NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
66
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
the last elephant I examined (a large tusker) measured 3 feet 4 inches.
It has two extremities, the cardiac and pyloric, and two openings, one
communicating with the gullet known as the cardiac, and the other
with the intestines, the pyloric. The stomach is situated towards
the left side, and the spleen is attached to it. The cardiac end is
long and tapering, the interior is lined by mucous membrane. " A
" number of transverse nearly circular folds project inward from the
" cardiac wall ; they almost disappear when the stomach is greatly
" distended, and are at all times too shallow to serve as water cells,
" though they have been figured and described as such."—(Miall
and Greenwood). I have examined several stomachs and agree with
the above remark, also see remarks on trunk, page 71. The gullet
enters the stomach almost at the centre.
Small Intestines.
The small intestine begins at the pyloric orifice of the stomach and
ends on entering the cæcum, a dilated pouch some distance down.
For convenience the intestine has been divided into three parts,
namely, the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The intestine may be
recognized by its smaller calibre and smooth regular contour when
distended. The secretions poured into the small gut are bile from
the liver, pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and secretions from
glands in its own walls.
The respective total lengths of the small intestine of four ele-
phants were 66, 70, 73, and 74 feet.
The large intestine is capacious and may be distinguished by its
puckered appearance, due to the presence of longitudinal bands,
which are shorter than the intestine. It is also divided into three
portions, namely, the cæcum, colon (which is the largest portion),
and the rectum, which terminates at the anus, the orifice of which is
guarded by a special muscle.
The intestines are attached to the spine by a strong membrane
called the mesentery, which also serves to sustain the bowels, and
affords passage for important vessels.
The total lengths of the large intestine of four elephants were
respectively 38, 40, 46, and 43 feet. Steel records the length of
bowels in an elephant nine and half feet at the shoulder as follows:
small intestines 76 feet, cæcum 5, colon 20 feet, and rectum 12 feet.
Total large intestine 37 feet, and of intestinal tract, 113 feet.
" Hunter gives 17 feet as the length of the small intestine ;
Mayer makes it 37 feet, while he gives the total length as 75 feet."
—(Miall and Greenwood.)
LIVER—THE SPLEEN—THE URINARY ORGAN.
67
Owen's measurements taken from a young Indian elephant about
seven feet at the shoulder, are as follows:—
Length of small intestine
Length of cæcum
Total length of colon and rectum together
Total length of intestinal canal, exclusive of cæcum
...
...
...
...
Feet
38
1
20
58
ins.
0
6
0
6
Liver.
This is the largest gland in the body; there are two lobes, the right
being the larger. The gall-bladder is absent. The duct which
carries the bile expands, and forms a pouch in the wall of the
duodenum; the secretion from the pancreas is also received into this
pouch. The weight of the liver varies between 50 and 55 lbs.
Hawkes, in the case of a male elephant aged 34 years that died of
heart-disease, found the liver to weigh 65 lbs., and in a very small
elephant aged 24 years, it weighed 58½ lbs. Gilchrist gives the
weight of this organ in an animal he examined as 76½ lbs.
The Spleen.
Average weight of four spleens was 7 lbs. This organ is generally
enormously enlarged in animals that die from anthrax fever.
The Urinary Organ.
Kidneys.—These are situated one on each side of the spine, be-
neath the lumbar vertebrae. The weight of the kidneys, 6 to 8 lbs.
Gilchrist gives it as 16 lbs. In structure they resemble the kidneys
of the ox, in that they are lobulated; the lobes are distinct, and vary
in number from five to six.
The ureters are two tubes which convey the urine from each
kidney to the bladder. The orifices of the ureters on the inside of
the bladder are in adults from two to three inches apart.
The bladder presents no remarkable features; it serves as a re-
servoir for the urine, and thus prevents the extreme inconvenience
that would result from having to discharge the urine as fast as it
is secreted. On the accumulation of a certain quantity, which
amount varies in different individuals, a very uneasy feeling due to
nervous influence is experienced, which induces the animal to dis-
charge it. The neck of the bladder is supplied with a large amount
68
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
of cirpular muscular fibres, their office being to keep the orifice of
the bladder closed.
The urine is discharged from the body by means of the urethra,
a membranous canal extending in the male from the neck of the
bladder to the extremity of the penis. In the female it is very short,
and opens into the uro-genital canal.
The Organs of Generation.
In the male we find glands to secrete the seminal fluid (testicles),
and an instrument, the penis, by means of which this fluid may be
conveyed to the necessary receptacle in the female.
The testicles are two glandular bodies, globular in shape, the
substance is soft, and on section, of a light brownish colour. They
are suspended freely in the abdomen, and are situated below the
posterior extremities of the kidneys.
The penis is a long fleshy body, which serves to afford passage
to the urine, and also to eject the semen. At its extremity is the
opening of the urethra, which in this animal is Y-shaped.
With a view to preventing that peculiar sexual disturbance known
as "musth" many attempts have been made to castrate these
creatures; but owing to the immense size of the carcass, and the
peculiar position of the testicles, the operation is necessarily a very
formidable and dangerous one. The operation must be performed
on both sides.
The female organs of generation are divided into external and
internal.
The external or uro-genital opening known as the vulva is not
situated near the anus, as in many animals, but is drawn forward, and.
so occupies the position of the penis in the male. The sides are
loose, and the labiæ or lips, covered with mucous membrane, form a
prepuce or covering for the clitoris.
On separating the lips of the vulva, a fleshy body varying in length
from 12 to 16 inches, known as the clitoris, is observed. It is the
analogue of the penis in the male.
The internal organs are the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes and
ovaries.
The vagina is a canal lined by mucous membrane. " It is about
12 to 15 inches long."
At the end of the vagina is the entrance to the uterus or womb,
which organ is peculiar in that the greater part of it is divided into
two horns. Outwardly, the uterus is with difficulty distinguished
from the vagina.
IMPREGNATION—ACCESSORY ORGAN, &C.
69
The fallopian tubes are two tubes leading from the horns of the
uterus to the ovaries.
The ovaries, or female testicles, are small bodies surrounded by a
firm, fibrous capsule. The substance consists of a network of tissue,
blood vessels, &c, in which are embedded the ova, which are destin-
ed on being fertilised to develop into the offspring.
Impregnation.
The ovum on being discharged from the ovary is caught by the
abdominal extremity of the fallopian tube, from which it is passed on
down to the uterus, where, if it is unimpregnated it dies and is dis-
charged ; but if impregnated by the spermatozoa contained in the
seminal fluid, undergoes certain changes which ultimately result in
the reproduction of the species.
Accessory Organ of Reproduction.
The udder consists of two glands, and as already mentioned, is
situated on the breast, just behind the fore-legs. In the virgin
state it is small, but during the latter period of gestation, it becomes
considerably enlarged, and some little time before parturition, milk
is secreted. The glands consist of lobes, bound together by con-
nective tissue and fat. The milk as secreted, is carried by sets of
channels, which converge at a point where they form dilatations,
which act as reservoirs. The ducts again become contracted, and
open finally on the summit of the nipples, or teats, of which there are
two.
The Thorax or Chest.
Is a large chamber bounded laterally by the ribs and their muscles,
above by the spine, below by the breastbone, and behind by an
obliquely placed musculo-tendinous partition which separates it from
the abdominal cavity, and is known as the diaphragm or midriff. It
contains the heart and respiratory organs and is deep and narrow.
It is peculiar in that there is no cavity intervening between its walls
and the lung owing to these organs being adherent to them; in other
words there is no pleura. This is a condition entirely different from
what occurs in most mammals in which the lungs, though lying in
contact with, have no actual attachment to, the walls. In this re-
spect the elephant resembles birds. This peculiarity is adapted to
70
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
his mode of life, which seldom subjects him to respiratory emergen-
cies, and his organization which does not necessitate much blood
oxygenation.
Heart.
As in other mammals the heart is a four-chambered muscular
organ which is contained in a fibrous bag called the pericardium and
is placed between the lungs. It is peculiar in that its apex presents
two points instead of one like most mammals. This peculiarity is,
however, shared by certain whales, dugong, &c.
Another peculiarity observable is, the absence of fat about the
organ.
Weight-average of three hearts, 24 lbs.
Respiratory organs:—
(a) Larynx.—This consists of a chamber opening below the
base of the tongue by which air is conducted down
the trachea or wind-pipe into the lungs. It contains
the essentials in the production of voice.
(b) Trachea and bronchi.—The trachea or wind-pipe is a
tube composed of a series of cartilaginous rings, which
rings are incomplete behind. It divides into two
tubes of smaller calibre called the bronchi, which enter
the lungs and ramify throughout their substances.
These air passages are unusually long and narrow.
(c) Lungs.—Are two spongy organs, one on each side of the
chest, to the walls, of which, as already remarked, and
to the diaphragm, they are intimately attached. The
left can be readily distinguished from the right by pre-
senting no deep fissures in its contour.
Weight.—The average weight of the lungs of four animals was
46 lbs.
Nose.
The nasal apparatus consists of certain structures which serve
to form two passages whose function is to conduct air from with-
out, into the air chambers in the bones of the skull, and also to the
back of the mouth and so through the windpipe to the lungs. These
passages are lined throughout with mucous membrane, in the upper-
most part of which are lodged the nerves concerned in the sense of
smell. It may conveniently be divided into two parts, namely, the
muscular portion, or trunk, and the osseous, or bony.
NOSE.
71
(a) The muscular portion or trunk—is a most remarkable ap-
pendage, but is not peculiar to the elephant as the tapir has a some-
what similar organ. It is composed of an intricate arrangement of
muscles which furnish it with great flexibility, contractility, and
power; so that its uses are manifold. The animal is enabled to
snap off boughs, pull down saplings, pluck up bunches of grass and
herbs—in fact on his trunk depends his life, since both food and
drink are ingested through its aid. He can employ it to lift and drag
light weights. An elephant will not use his trunk either for offence,
defence, or work, where there is any probability of this extremely
sensitive and essential organ sustaining any injury, and this is ex-
emplified by the way in which he curls up the organ after the manner
of a watch-spring, and raises his head when in the act of charging,
and not free and uplifted as often represented in many pictures.
At the extremity of the trunk the anterior part is developed into
a finger-like structure, which is capable of being approximated to the
posterior wall. By means of this process he is able to pick up arti-
cles of small size, but not to the extent that he has been popularly
credited with. Its contractility is shown by his power of shortening
and lengthening this organ, and as will be again referred to on some
future page, this contractility by causing a shrivelling of the trunk
often serves as a valuable indication of ill-health. Again, it is
through the muscular character of its walls that he is able to dilate
the canals, and increase their capacity during the act of suction.
This muscular mechanism is supplied by the seventh pair of nerves
which are unusually developed in this animal and hence accounts for
its power, varied, and complicated mobility. The skin covering the
trunk is soft and pliable, and that in the posterior region is puckered
into a series of transverse ridges giving it a permanent roughness
which materially aids in the tenacity of its grip. It is also the
medium through which this organ is endowed with one of its most
important uses, for it is in the deeper layers of the skin that the ele-
ments of the sense of touch are lodged. It is supplied by the fifth
pair of nerves which are also unusually developed in the elephant and
accounts for its exquisite sensibility.
The canals are two in number and lie nearer to the front of the
organ. They are of about the same calibre throughout, and are lined
by mucous membrane. They are capable of a certain amount of
distension and, in addition to serving as conductors of air to the
lungs and air cells, are converted into temporary reservoirs in the act
of drinking. The end of the trunk during this act is placed in the
water and by suction (an inspiratory effort) a quantity is drawn up
into the canals. The trunk, when a sufficiency has been taken up,
is withdrawn, and inserted far back into the mouth, where by an ex-
72
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
piratory effort the contents are expelled and swallowed, or in the act
of bathing ejected over its body. It is highly improbable that the
mucous membrane lining these canals is in any way concerned with
the sense of smell.
Every one familiar with elephants must have observed the pecu-
liar habit they have when heated of inserting the trunk into the
mouth and by suction withdrawing fluid which they squirt over the
body. Many theories have been advanced as to where this fluid is
accumulated ; some investigators say that the stomach is the reser-
voir and that the cell-like formation at one end (much exaggerated
in the drawing) can hold as much as ten gallons of water, and Dr.
Harrison found a muscle connecting the back of the windpipe with the
forepart of the gullet, one of the functions of which he thought
might be to raise the cardiac orifice of the stomach and so enable it
to regurgitate its contents into the gullet. (The muscle alluded to
must have been abnormal as, I believe, other anatomists have not
found it. I have tried to on several occasions but failed.) Others are
of opinion that a special pouch at the back of the throat (pharyngeal)
is the reservoir. The point at present is not satisfactorily settled, but
as Steel states, the "pouch" is capable of holding a fair amount of
fluid which may be supplemented by gradual regurgitation from the
stomach. The subject is a most interesting one, and those desirous
of obtaining full information should refer to the excellent works of
Steel, Sterndale, and Sanderson.
Sounds:—A forcible blast of air blown through the trunk produces
the sound familiarly known as "trumpeting," and another peculiar
sound is also emitted through the agency of this organ. This is re-
ferred to by Sanderson and accurately likened by him to the sounds
produced by rapidly doubling a large sheet of tin. This authority
says that " it is produced by rapping the end of the trunk smartly on
" the ground, a current of air, hitherto retained, being sharply emitted
" through the trunk, as from a valve, at the moment of impact."
The sound is familiar to those who have indulged in elephant shoot-
ing, and appears to be a note of warning on the apprehension of
danger.
Vascularity.—This organ is very richly supplied with blood-ves-
sel's, and thus accounts for injuries being attended with copious
haemorrhage, which, in fact, may prove fatal.
(b) The osseous, or bony portion, is so constructed as to form
two irregularly shaped chambers communicating in front with the
canals of the trunk, and behind with the mouth. In addition there is
free communication with the honey comb-like pneumatic chambers
(or air sinuses) of the head already referred to. The chambers
are lined with mucous membrane in which are embedded the ter-
EYE—LACHRYMAL APPARATUS—EAR.
73
minations of the olfactory nerves or nerves of smell, which, being un-
usually well developed in the elephant, accounts for the acuteness of
this sense.
Eye.
The optic nerve is responsible for the sense of vision, and is un-
usually small in the elephant, the reason for which is evident when
one considers the small size of this organ and the muscles re-
quired to move it. Vision is acute, but the animal is greatly handi-
capped in making a use of this sense to a degree equal to most ani-
mals by virtue of the shortness of its neck, which will not permit of the
head being rotated sideways sufficiently to see objects in its rear:
therefore the only way this can be effected is by a movement of the
body, and this is exemplified by watching an elephant walking when
he is suspicious of something in his rear. It will be seen to alter-
nately move its body from side to side in order to see what is occur-
ring behind instead of walking straight forwards. However, the
limited field of vision is fully compensated for by the extreme acute-
ness of smell, and perhaps partially by its keen hearing. As is the
case with many animals, in addition to an upper and lower eyelid,
there is a membranous fold placed at the inner corner of the eye and
beneath the lids which is capable of being moved outwards over a
considerable portion of the eyeball; this is called the nictitating
membrane, the "haw" (of horses), and by some authors the "third
eyelid." This outward movement is effected by a retraction of the
eyeball, which displaces some fat behind the orbit and so mechani-
cally thrusts the lid forwards.
Lachrymal Apparatus.
There is no true lachrymal (tear) gland, but this is replaced by. a
gland situated on the inner side of the orbit called the Harderian
gland which pours its secretion on to the third eyelid, whence the
tears so produced fall on to the face. There being no apparatus to
convey them into the nose, such as exists in most animals.
Ear.
There is nothing of special interest to note, except as previously
mentioned as an indication of age (see page 5).
10
74
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Muscular System.
This system is remarkable in that a large amount of tendinous
fibre runs through the muscles, making them very tough. About
the shoulders and buttocks the muscles are fleshy, but even here
there is a considerable admixture of tendinous fibre.
Skin.
In the wild state it is somewhat difficult to estimate the true
colour, as when met with, they are generally bedaubed with various
coloured clays or mud ; but in reality the true colour is a deep
greyish black. In the domesticated animal it is certainly much
darker, which is due to constant washing, grooming, and anoint-
ing with oils.
The looseness of the skin is familiar to all, and as is the case with
many other animals, it may be freely moved at will through the aid
of a special muscle, the panniculus carnosus, lying beneath it. The
action of this muscle is frequently demonstrated when the creature
is tormented by flies. Some elephants have a bad habit of shifting
their gear, or load, by frequently bringing this muscle into play.
The skin is of considerable thickness, but varies in different parts
of the body. It neverthless does not prevent its being highly sensitive
—a matter of common remark—mosquitoes even causing extreme
irritation, and it is this fact which explains why in the natural state
we find these animals habitually besmeared with mud.
Weight of carcass.
Gilchrist gives the weight of the carcass of an ordinary-sized
elephant as follows :—
" In conducting the weighing of the carcass in portions, as stated
below, every regard was paid to ensure a correct result, and I con-
sider the one given to be within a very few pounds of the exact
weight of the living animal:—
Head (including brain, which weighed 16½ lbs.)
Left fore-leg
Right fore-leg
Left shoulder
Right shoulder
Carried over
Cwt.
...
...
...
...
...
...
4
2
2
0
1
11
qrs.
0
2
2
3
0
2
lb.
22
25
14
18
7
2
WEIGHT OF CARCASS.
75
Brought forward
Left hind-leg...
Right hind-leg
Left ribs
Right ribs ...
Loins and part of buttock
Pelvis
Neck
Breast-bone...
Heart
...
...
Lungs and diaphragm ...
Kidney
... ...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Intestines (small and large bowel)
Liver
...
Spleen
Stomach
...
...
...
...
...
Weight of carcass and organs
Dung weighed
...
...
Water in bowels and cavity of abdomen, about
Pounds, Avoirdupois
Total weight
...
Cwt.
... 11
... 2
... 2
... 1
... 2
... 3
... 3
... 0
... 0
... 0
... 0
... 0
... 2
... 0
... 0
... 0
... 34
... 2
... 2
... 39
qrs.
2
2
3
1
0
0
1
3
3
1
3
0
1
2
0
3
1
1
1
0
lb.
2
11
0
20½
26
16
19½
13
0
14
14
16
23
20½
4½
12
12
9
18
1
3,369
The dimensions of the animal were as follows :—
Height ... ... ... ... ...
Length from top of forehead to insertion of tail...
Round abdomen ... ... ... ...
Ft.
7
10
13
in.
4
1
8
Length of intestines—
Small intestines... ... ... ...
Large intestines... ... ... ...
Total length of intestines ... ... ... ...
68
38
106
0
3
3
" Skin about ¾ of an inch to 1 inch thick, thickest about the loins
and buttocks.
"Depth of the carotid artery from the surface of the neck, 4 inches;
diameter of the carotid artery, ¾ of an inch.
" Jugular vein in close proximity to the carotid artery, about ½ ah
inch. The dimensions of the animal, taken while alive, will show the
carcass thus weighed, piecemeal, was of more than average size."
76
CHAPTER IV.
ON THE CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE-GENERAL TREATMENT OF SICKNESS-
GENERAL INDICATIONS OF ILL-HEALTH.
On the causes and prevention of disease.
BEFORE entering upon a description of the diseases, I would like
to offer a note of warning to those who employ these creatures.
Though a certain amount of predisposition to disease may be assign-
ed to a change from freedom and a natural life to domestication and
an artificial one, and to accidental causes which cannot perhaps be
anticipated and accordingly prevented, there undoubtedly is a very
considerable amount of disease which can be directly attributed to
conditions to which the domesticated animal is subjected, and which,
with proper care and humane consideration, can be greatly or wholly
avoided. Twelve years' experience in this province, during which
time I have had abundant opportunities for observing domesticated
elephants and their treatment by masters and mahouts, has com-
pelled me to believe that in many instances (and I say so with re-
luctance) a maximum amount of labour is exacted with a minimum
regard bestowed upon their wants -and creature comforts—in other
words, they are "sweated." This failing is mainly due to ignorance
on the part of supervisors with regard to the habits and peculiarities
of their charge, and consequently they are incompetent to criticise
the actions of mahouts and attendants.
Employers seem to gauge the capacity of the animals for work
by their huge bulk and strength, and imagine that their constitutional
strength is commensurate, or fail to give this important matter its
due consideration. The result of these shortcomings, whether the
neglect be wilful or due to ignorance, is shown by the only too fre-
quent ill-health tame elephants suffer from.
To illustrate these remarks let us consider the following points:—
(a) The fact that he is a nocturnal animal is often lost sight
of, and that in his wild state, during the day he seeks
those haunts in the forest which are cool and shady and
afford the best protection from the heat; but as soon as
he is domesticated he has to acquire a tolerance to the
direct rays of the sun. This in itself constitutes much
discomfort which is demonstrated when an animal is
tethered for any time in the sun. Any one familiar with