NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
136
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
No. 3.
Fenugreek ... ... ... ...
Aniseed ... ... ... ...
Carbonate of iron ... ... ...
Black pepper ... ... ... ...
Ginger ... ... ... ...
12 ounces.
6 ounces.
2 ounces.
4 ounces.
4 ounces.
To be reduced to powder and well mixed. Two ounces for a dose,
once or twice daily (also see Appendix 11 to 14).
Above all, strict attention to diet, which should be good, clean, and
nutritious ; grain should be withheld for a time. Work should be
stopped and, when possible, the animal given a change to some graz-
ing.
Stomatitis, or Inflammation of the Mouth.
Causes.—A result of impaired nutrition, perhaps wholly due to
enfeebled digestive power.
Symptoms.—Loss of appetite, which may be actual or only ap-
parent owing to the soreness of the mouth, an investigation of which
reveals in the early stages increased redness, but later on actual
sores. The condition is generally attended by constipation.
Treatment: Local.—If the animal will permit, wash the mouth
out with permanganate of potash 2 grains to the pint, or alum 1
drachm to the pint, or borax 10 grains to the ounce, or chlorate of
potash 10 grains to the ounce; failing this the same remedies
reduced to half the above strength must be brought into contact
with the inflamed surfaces through the drinking water. The addi-
tion of a little sugar may entice the animal to take it. Borax and
chlorate of potash in equal parts mixed with sugar or honey is per-
haps the most tasteless, and may be rubbed in the mouth every
hour.
General.—Plenty of fresh gruel and soft food; keep the bowels
regular, and give tonics (Appendix Nos. 39 to 46).
Disorders and Irregularities of the Teeth.
Causes.—A frequent cause of trouble is the formation of tumours,
which are simply due to an abnormal and excessive development of
parts of the teeth. They may assume considerable dimensions.
Owing to their interference with the process of mastication, great
loss of condition may ensue. It is one of the causes of indigestion,
colic, and debility.
Symptoms.—Difficulty in mastication; very often half masticated
food is dropped from the mouth ; general unthriftiness.
DISORDERS AND IRREGULARITIES OF THE TEETH. 137
Treatment.—The only method of any avail is removal by ope-
ration. The animal to be operated on must be made to assume the
recumbent position, be properly secured ; a gag having been applied,
the mouth should be carefully inspected. The growths may be re-
moved with a fret or other fine saw ; the working of the saw is
greatly facilitated by dripping water on it from a sponge or cloth.
Small growths may be removed with a cold chisel. The diet of
course should be soft and nutritious as is procurable.
Occasionally a tooth may be displaced from its normal position
owing to the presence of some morbid growth about the root, or
fang, and thus interfere with mastication by its irregularity, or from
the animal lacerating the mucous membrane during mastication ;
loss of condition follows. The offending portion may be removed
with a saw.
Owing to the peculiar manner in which the teeth are replaced,
the front teeth are liable to loosen and be shed. This is termed
"Koochlie" by the Indian mahouts. It is a natural process.
Carious teeth.—Caries of the fang of a tooth does occasionally
occur. In the case of a wild elephant I shot, observing a tumour
on the lower jaw, I examined it and found that it proceeded from
the fang of a molar tooth, which was in a very diseased condition.
This elephant was given to roaming about alone, and was not in very
good condition. The tusk on the same side was also extensively
diseased.
While on the subject of teeth, it will be convenient to consider the
tusks.
It is sometimes necessary to cut off a portion of one or both of the
tusks ; for instance, when they are badly split, or cross one another.
The operation is simple, an ordinary saw being used; the saw is kept
constantly wet with a stream of water. Hawkes gives the following
directions for finding the proper place to cut the tusks:—" Measure
" with a bit of twine the distance from the eye to the insertion of the
" tusk in the lip, this length measured from the latter point along the
" tusk will give the spot where it should be cut. Sometimes, however,
" especially in young animals, this site is too near the root, as the pulp
" of the tusk may reach beyond the point thus fixed, in which case it
" bleeds after the operation and frequently causes the tusk to split
" and decay." The advice given by Colonel Hawkes is very sound ;
the tendency with Indian mahouts is to suggest cutting off the tusk
a bit too close. Care should therefore be taken to cut off too little,
rather than too much. Should the whole tusk split up to the root,
as sometimes happens, the Indian mahouts recommend that it
should be completely cut off at the point where it touches the gum,
and this has been done with great relief to the animal—(Hawkes).
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138
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
If a tusk shows any tendency to split, it should be capped with
brass or iron, or an iron band applied; it should be put on hot and
shrunk on as a tyre is applied, but of course the temperature should
be much lower in the former case; or fitted with a ring, which is
forcibly driven on to the tusk till it maintains a secure hold. This
is the better method.
Tusks that have been shortened often show a tendency to split.
In the female and so-called tuskless males, the tusks are liable
to be broken off, or to become diseased.
Should there be a cavity, it must be cleaned and washed out with
permanganate of potash 2 or 3 grains to the pint, and then dried,
after which it should be plugged with a single piece of tow or cot-
ton wool, medicated with a few drops of carbolic acid, creosote, or
oil of cloves.
If it should happen that too much of the tusk has been cut off
and the pulp exposed, the following treatment should be adopted.
The bleeding is not, as a rule, very excessive ; the injured part must
be washed or syringed out with a warm, weak solution of perman-
ganate of potash 2 or 3 grains to the pint, or carbolic lotion 1 to 60,
or thymol 10 grains to the pint of hot water, after which the part
may be dressed with carbolic oil, idoform ointment, camphorated
oil, &c. (Appendix Nos. 121, 122, 128, 129), and then carefully
bandaged. Hawkes employed an ointment, which I can strongly
recommend ; it is as follows—
Dikamali ... ...
Bees-wax ... ...
Gingili-oil ... ...
Gall-nuts (powdered) ...
5 tolas, i.e., 2 ounces approximately.
5 tolas, i e., 2 ounces approximately.
6 tolas, i.e., 2½ ounces.
2 tolas, i.e., 7 drachms.
Boil the gall-nuts in the oil and add the Dikamali; when this has
melted strain through a cloth ; lastly add the wax and stir till cold.
[Dikamali is the Madras term for the resin from the Gardenia
lucida, a most useful ingredient in ointments, as it is healing and at
the same time repels flies.] Hawkes recommends that the ointment
be rubbed over the end of the tusk and then covered over with a
cotton rag; over this a second piece of rag saturated in coal tar,
or neem oil, i.e., margosa-oil (Azadirachta Indica) may be bound.
Dress every second day.
Great care should be taken to see that flies are kept off, otherwise
the wretched animal, owing to the presence of maggots, may have
to endure fearful suffering.
Enteritis, or inflammation of the bowels.
Causes. — Obstruction, severe constipation, neglected diarrhœa,
parasites, action of acrid plants or drugs, chills, &c. It is said to
DYSENTERY.
139
be not infrequent in the hot season if elephants are fed largely on
the leaves and branches of the peepul, nyaung-bin (Ficus religiosa).
Symptoms.—During the early stages some constipation and
passing of mucous or slime, later on diarrhoea with slime, belly-pains
which differ from ordinary colic in that the pain is continuous and
increases in intensity as the diseased condition of the bowel ad-
vances. Fever is always present, which at once distinguishes it
from colic.
Prognosis—Unfavourable, frequently fatal.
Treatment: Preventive.—Consists in attention to avoiding causes
noted above.
Curative: Local.—For the relief of pain as described under
that condition, i.e., fomentation, turpentine stupes, mustard plaster.
Occasional enemas of warm water may afford relief. Diarrhoea as
described under that condition.
General.—Opium in 2 drachm doses every two hours till 8 or
10 drachms has been administered; it not only relieves the pain,
but keeps the bowels quiet, a very important matter in this malady.
Tincture aconite in 30-drop doses every three or four hours, if fever
is high, may be tried. Plenty of linseed gruel should be allowed, also
stimulants. Purgatives must on no account be given. If the animal
recovers, bring him gradually on to his full ration. No harm will be
done by keeping him short till he has quite recovered.
Dysentery.
This condition is manifested by intermittent griping pain accom-
panied by discharge of liquid dung mixed with blood and slime.
Causes.—Generally due to chill, but may be a sequel of diarrhoea,
indifferent food and water.
Symptoms.—Fever with its attendant signs already noted;
abdominal pain most noticeable during the act of voiding the dung,
which act may be accompanied by severe straining. The matter
passed is liquid, often foul smelling, and contains either blood or
slime, or both.
Prognosis.—Favourable under early and careful treatment.
Treatment.—Exactly as already noted under diarrhoea, to which
may be added freshly powdered cinnamon in 6-drachm doses, and
enemas containing boracic acid 5 ounces to 4 pints of boiling water,
which must be allowed to cool before use ; a couple of quarts of this
should be injected two or three times a day or oftener.
140
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Epidemic dysentery, or murrain.
Such a condition has been described, which does not differ in
symptoms or treatment from the above, but as it attacks several
animals simultaneously it must be regarded as infectious or con-
tagious, and beasts so affected must be isolated with the same pre-
cautions as laid down under anthrax. The mortality mentioned is
80 per cent. I have never seen this condition in elephants, but I
have seen a similar condition among buffaloes in this province at
the end of the hot season, when after the first few showers the
young grass crops up rapidly. It may be due to the entrance of a
micro-organism. The disease was as fatal as severe cattle plague.
Intestinal obstruction, or stoppage of the bowels.
Causes.—Collection of food and blocking of the bowel, or a twist
of the gut.
When elephants are left entirely to their keepers it is not un-
common for them to feed the animals entirely on branches of trees,
being too lazy to cut grass for them. Some barks are very
astringent and contain a large amount of woody fibre with a small
amount of sap, which is difficult to pass along the bowel, and tends
to collect and eventually produce stoppage.
A surfeit of grain, especially in animals not usually allowed any,
thus partaking of it in large quantities, may also provoke this con-
dition.
Symptoms.—Restlessness, off feed, distended abdomen, severe
continued pain, with total absence of passage of wind or dung. If
not quickly relieved, the symptoms become aggravated, distension
and pain grow worse, severe fever sets in and death may ensue
rapidly.
Treatment.—Avoid all purgatives, which will only aggravate the
condition; but the following may be tried, namely, extract of
belladonna 2 drachms mixed with jaggery. This may be repeated
in four or five hours. The rectum should be emptied by hand, after
which copious enemas of soap and hot water (at a temperature
which will bear the hand comfortably) to which 2 to 3 ounces of
oil of turpentine is added should be thrown up, and repeated with-
out the turpentine every half hour or so till relieved. Pain must
be relieved, as mentioned under that condition. If the obstruction
is relieved, every care with regard to food must be observed as laid
down under severe diarrhœa.
PERITONITIS—VOMITING.
141
Peritonitis.
Inflammation of the glistening membrane which lines the abdo-
minal cavity and is reflected over the bowels, &c.
Causes.—It may occur as an independent disease, due to exposure
to wet and cold, or resulting from inflammation or obstruction of the
bowels, but more commonly in elephants it is caused by punctured
wounds of the abdomen, the result of goring, or falling on sharp
stakes.
Symptoms. —Very similar to those of obstruction just mentioned ;
high fever is an early sign.
Prognosis.—Unfavourable, usually running a rapid and fatal
course.
Treatment.—Must be according to the symptoms and consists
in relieving pain as laid down under that condition. As the bowels
require perfect rest, enemas must not be used, and food must be
given in the form of gruels only. Stimulants, such as brandy, rum,
may be administered at intervals. Wounds must be carefully
treated as laid down under punctured wounds (see page 166).
Vomiting.
Though emetics appear to have no action on the elephant, vomit-
ing in a severe form is occasionally met with. Gilchrist and
Hawkes describe the condition, the cause being ascribed to wash-
ing an animal immediately after coming off a journey when much
heated.
Symptoms.—An elephant apparently quite well suddenly com-
mences to vomit freely ; great irritability of the stomach is manifest-
ed by the animal being unable to retain liquids or solids for some
hours after the commencement of the attack. When the irritabili-
ty subsides, the animal will take food, but after swallowing the
pellet it may become impacted in the gullet and soon after even
the power of swallowing is lost. A lump may sometimes be felt
in the neck indicating the seat of the impaction. There is great
distress and the condition is accompanied by hiccough. It may
occur at any season of the year.
Prognosis.—Unfavourable", unless relief is promptly afforded ;
death ensues in from three to four days. For some hours previous
to death the surface of the body is extremely cold.
Treatment.—All solid food must be withheld until the animal
is well over the attack, after which small quantities may be given
sparingly, care being taken to watch for any symptoms of difficulty
142
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
in swallowing; plenty of well-boiled rice and gruel may be given after
the acute symptoms have subsided.
To try and allay the vomiting, the following may prove benefi-
cial :—
Subnitrate of bismuth
Bicarbonate of soda
...
...
...
...
4 drachms.
4 drachms.
Mixed with honey, a little should be rubbed into the mouth every
few minutes.
Extract of belladonna 2 drachms, rubbed down in glycerine and
mixed with a few ounces of treacle, may be given in a similar man-
ner.
If the animal can drink, ½ an ounce of bicarbonate of soda
may be added to a bucket of water and repeated in a few hours.
Should an obstruction be observed in the neck, the hands must be
well oiled and the swelling gently massaged or manipulated from
above downwards in the hope of facilitating its onward progress.
When the animal is better, enemas may be employed to relieve the
bowels and several days' rest allowed.
On post-mortem examination the gullet is usually found in a state
of mortification in the region of the impaction; in some cases it was
found impacted throughout its extent and in two cases all the
other organs of the body were in a healthy condition.
Poisoning.
Steel records some very interesting cases of wholesale poison-
ing of elephants in India by means of the poisonous Nepaul root,
called "darka," being given in balls of grain, or other delicacies, of
which these animals are fond. In this Province I have never heard
of tame or wild elephants being intentionally poisoned. We must
nevertheless be on our guard as such a thing is possible. Many
poisonous drugs are administered by mahouts in the treatment
of elephants; an overdose might be given through ignorance
or carelessness, or by accident. Elephants are very particular as
regards the selection of their food ; still a case of poisoning might
occur. In two cases where animals died rather suddenly, arsenic
was detected in the contents of the stomach by the Chemical Ex-
aminer. I have little doubt that these animals were being treated
by the mahouts with bazaar arsenic, which is often very impure.
The symptoms manifested which might lead us to suspect poi-
soning are that they occur suddenly, generally while an elephant
is in perfect health. As a rule, they arise soon after food has been
taken or medicine administered. If more than one animal is
taken ill after food or medicine, and all suffer from similar symp-
toms, the detection of poison will probably be found in the food.
POISONING.
143
The poisons we might have to deal with are those employed in
treatment, such as arsenic, opium, belladonna, croton beans, or
croton oil, ganja, dhatura, nux-vomica, metallic salts.
For the treatment of poisons antidotes are administered; they
act in two ways, either by preventing the action of the poison or
counteracting its effect.
Poisons and their antidotes.
Poisons.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Arsenic ... ...
Aconite ... ...
Opium ... ...
Belladonna
...
...
Croton beans, or oil ... ...
Ganja ... ...
Nux-vomica, or strychnia...
Tobacco
...
...
Metallic salts ... ...
Acids ... ...
Carbolic acid ... ...
Antidotes.
Preparations of magnesia.
Tannic acid, and animal charcoal.
Dashing cold water over the body, stimu-
lants ; endeavour to keep the animal
moving about. Permanganate of po-
tash.
Keep the animal moving about; give
lime-water and stimulants; dash cold
water over the body.
Demulcent drinks; stimulants, and opium
to relieve pain and check the purging.
Stimulants; keep the animal moving
about.
Bromide of potassium ; weak decoction
of tobacco.
Warm stimulants, tannic acid, and small
doses of strychnia.
Steel states that "the formation of tu-
mours over the body, progressive an--
mia, and even disorders of the feet have
been attributed to the empirical use of
the compounds of mercury in too large
quantities."
Plenty of white of eggs, wheaten flour
conjee, and other demulcent drinks.
Alkalies such as carbonate or bicarbo-
nate of soda or potash.
White of eggs, demulcent drinks, stimu-
lants.
The dose of poison is usually so large that treatment is of little
avail. Antidotes are not always procurable in time to be of service;
again the elephant is often an awkward animal to give drugs to, and
such things as inhalation of ammonia are impossible.
If a death occurs under suspicious circumstances, a post mortem
should be held, notes taken, and some of the contents of the sto-
mach and commencement of the small intestine, small piece of
liver and kidney should be placed in clean jars, with some spirit,
sealed with a private seal by some responsible person, and de-
spatched without delay to the Chemical Examiner, who will readily
aid and give his opinion on the case.
CHAPTER XI.
INTERNAL PARASITES-SYMPTOMS OF THE PRESENCE OF PARASITES.
Internal parasites.
PARASITES IN THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.
THIS is a subject of the greatest importance, and is deserving of
the careful and earnest attention of all those persons who may be
placed in charge of these valuable animals. Though Gilchrist, in
his work on elephants, published in 1841, and others since then
have mentioned the subject, we owe the greater part of the know-
ledge we now possess to the late Dr. Cobbold, the eminent Helmin-
thologist, and Colonel Hawkes, late of the Commissariat Depart-
ment. It may be accepted as a fact that elephants in Burma are
much troubled with parasites. It is exceptional not to find them
in the intestines, or livers of tame, and even wild elephants after
death. Elephants in India seem also to be much troubled with
them. Forsyth writes : "Elephants are very liable to intestinal
worms. They generally cure themselves, when they get very
troublesome, by swallowing from 10 to 20 pounds of earth. They
always select a red-coloured earth for the purpose. In about twelve
hours purging commences, and all the worms come away."
Cobbold, writing on the important part played by internal para-
sites in the production of endemics and epizooty, remarks: "De-
pend upon it, many a death, hitherto reported as resulting from in-
flammation of the intestines, colic, splenic apoplexy, sunstroke, or
to some other obscure cause has been primarily due to entozoa,
the presence of which may not even have been suspected during
life."
The parasites most likely to be met with are—
(1) Gastrophilus elephantis (see Fig. 27).
(2) Ascaris lonchoptera (see Fig. 28).
(3) Amphistoma Hawlcesii (see Fig. 29).
(4) Fasciola Jacksoni (see Fig. 30).
(5) Dochmius sangeri.
(1) Gastrophilus elephantis.—Gastrophilus elephantis is the
larva, or maggot, or "bot" of a gad-fly, and may be found in the
stomach or upper gut. In the stomach, the "bots" adhere by
INTERNAL PARASITES.
145
means of cephalic or head hooks, which they insert into the mucous
membrane. After attaining a certain growth they voluntarily re
lease their hold and are carried down the intestinal canal, until they
eventually escape with the dung. In appearance "bots" when fresh
resemble whitish red grubs, about an inch in length ; the body is
divided into eleven segments, and the hooks by which they adhere
are often visible without the aid of a lens. During the passage
down the intestinal canal they may re-attach themselves. I met
with one fine example of this, where not less than eighty "bots"
were attached to the mucous membrane of the upper part of the gut.
On escaping from the bowels, they bury themselves in the ground,
where they change into the pupal condition, and in due course they
emerge from their cocoons as full blown dipterous insects (gad-flies).
There is little doubt that "bots" when present in large numbers must
cause trouble; but unless passed per anum it is impossible to diag
nose their presence.
Steel records that a " bot " (Pharyngabolus Africanus) has been
found in the pharynx of the African species. I have not heard of it
in this country.
(2) Ascaris lonchoptera.—Termed "soorti" or "ckotee" by
the Natives of India is very common indeed, but, unless searched for,
is liable to be overlooked. It is a round worm, from 1½ to 2½ inches
in length, about the thickness of fine twine, is semi-transparent,
and of a whitish yellow colour. Large numbers of these para
sites may be present without apparently causing any inconveni
ence. They are found in the intestines.
(3) Amphistoma Hawkcsii.—This parasite is well known to ma
houts. Colonel Hawkes in May 1875 sent some specimens of
this parasite to Dr. Cobbold,' who, finding them new to science,
named them after the donor. They are by no means uncommon,
and are termed "masuri" or "mussodee" by the attendants, but,
owing to the large quantity of fœces passed at a time by elephants,
and the small size of the parasites, attention is not attracted to
them. Their abode is the large intestine, to the membrane of
which they adhere by means of their suckers. They are of a deli
cate flesh pink colour. Steel gives their size as ⅜ — ¼ inch. Some
times, however, we find specimens measuring 5/16, 7/16 inch. They
are not unlike barley-corns in appearance.
They may on examination be readily recognized under a lens by
the presence of a circular sucker, placed at each extremity of their
bodies.
It is only when they are present in very large numbers that they
set up much irritation of the bowel, causing severe and frequent
ly most persistent diarrhoea, during which a truly marvellous num-
19