NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
66
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
first set of grinders or milk-teeth are not shed, but are gradually
worn away during the time the second set are coming forward ; and
as soon as the body of the grinder is nearly worn away, the fangs
begin to be absorbed. From the end of the second to the begin¬
ning of the sixth year the third set come gradually forward as the
jaw lengthens, not only to fill up this additional space, but also to
supply the place of the second set, which are during the same
period gradually worn away and have their fangs absorbed. From
the beginning of the sixth to the end of the ninth year the fourth set
of grinders come forward to supply the gradual waste of the third set.
In this manner to the end of life the elephant obtains a set of new
teeth as the old ones become unfit for the mastication of his food.
The milk-grinders consist each of 4 teeth or laminae ; the second set
of grinders of 8 or 9 laminae ; the third set of 12 or 13; the fourth
set of 15, and so on, to the seventh or eighth set, when each grinder
consists of 22 or 23 ; and it may be added that each succeeding
grinder takes at least a year more than its predecessor to be
completed."
Not more than one or portions of two on each side of each jaw
come into wear at once ; they come into use successively from behind,
and as they wear out are shed in front.
The term "tush" is applied to the small tusks of females and
some males, though the latter ordinarily carry the large teeth known
familiarly as " tusks." Tusks and tushes are simple teeth found
in the upper jaw embedded in deep bonv sockets, the pulp cavity (in
young elephants) extending into them for a considerable distance ;
but in aged animals the cavities are much diminished in size. On
removing a tusk the pulp which resembles a large conical-shaped
sausage may be taken from the cavity without trouble. The Burmans
prize the pulp, as it is considered a specific for some disease.
With regard to the tushes, Steel states: ''The tushes afford
indications of age appreciable to natives. Sanderson erroneously
affirms they are never renewed or shed. They vary much in
different varieties, and no doubt his remark applies to some ; how¬
ever, in others the milk tusks are shed between one and two years
of age and replaced by the permanent ones which often attain
70 lbs. weight in the male." Sanderson, page 67, says:
"The
tusks of the male elephant-calf show almost from birth. I believe
that they are never renewed, and that the first tusks are permanent.
In many works on the elephant it is stated that the first tusks are
shed before the second year, but I believe this to be an error—one
that has gained ground through so many writers deriving their
information from a common source. I have made this a point of
particular enquiry amongst experienced elephant-attendants, and
BURMESE NAMES APPLIED TO DIFFERENCES IN DIVERGENCE, CURVES, ETC., OF TUSKS.
[Facing page 67.
I. Bowl-shaped or curved inwards.
V. One higher than the other.
II. Shaped like a plantain bud.
VI. Curved.
III. Short and thick.
VII. Pointing straight downwards.
IV. Spread apart.
VIII. Side view of No. III.
THE SKELETON.
67
have found them unanimous in dissenting from the idea of any such
process of renewal." He also remarks : " I have had many young
elephants in my charge and never noticed anything of the change
alluded to." I have asked many foresters, Burmese and Karen,
about this matter; they are of opinion that the tusks are never
shed ; I have however also been informed of one or two instances
of milk tusks being shed and renewed. Blanford * states that the
incisors (tusks) are preceded by milk teeth, shed at an early age,
and have enamel only on the tips before these are worn away.
A small percentage of males have simple tushes, which are
similar to those of the female, except that they are a little longer
and thicker, and some have none at all ; the first are known as han
( ) and the latter as haings (
). Some few males have a single
tusk only. The Burmans consider it lucky to own an animal
possessing a right tusk only ; such an animal is known as a tai (
)
(see Plate X). Selous remarks it is far from uncommon to meet
with one-tusked animals amongst elephant cows in South Africa,
though rarer amongst the bulls. He also states that when an
elephant has only one tusk the bone on the other side is quite solid
and shows no sign of a hollow where the fellow ought to be. Males
occasionally lose a tusk when fighting, or through other injury, but
some are born with a single tusk. The late Mr. Darwood, who
owned many elephants, records a case where one of his elephants
dropped a male calf which grew up with only one tusk.
Burmans, Karens, and others, when judging the age, carefully
examine the tusks with regard to their soundness, size, colour,
sweep, spread, and amount of wear shown.
Tusks are formidable weapons of offence ; they can be brought
into use at almost any angle. Tuskers in a herd maintain discipline,
and are justly feared by the members of it. At times most ghastly
wounds are inflicted with these weapons ; and when tuskers fight,
one or other of the combatants is frequently killed, or dies of
wounds inflicted. Well-trained tuskers are highly valued, as owing
to the possession of these organs they are enabled to perform a
variety of work which cannot be undertaken by animals without
them. Strange as it may appear, there are occasional instances
where a haing is feared even by powerful tuskers. Mr. C. B. Lacey
informed me of one or two cases within his knowledge. Mr. Danson
also informed me of a case, and I myself have met with one instance.
It is also a generally recognized fact amongst the Burmans. In
such cases it will usually be found that the haing is an enormously
powerful elephant with an unusually fine development of the trunk;
* Fauna of India : " Mammalia."—Blanford.
68
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
the strength and dexterity in its use when fighting against a tusker
is said to compensate fully for the absence of tusks. In Pegu, some
years ago, a reliable Burman tracker casually informed me about a
fight he witnessed in the jungle between a very large haing and
an ordinary sized tusker; though the haing received some nasty
wounds, he put the tusker to flight.
Tusks are occasionally snapped during fights. Mr. Danson, of
Messrs. Darwood & Co., showed me a piece of a very fine tusk
fractured about a foot or so from the point. This piece when found
in one of the Shweli forests was covered with congealed blood.
Mr. Petley, who knew the facts, informed me that the fight occurred
between a good-sized wild tusker and an enormous solitary haing
which was well known in the district (Shweli). Several Burmans
witnessed the combat, during the course of which the haing snapped
off the large portion of tusk referred to.
Emerson Tennent states that Mr. Mercer, Civil Political Officer
of Government at Badulla, sent him a jagged fragment of elephant
tusk 2 ft. long, weighing between 20 and 30 lbs., which had been
brought to him by natives who, being attracted by noise in the
jungle, witnessed a fight between a tusker and one without, and saw
the latter seize one of the tusks of his antagonist and wrench from
it the portion in question.—(Emerson Tennent, 1859, Vol. II, page
280.) Ceylon elephants are generally tuskless—not one in a
hundred is found with tusks. They have tushes 1 0 ins. to 1 2 ins.
long and 1 in. to 2 ins. in diameter.—(Emerson Tennent, page 274.)
The spine.—The spine, or backbone, is composed of a number of
bones termed vertebrae. In animals the head is suspended from it.
It also forms a tube for the accommodation and protection of the
spinal cord, a part as important as the brain itself, being the bond of
union between all parts of the body. The backbone is possessed of
great strength and flexibility. For convenience of description it has
been divided into five regions: namely, cervical, dorsal, lumbar,
sacral, and caudal. In the Indian elephant there are 7 cervical, 20
dorsal, 3 lumbar, 3 or 4 sacral, and 31 caudal vertebræ. Owen gives-
the following: cervical 7, dorsal 20, lumbar 3, sacral 3, caudal 31 ;
while Blanford states it to be: cervical 7, dorsal 19 to 21,
lumbar 3 to 4, sacral 4, caudal 26 to 33. There are undoubtedly
variations and peculiarities in individual skeletons. In some
specimens there are only 19 dorsal vertebrae bearing movable
articulated ribs.
Cervical vertebrae.—Seven
in number. The first, from its
supporting the head, is known as the atlas : it is very similar in
appearance to that bone in the human subject, and is in form some-
thing after the shape of a signet ring. The second or axis may be-
THE SKELETON.
69
readily recognized, as it possesses a conical tooth-like process, and
has a massive spine which is bifid posteriorly. The bodies of the
fourth, fifth, and sixth are short; the spinous processes are also short.
The seventh may be distinguished by its long spine, and also by
its having on its posterior edge a cavity for the articulation of the
first rib. Owing to the immense weight of the head we find that
the neck is extremely short. The latitude of motion possessed by
each bone on those to which it is attached is not as great in elephants
as in most other animals ; accordingly, we find the general flexibility
of the neck is comparatively limited, and that when an animal is
desirous of observing an object posterior to the direct line of
vision it is necessary for him to turn his body more or less in that
direction.
Dorsal vertebrae.—Nineteen
to twenty in number. They are
intermediate in size between the cervical and lumbar, and are to be
distinguished by their long superior spinous processes, which proceed
upwards and incline backwards ; they form the " withers " and
greater portion of the spinal ridge. They also bear articular surfaces
for the reception and attachment of the heads of the ribs.
Lumbar -vertebrae.—The lumbar vertebræ are three in number;
they may be distinguished by their longish, flattened, transverse
processes, which give support to the muscles of the loins.
Sacral vertebrae.—The sacrum is short and arched, and formed
by the union of three or four bones which in the young animal are
separate. It is more or less triangular in shape, with its base
anteriorly and apex posteriorly placed. In very old animals the
last lumbar vertebra may become united to the sacrum. The
sacrum forms a roof to the pelvis, and affords protection to its
contents.
Caudal vertebrae.—Thirty-one
in number, but in many speci¬
mens it will be found that from accident, etc., there are less. The
anterior ones show in a rudimentary form the essential parts of a
vertebra, but posteriorly they become cylindrical rods, convex on
their anterior and posterior surfaces.
The head and first bone of the neck have free motion up and
down. The joint formed by the next bone of the neck also has free
motion chiefly to either side. The bones of the back have the
least motion ; they confer strength and permit, of motion of the ribs.
The bones of the loins possess slightly more motion. If the verte¬
brae be examined, certain holes will be observed on either side;
these are for the passage of spinal nerves, etc.
Sternum.—The
sternum or breast bone is situated in the middle
line, on the inferior aspect of the chest. In young animals it is
cartilaginous, and consists of several segments, which later on
70
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
become consolidated. The lateral surfaces present indentations for
the reception of the cartilages of the sternal or true ribs. The
sternum also helps to protect the heart and lungs from injury.
Ribs.—The ribs constitute a series of long arched bones which
are connected to the lateral sides of the spinal column above and
mostly to the sternum below. There are from 19 to 20 pairs,
increasing in length from the first to the tenth, after which they
decrease. They are divided into (a) true or sternal ribs, namely,
those that join the sternum directly; (b) false or asternal, those that
do not; and (c) floating ribs, those that have no attachment below.
The first two or three sternal ribs are very stout and short, and only
slightly curved, as the chest in this region is very narrow. The
articulation between the heads of the ribs and the vertebrae in the
region of the chest is a synovial one, permitting of a certain degree
of motion. The ribs form the walls of the chest and protect the
important organs within, their articulations with the vertebræ above
and the breast bone below admitting of slight motion ; they assist
in respiration.
Pelvis.—Pelvis or haunch bone, so called from being likened to
a basin, is the medium by which the hind limbs are connected to the
body. It is of peculiar conformation, not unlike the human pelvis,
and is set almost vertically to the spinal column. The acetabula are
the cavities provided for the reception of the heads of the thigh
bones, or femora. Owen states that " the planes of the acetabula
incline from the perpendicular about 70 degrees, a favourable position
for transmitting weight upon the heads of the femora." There is no
question that this construction is adapted for bearing downward
pressure ; it is a conformation in which immense strength is secured
at the expense of suppleness, and is one reason why the gait of
the elephant is such a source of discomfort to the rider.
The extremities.—In
the skeletons of most mammalia it will be
observed that the bones of the limbs are set at certain angles in order
to diminish shock, especially during such acts as leaping and
galloping, whereas in the elephant the bones are not set at angles but
almost in a vertical line ; the reason for this is apparent when we
consider the immense size of the body to be supported. It is this
particular formation that renders these animals incapable of making
the slightest spring. Sanderson states that "a trench 7 ft. wide
is impassable to an elephant, though the step of a large one in
full stride is about 6 ½ ft." From the position of the bones it is
evident that the elephant is intended to sustain weight, i.e., is a beast
of burden ; and this fact to some extent accounts for the discomfort
experienced when riding these creatures.
The fore-limb.—The
clavicle or collar-bone is absent.
THE SKELETON.
71
The scapula or shoulder-blade is of great size ; it is unequally
divided by a ridge or spine, and from about its centre is a process
directed backwards. The cavity with which it articulates with the
next bone is very shallow, and looks downwards.
The humerus is also large, and affords extensive surfaces for
the attachment of muscles.
The fore-arm consists of two bones, the ulna and radius, which
in the elephant are distinct and peculiar, in that they are obliquely
and permanently crossed. "The upper end of the latter (radius)
is small; while the ulna not only contributes the principal part of the
articular surface for the humerus, but has its distal end actually
larger than that of the radius—a condition unique among mam-
mals."—(Flower.)
The knee in the fore, and the ankle or hock joint in the hind-
limb are situated very low down, namely just above the pad or
hoof.
The knee-joint or carpus is made up of a group of 8 distinct
small but very hard irregular-shaped bones.
" There are 5 digits with short stout phalanges, the terminal
ones being very small and of irregular form."—(Flower.)
The hind-limb.—As in the case with the fore-limbs, the vertical
disposition of the bones is observed, and to some extent bears a
strong resemblance to the arrangement of the bones in the human
subject.
The femur or thigh bone is a long bone more or less cylindrical
in form ; at its upper extremity is a rounded head which fits into
the socket, or acetabulum, and forms the hip joint. The lower
extremity articulates with the tibia (the stifle joint of the horse).
" The patella or knee-cap is slightly convex lengthwise and
concave transversely at its articular surface."—(Owen.)
The tibia and fibula comprise the second segment of the limb.
The first-mentioned is by far the larger bone; its upper end is
expanded, the shaft of the bone is somewhat triangular in shape.
The lower extremity is also expanded slightly to receive the bones
of the hock.
The fibula is distinct from end to end : at its upper extremity it
is connected to the tibia just below the joint, and its lower end
enters into the formation of the hock joint.
As with the fare-foot, three groups of bones go to form the
skeleton of the hind-foot, namely :—
(a) The tarsus or hock, consisting of seven bones.
(b) The metatarsals.
(c) The phalanges or toes.
The foot.—By the term foot is meant the "hoof slipper" and
72
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
the parts contained within it. In the elephant the " hoof slipper "
consists of the sole and toe-nails.
The shape of the sole in the fore-feet is nearly circular, while
that of the hind-feet is more or less oval. It consists of a layer of
soft elastic horn ; and though thick and tough, it may be made to
bend under pressure of the fingers. Anteriorly it bears the nails ;
posteriorly the margins curl upwards. On removal of the slipper
and inspection of its inner surface, it will be seen to be covered
with numerous indentations; these small holes lodge projections
from the sensitive sole.
The toe-nails vary in number from 16 to 20, but the more usual
number is 18, namely, 5 on each fore, and 4 on each hind foot. It
has been already noted that the knee and hock joints are situated
very low down, the digits running obliquely downwards. The
terminal bone of each digit lies within one of the nails. If the
internal surface of a nail be examined, it will be found to be
traversed in a vertical direction by a series of horny leaves, or
laminæ; it will also be observed that the extremity of the digit as
exposed by removal of the nail is also traversed by a series of
laminæ known as the sensitive laminæ ; they fit in between the
horny laminæ of the nail. It is by means of the indentations on
the interior of the sole and the laminæ above noted that union
is brought about between the horny and underlying sensitive
structures.
The " hoof slippers" are not rigid boxes like the hoof of the
horse ; each digit is provided with tendons for flexing or extending it,
thus permitting of a great degree of motion. The noiseless tread of
the elephant is a subject of common remark. The reason for it is
that a large quantity of a fibro-fatty substance enters into the
formation of the foot, which goes to make a wonderful elastic cushion.
The elephant is by nature intended to roam about the vast forests,
where the soil is usually soft or the ground is covered to a depth of
many inches by fallen leaves. Under natural conditions the
" hoof slipper" affords ample protection to the underlying sensitive
structures.
CHAPTER II.
THE SKIN, MUCOUS AND SEROUS MEMBRANES.
MUSCULAR
SYSTEM.
THE SKIN.
The skin.—In the wild state it is somewhat difficult to estimate
the true colour of the elephant, as when met with they are
generally bedaubed with various coloured clays or mud; but in
reality the true colour is a deep greyish black. In the domesticated
animal it is certainly much darker, which is due to constant washing,
grooming, anointing with oils, and the black colour is very often
given by scrubbing with doh-nwe, a species of creeper (
).
The looseness of the skin is familiar to all, and as is the case with
many other animals it may be freely moved at will through the aid
of a special muscle, the panniculus carnosus, lying beneath it. The
action of this muscle is frequently demonstrated when the creature
is tormented by flies. Some elephants have a bad habit of shifting
their gear, or load, by frequently bringing this muscle into play.
The skin is of considerable thickness, but varies in different
parts of the body. It nevertheless does not prevent its being highly
sensitive—a matter of common remark—mosquitoes even causing
extreme irritation, and it is this fact which explains why in the
natural state we find these animals habitually besmeared with mud.
The functions of the skin are many. In the first place, it affords
a protective covering to the tissues which build up the structure of
the body.
As before remarked, though the skin is very thick, it is extremely
sensitive. It is owing to this thickness that abscesses do not
readily come to a head and burst.
In health the temperature of the skin is of a uniformly even
warmth ; it is free from scurf, dark in colour, and pliable to the
touch. Embedded within its substance are various organs with
special functions to perform.
(1) Hairs.—These
are bristly in character, stiff to the touch,
and firmly rooted, and are more abundant in certain localities. In
the adult they are numerous on the forehead, lower lip, upper lip,
orifices of the ears, and end of the tail. On the latter they are
larger and stiffer in character, and grow from the anterior and
74
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
posterior borders and tip, extending much higher up on the anterior,
where they are usually longer. Young elephants usually have much
more hair about them than adults.
(2) Nails—Are horny in appearance of a yellowish horn colour,
smooth and when clean glossy. They contribute towards the for¬
mation of the foot-pad ; they are firmly embedded, not tender, and
there is usually a slight moist exudation of an oily character around
the tops readily discovered by throwing a little dust over that
region ; they should not readily split or break.
(3) Sweat glands.—Small
glands are situated in the skin,
whose function it is to secrete sweat, which by evaporation assists
in regulating the temperature of the body. This secretion, however,
is slight and best seen after removal of pack-gear.
(4) Nerves.—These
terminate in special organs in the skin,
by whose agency the animal is able to appreciate various sensations,
such as touch, cold, heat, and pain.
Any departures from the above may point to disease, namely—
(a) Hairs may be unduly soft, easily removed, or are often
shed, especially those of the tail. In cases of deaths
from supposed snake-bite the Burmans employ as a
test the pulling out of hairs and affirm that if they are
easily removed the case is undoubtedly one of
snake-bite.
(b) Nails may be soft, cracked or broken, overgrown, rough
or rugged, and an excessive discharge may be seen
around or beneath them.
(c) In parts there may be local tenderness.
(d) Scurfiness, harshness and unusual dryness.
(e) Temperature may be uneven or variable.
(f) Cracks, sores or eruptions.
(g) Swellings, which may be localized, such as in abscesses,
or diffused as in dropsies, when the skin is distended,
shown by a partial or complete effacement of the
wrinkles, and doughiness.
(h) Parasites, as ticks, lice, etc.
MUCOUS MEMBRANE
Is a delicate membrane lining those inner parts of the body
which are in direct communication with the external air, namely—
(a) From the nostrils to the minute ramifications of the lungs.
(b) The whole alimentary tract from the mouth to the anus.
(c) From the penis or vagina to the bladder.