NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
THE EYE.
155
seeing that these men take their animals to good grazing grounds,
that they give them their salt, flour, or grain ration, that they are
washed and groomed, and not tethered in the sun or overworked, the
elephants would keep in better health.
In the human subject, the eyes are often affected in general bad
health. In fact Nettleship remarks that "Ulcers of the cornea are
" so often a sign of bad health that we ought never to neglect such
" means as may be called for to improve the general condition."
(Diseases of the eye, page 32). There are very many ailments also
in which changes of the eye occur as part of a general disease.
From what has been said it will be admitted that the treatment
of eye diseases should not at any rate be entrusted to mahouts.
What I particularly desire to impress on those who have charge
of elephants is, the importance of not leaving the treatment of the
animals in the hands of the attendants. Remember that affec-
tions of the eye often depend on more than local causes; endeavour
to ascertain them, and, if found to be not purely local, attention
must be paid not only to treating the eyes, but to the general state
of the health. So important is this subject, that Macnamara,
writing of ulceration of the cornea in the human subject, says : "In
" most cases, instances of ulceration (excepting traumatic cases, or
" those depending on conjunctivitis), the patient's general health will
" be found at fault; in no affection of the eye is it more necessary
" to attack the disease by improving the assimilative and nutritive
" functions of the body, and as a general rule a tonic and supporting
" plan of treatment is demanded. Iron and quinine, good food, clean-
" liness, and fresh air are the fundamental requisites for the cure of
" almost all instances of ulceration of the cornea, whether they be of
" the sthenic or asthenic type. One frequently sees cases of ulcera-
" tion of the cornea which resist all treatment, but which rapidly im-
" prove if the patient is sent to the sea-side, or, still better, for a
" voyage to sea." (Diseases of the eye, page 209.) I have quoted
this at length, as it has such a practical bearing with regard to ele-
phants, except perhaps the change to the sea-side, or a voyage ; but
a change to their jungles, and a free life for a time, will prove as
beneficial to them as a change to the sea-side for a human being.
Certain precautions are necessary in the treatment of diseases of
the eye. Nitrate of silver (lunar caustic), and sulphate of copper
(blue-stone) should never be employed in the solid form as irreparable
damage may result from the application of such strong caustics. If
it is desired to employ them, very weak solutions only should be used.
Absolute cleanliness is imperative : attendants dressing eyes with
filthy hands and with rags still more filthy should not be tolerated.
For the purpose of wiping the eye, there is nothing better than old
156
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
soft linen, or lint, which should be cut into small pieces and used
as required. After use, the soiled pieces should be buried or burned,
in order that flies should not rest on them and thus, if an affection
be contagious, carry it to other animals. In fact it is a sound rule
never to use pieces of lint, cloth, or sponges a second time. Natives
have no idea of the importance of cleanliness in these diseases, and
will wipe the eyes with filthy rags, will even drop them on the ground,
and use them immediately after.
Elephants are often unusually nervous when their eyes are sore.
When it is desired to examine the eyes, the keeper should always be
present, the animal's attention diverted as much as possible by feed-
ing him with some favourite food. The medicine must be made up
and the mahout given careful instructions how to use it 5 a responsi-
ble person should be present to see the eye dressed.
Elephants with impaired vision or those whose sight is lost should
be approached with great caution ; they should be spoken to and
given the wind, otherwise if approached quietly and the wind be
not in their favour, even a quiet creature might through sudden fear
cause serious damage. It is almost useless for a stranger to try and
dress an elephant's eyes ; the keeper alone is generally the only
person who can do this.
Elephants will not as a rule permit much handling of their eyes as
on the least interference they bring the nictitating membrane into
play. The best thing is to get as good a view as possible without
touching. When examining an eye the attention may be attracted
by some one on the opposite side.
Considerable experience has proved to me that with patience and
care excellent results can be obtained by treatment.
During the hot season, if elephants are tethered in the glare of
the sun, it is a good plan to cover the forehead and eyes with a cloth
frequently wetted, or a shade.
The eye in health.—The eye of the elephant resembles that of
other animals. The visible portion consists of a transparent convex
disc like a watch glass, called the cornea, behind which is the coloured
portion of the eye (iris), which is usually brown, and centrally the
pupil, which is jet black and round.
The eyelids furnished with eyelashes blink every few seconds and
a slight watery discharge flows over the cheek. The diseases do
not vary from those in other animals.
The following departures from the above indicate present or past
disease, namely,—
(a) frequent blinking;
(b) abnormal discharge, either watery or turbid;
OPHTHALMIA, OR SORE-EYES, &C.
157
(c) haziness or opalescence of the pupil;
(d) opalescence of the cornea ;
(e) undue redness seen when the lids are separated;
(f) blindness, partial or complete.
Ophthalmia, or sore-eyes.
Causes.— Undue exposure to the glare of the sun, irritation from
cold winds, smoke, dust, grass seeds, &c, and injury from bites of
insects, blows, or abrasions, eating to excess the leaves, boughs
of the peepul (Ficus religiosa, nyaungbin), contagion from another
animal.
The condition may affect one or both eyes.
Symptoms.—When lids are separated, excessive redness, swollen
eyelids, frequent blinking, and a tendency to keep the eyes closed,
increased secretion (at first watery, later turbid), obvious pain and
discomfort.
Treatment: Local.—Protect the animal as much as possible from
strong light, put a shade on to exclude dust and flies; these can be
made with a dark cloth, Chinese matting painted green, plantain
leaves. I have never found an elephant object to such shades.
For the relief of pain hot fomentations frequently applied, to which
may be added extract of belladonna 1 to 1½ drachms to a pint of
water (Appendix 94), or the extract alone rubbed down in glycerine
(Appendix 95), may be smeared round the eye. As the discharges
run over the cheek they may produce soreness, and to prevent this
the parts below the eye should be smeared with sweet oil or vaseline.
Eye washes (Appendix 89 to 93).
General.—Consists of plenty of good food and tonics (Appendix
Nos. 39 to 46).
Inflammation of the cornea.
The cornea is the transparent disc like a watch glass in front of
the eye, through which the colour of the eye and pupil can be seen.
In health it is perfectly transparent and its surface smooth and
glistening, so that it reflects objects like a mirror.
Causes.—A low state of health as in advanced debility, blows,
injuries, or wounds of the cornea caused by the entrance of foreign
bodies, or abrasions, such as might occur when moving through
jungle.
Symptoms.—The same as in ophthalmia, with the addition of
dimness, loss of polish and transparency ; the cornea may appear
158
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
like ground glass or be quite milky; this cloudiness is due to infiltra-
tion and exudation into the substance of the cornea and is not due
to the growth of a film over it as is frequently supposed; hence the
futility and cruelty of blowing in such materials as powdered glass,
lunar caustic, &c., for its removal.
Treatment.—Same as in ophthalmia.
Ulceration of the cornea.
Ulcers may occur in this structure as in other parts, and by a
careful scrutiny will be recognized by the presence of a pit or lack
of substance on the surface; these may be pin point, but are usually
larger; at the particular spot the reflection of objects is found to be
lost. Under proper treatment this should resolve and the cornea in
course of time regain its original transparency, but it often happens
that a scar persists, shown by an opacity which may be permanent.
The symptoms leading to a suspicion of the presence of ulcera-
tion are similar to those manifested in ophthalmia and the treat-
ment identical. When the ulcer has healed and an opacity is left,
calomel on a camel's hair brush should be flicked into the eye once
daily to hasten absorption (Appendix No. 97); or a small portion
(about size of a split pea or hemp seed) of yellow oxide of mercury
ointment (No. 96) inserted under the lid once daily may prove bene-
ficial.
Opacity of the cornea.
Is sometimes seen in old age ; it is generally observed around the
margin of the cornea, appearing as a faint milky ring.
Treatment.—Nil.
Staphyloma, or the "mothea beenj" of natives of India.
Is applied to a bulging resembling a small blister on the surface
of the cornea.
Causes.—Ulceration. Occasionally an ulcer eats its way deeply
into the substance of the cornea which may become so thinned that
the pressure of fluid within the eye bulges the floor of the ulcer
forwards.
Symptoms.—In addition to the bulging, which is a sequel to an
ulcer, there is impaired vision; owing to movements of the lids this
blister may rupture and fluid from the eye escape, but this is never-
CATARACT.
159
theless a remediable condition and the eye may regain its usual ap-
pearance and function with proper care.
Treatment.—As already laid down in ophthalmia. It is neces-
sary, whether pain be present or absent, to smear extract of bella-
donna around the eye.
Cataract.
This term is applied to an opacity of the lens (which is a trans-
parent body situated behind the pupil and invisible) and not as is
often supposed to opacity of the cornea, the condition last referred
to.
Causes.—Blows on the eye, and changes consequent upon old age.
Symptoms.—There is partial or complete blindness, attraction to
which is drawn by peculiar behaviour of the animal. If the eye is
carefully inspected in these cases, the only change likely to be seen
is an opalescence or haziness of the pupil, replacing the jet black
normal appearance. They generally develop slowly (months or even
years), but, when due to severe blows or injuries of the eye, may ap-
pear in a few days. They tend to culminate in complete blindness.
As a rule the cornea is quite clear, but, should there be opacity, it is
independent of the cataract.
Treatment.
Nil.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE TEMPORAL GLANDS-CONGESTION OF THE TEMPORAL GLANDS OR "MUSTH"-IN-
FLAMMATION OF TEMPORAL GLANDS.
The temporal glands.
THESE well-known glands called kapool by natives of India
are two in number, and are situated one on each side, about midway
between the eye and ear-hole. Their ducts open on the skin in this
region. The glands are usually inactive. They are analogous to
the glands in deer, which open into pits seen under the eyes and to
the gland on the back of the head of camels.
Congestion of the temporal glands or "musth."
Male elephants and very rarely females, on attaining maturity, are
subject to peculiar periodical paroxysms of excitement, which seem
to have some connection with the sexual functions to which the name
"musth" is applied by the natives of India and mon-kya-ihi
(
) by the Burmans. It is probably analogous to the
"rut" in deer.
Causes.—It occurs both in wild and tame animals and in the
latter is more often met with in highly fed, pampered beasts that
receive insufficient exercise. It occurs most frequently in the cold
season and may perhaps be due to ungratified sexual desire in some
cases, but not always so, since the society of a female by no means
always quells or even pacifies animals in musth. At other times
an animal in musth undoubtedly seeks a mate of the opposite sex.
Symptoms.—"Musth" occurs frequently in some beasts, seldom
in others, so that the intervals are variable in different animals, and
in the same manner so are the symptoms. More or less excite-
ment is usual, but on the other hand some elephants become dull
and morose. The behaviour changes, shown by disobedience to
commands, trying to break away, or showing violence to man or
destructive tendencies, or being altogether out of sorts. The tem-
ples become puffy, due to swelling of the temporal glands which lie
beneath the skin, and at this stage is called by many mahouts
Kherr Musth; later an oily discharge exudes from the hole or duct of
INFLAMMATION OF THE TEMPORAL GLANDS.
161
over the gland, which is then called musth by the natives. When
"musth" is established there is often a partial retention of urine, the
water dribbling away. As soon, however, as the urine is passed freely
the natives consider the dangerous stage over, irrespective of the
amount of discharge from the glands.
The attack may last a few days, weeks, or months.
Treatment.—On the first signs being evinced, the animal should
be speedly removed from the vicinity of habitations and very
securely fettered (extra chains being employed). Should he escape
or show violence before being fettered, if possible give a dose of
opium or ganja mixed up with plantains, jaggery, or sweetened rice.
It is as well to bring in the aid of a couple of heavy tuskers, if very
troublesome, to assist in effecting one's object. Once fettered, a fe-
male should be tethered not far from him, but in case this enrages
him, she must be removed. Foresters generally have some females
loose with males when out grazing as a precaution, lest an animal
becoming musth should stray away in search of such companion-
ship and be lost as they occasionally are.
Grain must be entirely withheld, and green food only given in
small quantities for several days. To calm the excitement, drugs
are generally necessary, and the best of these in the early stage is
a strong purgative (Appendix 29 to 38), also in the early stages
opium, or ganja 4 to 6 drachms, given mixed with boiled rice,
plantains, or jaggery, or—
Camphor
Opium
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
3 drachms.
2 drachms.
Twice a day for two days, or—
Wheat flour
Onions
Sugar
Ghee
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
8 pounds.
8 pounds.
8 pounds.
4 pounds.
Mix and make into pills the size of an orange, and give one night and
morning till the whole is taken (Hawkes). I can most strongly
recommend the use of bromide of potash in doses from ½ to ¾ of an
ounce once or even twice daily. If this drug is given in the early
stages, so much the better. I have records of most troublesome
animals, that had always to be securely fettered during "musth,"
under this treatment carry on their work as usual.
Inflammation of the temporal glands.
Causes.—Sometimes the unusual congestion of these glands dur-
ing the period of "musth" runs on to inflammation, especially when
musth has been prolonged.
21
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A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Symptoms.—The temples become hot, tender, painful, and much
swollen, and even an abscess may form.
Treatment.—At first a smart purge and hot fomentations ; later,
if matter forms, it should be evacuated by incision. The skin be-
low must be smeared with oil or vaseline to prevent the discharges
irritating the skin and making it sore.
CHAPTER XV.
THE SKIN-INFLAMMATION OF THE SKIN-ABRASIONS-WOUNDS-ULCERS AND SPECIAL
SORES-CRACKED SOLE-CRACKED HEELS-ULCERATION OF FOREHEAD—ULCERATION OF
THE EAR-ULCERATION OF THE TAIL—ABSCESS (PURULENT)-ABSCESS IN THE FOOT-
ABSCESS (SEROUS)-BOILS—WARTY GROWTHS AROUND THE NAILS-INGROWING AND
OVERGROWN NAILS-MOISTURE AROUND AND UNDER THE NAILS-ECZEMA-URTICARIA
(NETTLE-RASH)-PITYRIASIS (SCURF)-EXTERNAL PARASITES-TENDER FEET-INFLAM-
MATION OF THE FEET.
The skin.
THE functions of the skin are many. In the first place it
affords a protective covering to the tissues which build up the
structure of the body.
As before remarked, though the skin is very thick, it is extremely
sensitive. It is owing to this thickness that abscesses do not readily
come to a head and burst.
In health the temperature of the skin is of a uniformly even warmth ;
it is free from scurf, dark in colour, and pliable to the touch. Embed-
ded within its substance are various organs with special functions to
perform.
(1) Hairs.—These are bristly in character, stiff to the touch, and
firmly rooted, and are more abundant in certain localities. In the
adult they are numerous on the forehead, lower lip, upper lip, orifices
of the ears, and end of the tail. On the latter they are larger and
stiffer in character, and grow from the anterior and posterior borders
and tip, extending much higher up on the anterior, where they are
usually longer. Young elephants usually have much more hair about
them than adults.
(2) Nails are horny in appearance, of a yellowish horn colour,
smooth, and, when clean, glossy. They contribute towards the for-
mation of the foot-pad, they are firmly embedded, not tender, and
there is usually a slight moist exudation of an oily character around
the tops, readily discovered by throwing a little dust over that
region; they should not readily split or break.
(3) Sweat glands,—Small glands are situated in the skin
whose function it is to secrete sweat, which by evaporation assists
in regulating an equable temperature of the body. This secretion
however, is slight, and best seen after removal of pack-gear.
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A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
(4) Nerves.—These terminate in special organs in the skin, by
whose agency the animal is able to appreciate various sensations,
such as touch, cold, heat, and pain.
Any departures from the above may point to disease, namely,—
(a) Hairs may be unduly soft, easily removed, or are often
shed, especially those of the tail.
(b) Nails may be soft, cracked or broken, overgrown,
rough or rugged, and an excessive discharge may be
seen around or beneath them.
(c) In parts there may be local tenderness.
(d) Scurfiness, harshness, and unusual dryness.
(e) Temperature may be uneven, or variable.
(f) Cracks, sores, or eruptions.
(g) Swellings, which may be localized such as in abscesses,
or diffused as in dropsies, when the skin is distended,
shown by a partial or complete effacement of the
wrinkles, and doughiness.
(h) Parasites, as ticks, lice, &c.
Inflammation of the skin.
The skin in common with other structures is liable to become
congested and inflamed. This may merely be superficial, affecting
the surface of the skin, called abrasion, or deep affecting the deeper
layers, or subjacent tissues as abscess, and both will necessarily vary
in extent.
Abrasions, or galls.
Consist of local breaches of the surface, due to friction.
Causes.—Most commonly seen as a result of chafing, of ill fit-
ting gear, gear ropes and chains, or fettering, or tethering chains,
or dirt.
Severe galls may be met with on the legs, especially amongst
recently captured animals. The raw hide thongs by which the legs
are tied together, are often drawn too tight, the parts swell, and the
thongs cut deep into the flesh. These animals, in trying to get free,
strain and twist themselves about to such an extent as to cause
nasty cuts with ropes and chains. They are sometimes due to
carelessness. Yards of chain are coiled round a leg and the ele-
phant set free to graze ; if not removed regularly, or changed oc-
acsionally to another limb, dirt, sand, work in, cause friction and
soreness of the skin, which, if not attended to, may lead to nasty
sores.
ABRASIONS, OR GALLS.
165
The irritation which has been sufficient to produce an abrasion is
often sufficient to produce engorgement of the deeper lying parts,
which will be found swollen, hot, and tender. This condition is seen
usually on the back and is the result of a badly adjusted or heavy
load.
The abraded surface is frequently very much smaller than the
underlying swelling of the tissues. If this is not immediately attend-
ed to, the animal entirely rested, and the abrasion carefully dressed,
there is every likelihood of the swelling increasing and becoming an
abscess, or the abraded surface, which really represents superficial
destruction of the skin, may die or slough so as to incorporate the
whole thickness of the skin (forming the condition familiarly known
in horses as "sitfast"), the slough on separating leaving a hole.
Treatment: Preventive.—Consists of cleanliness both of the
skin and the gear with appliances. The gear should always be the
best made, as cheap materials are notoriously provocative of chafes
and galls. It should always be carefully fitted and adjusted and fre-
quent inspection of the gear and appliances during work and read just-
ment of loads, gear, when necessary must be enforced. After
work, when the gear is removed, careful inspection for chafes
should be instituted. Mahouts from malice sometimes place foreign
bodies, such as stones, under the guddela, with the intention of
laying up an animal, and as before remarked under pack-gear. Some
mahouts from ignorance or thoughtlessness stow away spare chains,
into the space of the guddee, which when placed on the guddela
forms a convenient receptacle. This is a serious malpractice. To
sum up, all preventive treatment consists in thorough supervision.
Curative.—Rest so far as it will remove the offending agent is
imperative, by which I mean should there be a crupper gall, and he
can be worked without the crupper, no harm need arise. The raw
surface, however small or apparently trifling, must be at once attended
to and dusting powders, ointment, applied (see Appendix 64 to 69
and 125 to 129).
Should the abrasion be situated on a swollen base, cold applica-
tions must be frequently applied night and day or in the form of
cooling lotions (see Appendix 103 to 106) to try and check the condi-
tion running on to abscess, but should there be no reduction of heat,
pain, and swelling within three days, hot continuous fomentations
must be substituted to hasten the formation of matter which it may
be taken is certain to be forming. These hot fomentations will also
assist in hastening the detachment of any dead tissues should there
be sloughing. Those parts where fetters, &c., are applied for tether-
ing purposes are liable to chafes and galls; when this occurs, they
must be placed on other limbs.