-mortem examination the gullet is usually found in a
state of mortification in the region of the impaction ; in some cases
it was found impacted throughout its extent and in two cases
the other organs of the body were in a healthy condition (see
Appendix G).
POISONING.
As is well known, Kachins, Karens and other hill tribes are in
the habit of using the bark of certain creepers, chiefly hôn (
,
Coculus indicus), Gôn-nyin (
, Entada scdndens) and Mahaga
(
) for stupefying fishes. It has been suggested on more
than one occasion that elephants drinking water from pools where
fishing operations have been carried on may be poisoned. This
I consider is highly improbable, as from what I have seen the
majority of fishes are merely stupefied and come to the surface where
POISONING.
253
they are picked up. If these creepers were poisonous to men and
animals the people would be more careful about polluting water not
far from villages.
Steel records some very interesting cases of wholesale poisoning
of elephants in India by means of the poisonous Nepaul root called
darka (Aconite ?) being given in balls of grain or other delicacies,
of which these animals are fond. In this province I have never heard
of tame or wild elephants being intentionally poisoned. We must
nevertheless be on our guard as such a thing is possible. Many
poisonous drugs are administered by mahouts in the treatment of
elephants ; an overdose might be given through ignorance" or care-
lessness, or by accident. Elephants are very particular as regards
the selection of their food ; still a case of poisoning might occur.
In two cases where animals died rather suddenly, arsenic was
detected in the contents of the stomach by the Chemical Examiner.
I have little doubt that these animals were being treated by the
mahouts with bazaar arsenic, which is often very impure.
The symptoms manifested which might lead us to suspect poison-
ing are that they occur suddenly, generally while an elephant is in
perfect health. As a rule, they arise soon after food has been taken
or medicine administered. If more than one animal is taken ill
after food or medicine and all suffer from similar symptoms,
poisoning may reasonably be suspected.
The poisons we might have to deal with are those employed in
treatment, such as arsenic, opium, belladonna, croton beans or
croton oil, ganja, dhatura, nux vomica, metallic salts.
For the treatment of poisons antidotes are administered ; they
act in two ways, either by mechanically preventing the action of
the poison or counteracting its effect.
Poisons and their Antidotes.
POISONS.
ANTIDOTS.
Arsenic
...
...
Aconite ... ...
Opium
...
...
Belladonna
......
Croton beans or oil...
Ganja......
Preparations of magnesia.
Tannic acid, and animal charcoal.
Dashing cold water over the body, stimu-
lants ; endeavour to keep the animal
moving about.
Permanganate of
potash.
Keep the animal moving about ; give lime-
water and stimulants ; dash cold water
over the body.
Demulcent drinks ; stimulants, and opium
to relieve pain and check the purging.
Stimulants ; keep the animal moving
about.
254
A
TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
POISONS.
ANTIDOTES.
Nux vomica or strychnia
Tobacco ...
Metallic salts ...
Acids ...
Carbolic acid ...
... Bromide of potassium ; weak decoction of
tobacco.
... Warm stimulants, tannic acid, and small
doses of strychnia.
... Steel states that "the formation of tumours
over the body, progressive anaemia and
even disorders of the feet have been
attributed to the empirical use of the
compounds of mercury in too large
quantities."
Plenty of white of eggs, wheaten flour
conjee, and other demulcent drinks.
... Alkalies, such as carbonate or bicarbo-
nate of soda or potash.
... White of eggs, demulcent drinks, stimu-
lants.
The dose of poison may be so large that treatment is of little
avail. Antidotes are not always procurable in time to be of service ;
again the elephant is, especially when in pain, an awkward animal to
give drugs to, and such things as inhalation of ammonia are impossible.
If a death occurs under suspicious circumstances, a post-mortem
should be held, notes taken, and some of the contents of the stomach
and commencement of the small intestine, small piece of liver and
kidney should be placed in clean jars with some spirit, sealed with
a private seal by some responsible person and despatched without
delay to the Chemical Examiner, who will readily aid and give his
opinion on the case.
MOOKUNDA
Is an affection described by various authors as a result of permit-
ting an elephant to have his ration of rice during the period he is
eating earth as a remedy for worms.
Symptoms.—Swelling
of the abdomen accompanied by pain
and restlessness ; the animal appears dull and listless ; the surface of
the body is cold. There is no diarrhoea.
Treatment.—Bowels
to be kept regular with mild laxatives.
Diet should be fresh green fodder and gruel. All grain should be
withheld. Later, tonics especially preparations of arsenic and iron
may be tried.
CHAPTER
XIII
DISEASES AFFECTING THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.
INFLAMMATION OF THE LINING MEMBRANE OF THE CAVITIES IN
THE BONES OF THE SKULL.
Causes.—Prolonged exposure to the sun, injuries to the forehead
and bullet wounds. Steel remarks that it may be due to the
extension of inflammation in consequence of the intimate vascular
connection through the bones between the skin on the forehead and
this lining membrane. Gilchrist gives as causes the exhibition of
stimulating mussauls to elephants who work much in the sun, and
to sudden cooling of the body by taking a heated animal into
water.
Symptoms.—These
are not very evident, but the history of the
case will assist. The skin on the forehead may become sore and
ulcerated and later the bone may become diseased ; there may be
considerable excitement and delirium.
Treatment.—Keep
in a cool quiet place. Fetter carefully, give
a dose of physic. If the head be injured, fomentations may be
applied ; the wounds should be kept clean and dressed regularly ;
should matter form, it must be given exit. In the cases resulting
from exposure to the sun, cold cloths frequently applied may afford
much relief. Cooling medicines, such as tamarind pulp, epsom salts,
may be given with advantage. Green food should be given in
moderate quantities.
CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES.
The brain and the membranes covering it are intimately con-
nected, and it is a difficult matter to distinguish between congestion
of either separately ; hence it is best to consider them together.
Causes.—The more common causes of congestion are prolonged
work, fatigue and exposure in the sun, extension of inflammation
from the membranes lining the air cavities in the bones of the head,
acute indigestion the result of high feeding, insufficient exercise,
and frequent use of stimulating mussauls.
Symptoms.—Fever
with its attendant signs noted under that
condition. The animal appears stupid and sleepy or giddy, and may
256
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
stagger in his walk. In the later stages other symptoms may become
pronounced, notably excitement. The animal may become violent
and then fall down in a fit of convulsions ; after several fits and
much struggling the animal becomes comatose and death follows.
Treatment.—Owing to the violence and risks entailed in approach-
ing animals in this state, treatment is dangerous; if it can be managed,
a smart dose of physic, such as croton oil, should be administered.
When possible, constant application of crushed ice or cold water to
the head is most beneficial. In mild cases chloral and bromide of
potash may be tried.
Plenty of gruel or fresh water should be kept near the standing,
to which a little nitre (4 to 6 drachms) may be added.
APOPLEXY OF THE BRAIN.
A condition characterized by a sudden loss of motion and
consciousness.
Causes.—Rupture of a blood-vessel of the brain, resulting in the
escape of blood upon or within that organ. In old animals degenera-
tion of the vessels may predispose to rupture, which may be
actually brought about by violent or prolonged exertion. Apoplexy
may occur during a severe attack of congestion of the brain.
Symptoms.—There
may be no symptoms ; the animal suddenly
drops and becomes comatose.
Death results from the effects of pressure on the brain from the
initial quantity of escaped blood, or from a fresh haemorrhage.
Some cases recover, but it is a slow process and not infrequently
some form of paralysis supervenes.
Treatment.—Cold
to the head; bleeding (see page 171).
Should the animal recover, care must be taken not to expose
him. Stimulating mussauls or stimulants should on no account be
given.
PARAPLEGIA.
Paralysis of the posterior portion of the body, though common
enough amongst mules and ponies under the name of kumree,
" windstroke," " gone in the loins," is distinctly rare among
elephants. It is met with, however, in some cases of infectious fevers
and as a result of a severe chill.
Causes.—Altered
conditions of the blood as in anthrax and
kindred fevers, cold and wet, injuries to the spine by falls.
PARALYSIS.
257
Symptoms.—A difficulty of movement, swaying and dragging of
the hind-quarters and loss of power in them. The animal may fall
and if he does is often unable to rise again.
Treatment.—Give a smart dose of physic ; fomentations to the
loins to which extract belladonna or ganja may be added should be
applied. Blistering the loins (see Formulæ 54 to 56). Belladonna
internally 2 drachms twice a day, and later tonics, such as nux
vomica and iron, arsenic (see Formulæ 39 to 46). Iodide of potas-
sium, 2 drachms twice a day, may in time bring about recovery.
The rectum should be emptied by hand when necessary.
REFLEX PARALYSIS
Is a similar condition to the last, but brought about by causes
not affecting the spine directly, but indirectly through nerves con-
necting it with remote parts. Severe constipation, worms and
indigestion may produce this condition, which is usually trifling and
amenable to treatment directed to the removal of its cause. Should
the condition not be better in a week or so, advantage may be
derived from the application of a blister to the loins and its subse-
quent repetition if necessary. Tonics, especially nux vomica and
arsenic, are useful.
PARALYSIS OF THE TRUNK.
Loss of power in this important organ must necessarily lead to
starvation, unless special means are taken to ensure the affected
animal being hand-fed, and also that he be taken to water deep
enough to enable him to drink with his mouth.
Causes.—Paralysis may be met with in cases of advanced debi-
lity, or come on as a complication of sunstroke or apoplexy. It is
clear that the most humane way of dealing with such a case is to
destroy the animal.
Treatment.—If it is decided to treat the case, it will be neces-
sary to see that the animal receives ample nourishment and tonics,
such as nux vomica, arsenic, sulphate of iron (Formulae 39 to 46).
PARALYSIS OF THE FLAP
OF
THE
EARS.
Causes—Seen in some cases of advanced debility.
Symptoms.—The ears droop downwards and forwards and are
immobile.
Treatment.—As in the last.
17
258
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
SUNSTROKE.
This term is applied to a condition usually brought about by
exposure to great heat and glare.
Sunstroke in the elephant may be divided as follows :—
(a) Heat exhaustion, due to the direct action of the rays of
the sun upon the brain ; and
(b) Heat stroke, or heat apoplexy.
HEAT EXHAUSTION.
Causes.—Cases of heat exhaustion are of frequent occurrence,
the usual cause being over-exertion in great heat. These creatures,
by nature nocturnal in their habits, stand prolonged exposure to the
sun very badly. The condition generally occurs in animals that are
well fed but irregularly worked, and then suddenly called on to do
a long march in the heat of the day, and in weakly animals when
subjected to long exposure, or in those that are of a nervous or
excitable temperament. The digestive system when out of order
tends to increase the susceptibility.
Symptoms.—The symptoms usually come on towards the close
of a trying hot march. There is evident distress and dulness ; the
animal is fatigued, and slows down in his pace ; the breathing is hurried
and the ears droop ; the trunk is lax and not swung about freely ; if
these symptoms escape notice, the prostration increases until the
animal more or less suddenly falls down in a faint. The temperature
may be subnormal. These cases are met with most frequently when
the atmosphere is moist, oppressive and still.
Treatment.—Immediately
remove the load and gear. Dash cold
water if possible from a height for some time over the head, neck,
chest and along the spine ; if lying in the sun, run up a single or
double tarpaulin as an awning to afford shade, but not so as to
impede free circulation of air ; for the same reason, men should not
be allowed to crowd around. Wash the face, head and trunk with
cold water and sponge out the mouth and lips with weak vinegar
and water or plain water. The head and face should be fanned if
there is no breeze ; a weak solution of ammonia, if any be handy,
poured on to a wet cloth, which may be thrown or placed on a
bamboo near orifices of the trunk, may prove beneficial. In mild
cases, after a little time the animal pulls round and will drink some
water if presented ; when he gets up he should be kept in shade.
A full dose of physic may be given with advantage. Clean fresh
grass in moderation should be allowed ; it is better to reduce the
HEAT APOPLEXY.
259
ration for some clays. Whenever possible, arrangements should be
made for the load and gear to be taken into camp. After a rest of
from thirty-six to forty-eight hours, he may during the cool hours of
the morning or late evening be quietly taken to camp. Great
care, however, must be taken to avoid subjecting the elephant to
exposure to sun for a considerable time afterwards.
Death may occur quite suddenly from failure of the action of the
heart.
HEAT APOPLEXY OR HEAT-STROKE.
The symptoms are similar to those met with in heat exhaustion,
but the ' animal may be somewhat excited ; he staggers about,
trembles all over, breathes very hurriedly and finally falls down in a
more or less unconscious state. In some cases there may be
symptoms of delirium ending in convulsions, great difficulty in
breathing, coma and death. The temperature ranges high.
Causes.—Heat apoplexy may occur either while an elephant is
idle, in the shade or at work. In many cases the animal if examined
beforehand would probably have been found feverish and out of
sorts ; if worked in this condition, he shows weariness and fatigue,
the temperature may rise to such an extent as to bring about a
stroke.
Treatment : Preventive.—Do
not permit elephants to be worked
in the sun during the clay in the hot weather, i.e., between the hours
of ten and half-past three. If work has to be performed during these
hours, the head should be protected by a quilted cotton pad.
Frequent rests are desirable and the animals permitted to take water
in small quantities occasionally. It may even be advisable, on a
long march, to halt the animals two or three times and relieve them
of their loads, allowing a rest for three-quarters of an hour. Before
being sent on the march or put to work, it is a good plan to have
every animal carefully inspected ; any showing symptoms of fatigue
or ill health should on no account be sent out. On the march some
person ought to be held responsible to look after the elephants while
travelling ; should any show signs of distress, evidenced by slowing
clown, staggering in their gait or trembling, they should be halted
(in the shade if possible) without delay, the load and gear quickly
removed and cold water dashed over the head and spine ; even if
relieved by these means, they should not be permitted to proceed on
the journey till the evening or early next morning.
One attack predisposes the animal to another ; therefore every
care ought to be taken to avoid causes calculated to induce a recur-
rence.
260
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Curative.—As in exhaustion, crushed ice if procurable should be
applied to the head and spine ; if not, continuous cold water appli-
cations. The state of the temperature of the body ought to be noted
at intervals. The patient may recover, but restoration to health
is very slow, and not infrequently paralysis in some form may
develop. Tonics are useful during convalescence.
Death may result in a few hours from failure of the action of the
heart, suffocation or from exhaustion following on the intense heat
and consequent failure of the vital powers of the body.
LIGHTNING-STROKE.
On one or two occasions elephants have been struck by lightning
and killed. The effects of lightning naturally vary with the inten-
sity of the flash : strong shocks result in immediate death by paralysis
of the nervous system, while weaker ones produce unconsciousness
and temporary paralysis. In many cases large or small areas of skin
are burned.