NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
300
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Arrangements can be made for each tube to contain sufficient
vaccine for one elephant. The price of a close of first and second
vaccine is, I believe, 4d. to 6d.
With reference to vaccination in sheep and cattle, Koch has
noted the following points :—
(a) That if the vaccines are too strong, they may cause fatal
charbon (Anthrax).
(b) If they are too feeble, they do not protect.
(c) That they do not confer immunity without rendering the
animal seriously ill, and that they are consequently
dangerous.
(d) That vaccination may serve to disseminate by rendering
animals severely ill from that disease, during which
illness they are capable of infecting others.
(e) That the immunity conferred is insufficient to preserve
with certainty from natural infection.
(f ) That the immunity conferred is of too short duration.
Protective vaccination against anthrax amongst elephants was
tried in Burma during the early eighties. Unfortunately the records
regarding the experiments are very meagre ; from those available
I find that my predecessor, at the request of the Conservator of
Forests, Pegu Circle, inoculated two Government elephants (one
full grown and one young animal) on the 7th September 1883, also
two cow calves, one buffalo calf, two sheep, one pony and a pig,
with Pasteur's first vaccine. The temperature of these animals,
with one exception, a sheep, was slightly affected, the sheep showing
a rise died on seventh day after inoculation from anthrax. On
the 23rd the second vaccine was injected. None of the animals
showed a rise in temperature over one degree. One elephant had a
swelling at seat of inoculation, the elephants were removed to jungle
on tenth day after inoculation. The Conservator of Forests would
not agree to the proposal to test the efficacy of the inoculation
by inoculating with virulent anthrax virus, owing to the great value
of the animals. The pony, sheep and pig were inoculated and no
ill-effects followed ; two unprotected rabbits inoculated with same
material died of anthrax within 36 hours. On the 2nd May twelve
elephants, the property of contractors, were inoculated at Zigôn
with first vaccine.
On the 15th only nine elephants were brought forward : they each
received an injection of second vaccine. One elephant had a
swelling at seat of previous inoculation. I regret I cannot trace
the further history of these animals.
I believe that the Bombay Burma Trading Corporation
inoculated many elephants about the same time, and from what I
ANTHRAX.
301
have heard the results were not encouraging, so much so that no
further inoculations have been carried out since.
Curative treatment.—Carbolic
acid in 2-dr. doses, well diluted
with oil or warm water, is perhaps beneficial in the few cases
of subacute type in which its administration is possible. The doses
should be given at intervals of two or three hours. Cyllin or
medicinal Izal in similar doses may also be used.
Other methods of treatment have been advocated, from which
I have selected those considered likely to prove best which I
append :—Hyposulphite of soda 4 to 6 ounces mixed with jaggery,
two or three times a day, or carbolic acid 2 drachms, glycerine ½
an ounce, added to two pints of water, twice a clay, or pure iodine ½
a drachm, iodide of potash 2 drachms, mixed with jaggery may
be given twice a day. If the animal cannot be persuaded to take
these, the rectum should be emptied by hand and an enema of carbolic
acid 2 drachms, glycerine 1 ounce, warm water 4 pints, injected every
four hours. Also hypodermic injection—carbolic acid 1 drachm,
glycerine 1 ounce. A small incision should be made through the skin
and the needle inserted.
The tumours should be cut into deeply and extensively by a
cross incision, freely cauterized with pure carbolic acid and dressed
with carbolic lotion (1 in 40), and on redressing the soiled dressings
must be placed in a receptacle (never on the ground) and burned
under supervision. The receptacle must then be thoroughly cleansed
with carbolic solution (1 in 40).
NOTE.—The disease is not infrequently met with in horned cattle. The
vernacular names for it are—
(Daung-than-na) ; (
(Geik-na) ;
(Hauk-na)
;
(Sone-so-na)
;
(Vine-na) ;
(Oung-nine-nat-pan);
(Hmin-thet).
As the disease is so difficult to
separate from Hæmorrhagic Septicaemia, the Burmans no doubt apply the names
to both diseases.
Symptoms.—As is the case with elephants the disease may be met with in
the internal or external form. In the former death may occur quite suddenly
without noticeable symptoms. When symptoms are present they are an anxious
expression, muscular twitching, discharge from nostrils, sometimes blood-stained,
the animal is blown out, there is often abdominal pain and straining, the dung is
blood-stained and the urine high-coloured. The gait is staggering. The mucous
membranes are high-coloured and there is high fever. In some cases the animals
appear frenzied ; this stage is soon succeeded by marked stupor. In the external
form fairly hard, doughy, painful, circumscribed swellings which pit on pressure
occur about any part of the body but more often about the throat, neck, shoulder,
back and abdomen. The swellings tend to become quite cold and painless. Cold,
diffuse, painless swellings under the skin may be observed in some cases. The
external form is less fatal as a rule.
CHAPTER IV.
HÆMORRHAGIC SEPTICÆMIA.
When examining the blood of elephants suspected of having
succumbed to anthrax, Mr. Cameron, C.V.D., myself and others
have seen the organism of this disease which in all probability is far
more common than we imagine. The symptoms so closely resemble
those met with in anthrax that a mistaken diagnosis is an easy
matter. By means of a microscope the diagnosis is rendered easy,
as the organisms are very different.
Definition.—The disease is a virulent infective fever caused by the
presence of an organism which is small in size, ovoid in shape and on
staining often presents only the terminal portions coloured, the inter
vening portion being unstained.
As in anthrax, sporadic cases may be met with at any season,
but generally speaking the disease is most prevalent during the
early rains or towards the close of the monsoon. It may be met
with after any unseasonable rain, but is most common on low-lying
lands subject to periodical inundation and on those which may be
submerged by extraordinary floods.
Duration of attack.—From
a few hours to thirty-six hours.
Animals that live beyond this—and they are few—have a chance of
pulling through. The disease is in some cases so rapidly fatal as to
be mistaken for snake-bite. I fear much time is spent and wasted
very often in hunting for " fang marks." Animals may die so
rapidly as to preclude the appearance of the more prominent symp-
toms. As in anthrax, outbreaks do not usually last long—ten to
fifteen days. The mortality is very high.
Infection.—In
elephants the main channel of infection is
generally through wounds, abrasions, etc. The nature of their food
is such as to frequently cause wounds and abrasions about the lips
and mouth in addition to those they may acquire about the limbs,
trunk, feet and body by sharp bamboos, thorny bushes, stumps, etc.,
while grazing in the jungle. The virus may also gain entrance to
the system through abrasions in the lining membrane of the digestive
tract by means of infected fodder, water, etc.
Symptoms.—The general symptoms are complete loss of appetite,
frequent yawning, mouth being usually kept open, the trunk
contracted or shrunken-looking, trembling, high fever and the
HÆMORRHAGIC SEPTICÆMIA.
303
appearance of a swelling or swellings of variable size diffuse or
circumscribed in different parts of the body. These swellings are most
frequently met with in the head, between the jaws, in the neck, on
the shoulders or immediately behind them, sometimes under the
abdomen and tail and also in the groin. The area most frequently
affected is perhaps the throat region, and in some cases the swelling
may be so extensive as to involve also the face, trunk and neck,
causing marked disfigurement. The swellings under the tail often
attain a considerable size and may spread downwards between the
hind-legs and along the under surface of the abdomen. When they
first appear the swellings are hot, doughy and painful, later becoming
hard and tense. In those cases in which the throat is affected the
respirations are increased in number and are laboured and difficult,
and as a rule noisy. The respiratory difficulty is very acute towards
the end and death may take place in convulsions from suffocation.
When the limbs are affected lameness is often manifested. The
tongue may appear swollen and dark in colour. The cavity of the
mouth may be dry or may be coated with a sticky saliva. The
palate may also appear dark in colour, with mulberry-coloured spots.
A discharge of a slimy material from the trunk may also be observed.
In some cases vomiting may occur. All mucous membranes are of
a diffuse red colour, with generally mulberry-coloured (hæmorrhagic)
spots. The bowels are usually not much disturbed, though the
passage of dung is often preceded or followed by a discharge of
liquid, dark, foetid material, which sometimes contains mucus and
traces of blood. Diarrhoea may be present in some cases. The
urine is scanty, high-coloured and turbid. The internal temperature
is always high, but the surface temperature of the body is variable.
In acute seizures there is in some cases vomiting, loss of power
behind, evidenced by inability to move, in others a staggering gait
with a tendency to fall forwards may be observed.
Treatment.—No
treatment is of much use. Good nursing, i.e.,
attention to the animal's wants, frequent stimulants such as rum,
whisky, country spirit, etc., diluted with water or gruel, or mixed
with treacle and water in a bucket, if he can be induced to take them,
are most useful. The mouth should be frequently washed out with
some mild lotion, e.g., alum, boracic, or dilute Condy's fluid. Serum
is being tried in cattle and other animals for the prevention and cure
of this disease with I believe a certain measure of success, and
might when perfected be tried in elephants with an equal chance of
success where opportunities for its use. occur. The great dis-
advantage of all sera in warm climates is their tendency to rapid
deterioration and uncertainty of action. Pillules of a vaccine for
this disease are now being tried.
304
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Post-mortem
appearances.—In
acute cases all that may be
met with is a slight excess of fluid in the body cavities, a slight
redness of the peritoneum and some small haemorrhages. The
swellings are hard, and on section are found to contain a greenish
yellow or at times pinkish gelatinous material, infiltrated with
blackish haemorrhages of various sizes. This gelatinous material may
also be met with in other parts of the body infiltrating the connective
and muscular tissues. On opening the abdomen an excess of
fluid is found, the peritoneum, mesentery, etc., are highly injected
and in some cases show hæmorrhagic points. The liver is often
enlarged, full of blood and friable, as also the kidneys, which are soft.
The spleen is congested, friable and sometimes enlarged, though not
to anything like the same extent as in anthrax.
The stomach
shows hæmorrhagic patches both externally and under its lining
membrane ; the mucous membrane of the bowel shows haemorrhages
and inflammatory exudations, particularly about the duodenum, and
may contain soft albumenous matter varying in colour from yellow
to grey and streaked with blood. Lungs are congested and full of
frothy material. Pericardium contains clear serous fluid and may
show hæmorrhagic patches, the heart muscle is soft, friable and
with hæmorrhagic patches ; this may also be seen under the lining
membrane of the heart cavities. The blood is dark-coloured and
clots badly, but is not tarry as in anthrax.
NOTE.—This disease is met with frequently in horned cattle, especially
buffaloes. The vernacular names for it are
(Le-gyaung-kwè-na)
and
(Lè-gyaung-pate-na).
Symptoms—Are very much the same as those already described in the
elephant.
[Facing page 305.
PLATE XIV.
TRYPANOSOMES IN ELEPHANT SURRA.
Magnification 750.
CHAPTER V.
TRYPANOSOMIASIS—" THUT "—ELEPHANT SURRA.
It is desirable to mention here a disease only too well known
to all elephant owners by the Burmese name thut (
). A
large number of the sudden deaths occurring in elephants when not
attributed to snake-bite fall under this heading. After most careful
observation and enquiry I arrived at the conclusion that the term
appears to be restricted to such cases of disease in which dropsical
swellings appear as a symptom. In cases of surra in equines they
are diagnosed as fever by the Burmans until some swelling either of
the limbs, sheath, etc., is evident, then the cases are designated thut.
It is therefore a term applied merely to any ailment in which
swellings are present, hence many diseases might be included under
the name, but as perhaps in a fair percentage of cases, especially in
equines, the cases are surra, I have retained the name to apply to
this disease only.
The actual meaning of thut is
" blood that collects and tends to putrefaction."
It is probable that some of the cases called by Natives of India
zahirbad are cases of surra.
Surra is a Hindustani word, meaning rotten.
Susceptible animals.—Surra
affects equines principally, but the
disease affects camels, dogs, cats, monkeys, goats, sheep, cattle and
elephants.
In equines it is invariably fatal. Many cattle after considerable
loss of flesh recover. With regard to the elephant not very much
is known, but there is every reason for thinking that many elephants
do recover, at any rate we are aware that the trypanosome
disappears from the peripheral circulation, at least for considerable
periods, whether relapses occur afterwards I cannot say in the present
state of our knowledge. In elephants as in camels the disease
appears to run a chronic course.
Definition.—A pernicious anaemia characterised by remittent or
intermittent fever, wasting, although the appetite is good, dropsical
swellings in dependent parts of the body, great weakness and finally
paralysis, and caused by the growth and multiplication in the blood
of an organism.
20
306
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
The parasite.—On
the examination of a stained specimen we
find it composed of a body which is usually described as eel-like in
form, and inside the body two other bodies or nuclei, one of large
size and usually situated about the middle of the organism, the
other smaller and situated about the posterior extremity. Along
one edge of the body runs the flagellum which arises from the small
nucleus and is prolonged beyond the anterior end as the free portion.
Connecting this flagellum to the body we have a very fine membrane,
the undulating membrane. When examining a fresh specimen of
blood, the trypanosomes can be seen wriggling rapidly from place to
place and knocking the red corpuscles about with their flagella.
There may be many parasites in a field or only very few.
Prevalence.—The
disease occurs practically throughout India,
Burma, Persia, Siam, the Straits Settlements, Philippines, etc.
Symptoms.—The
disease " is characterised by an intermittent,
remittent, and sometimes a relapsing type of fever which continues
for varying periods, from a few days to months, according to the
species and the constitutions of the animals attacked."—(Lingard.)
In elephants it is very rarely that Europeans observe the early
symptoms of any ailment—at least such as may be detected by an
attendant who has had an animal under his charge for some time, such
as slight dulness and fever, perhaps temporary loss of appetite,
the animal doing his work but tiring rather quickly, gradual but
scarcely perceptible loss of condition, alteration in character of the
excretions.
Admitting a mahout to have noticed that his charge is not as
well as usual, he might not report the matter, as many of them
remember the old custom which prevailed, viz., that while an elephant
was out of work through sickness his driver was without pay.
Elephants become dull, listless and sleepy-looking, they are
disinclined to move about and, if made to, the movements are sluggish,
the eyes appear dull and dim, and there is in some cases a frothy
discharge from the eyes. The mucous membranes are as a rule very
pale and later may take on a yellowish tinge ; there may be mulberry-
coloured spots on them, but these are not constant. The bowels are
generally normal, but there may be constipation and the dung covered
with mucus. The urine is scanty, gradually becomes viscid, and is
often markedly greenish in colour. Gradual but progressive loss of
condition is usually present, but is not appreciable in these immense
animals, at least to a casual observer, until pronounced.
During paroxysms the pulse is faster, and during the intermis-
sions is about normal ; as the strength fails it becomes feeble.
The respiration is not much altered. Even though the tempera-
ture be high the appetite remains good—a remarkable feature
TRYPANOSOMIASIS.
307
about this disease. Notwithstanding that an animal will take his
food well throughout the disease, he gradually and steadily loses
condition and strength. The blood undergoes profound changes,
thus seriously interfering with proper nutrition of the tissues.
Accompanying the debility and prostration of strength, though not
constant there may be dropsical swellings which may appear between
the jaws, lower parts of abdomen, chest, or the feet or limbs may be
swollen.
When daily observations of the temperature and microscopical
examinations of the blood can be made it will be found that, even
with a slight rise or no rise in temperature, trypanosomes may be
found in the blood. From the notes on cases in my possession the
temperature rarely rises to 102 0 F. During intermissions it may
occasionally be found subnormal. The animals are dull and heavy
during the paroxysms.
Diagnosis.—If an elephant be found showing symptoms such as
described, surra may be suspected ; positive diagnosis however
depends on the demonstration under the microscope of the trypano-
some in the blood. It may be necessary to examine blood smears
daily for some time before a positive diagnosis can be established.
Incubation.—The onset is insidious and the incubation period is
therefore not definitely settled, authorities having found different
periods of time to elapse between inoculation and the onset of
symptoms. The period seems to vary roughly between three and
thirteen days in the horse.
Mode of infection.—In his "Surra Report, 1899" Lingard
states that natural infection may occur in the following ways :—
(i) By ingestion of grass from lands subject to inundation.
(ii) By drinking stagnant water.
(iii) From bites of certain species of flies.
(iv) The ingestion of corn, etc., contaminated by the excrement
of rats.
In 1901 Leonard Rogers pointed out that the horse-flies of
India were capable of producing the disease in other animals after
having recently bitten infected animals, and he therefore argues that
the latent cases in cattle, buffaloes, etc., may thus act as sources of
infection.
The flies blamed for the spread of surra belong to the Tabanidæ
(hmet,
) and Stomoxys
(yin-ye,
), though perhaps other
blood-sucking flies may also carry the disease.
Duration of disease.—The disease is divided into paroxysms
and intermissions ; the periods of intermission in the elephant may
be of considerable duration. The paroxysms last from two to
several days.
308
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Dr. A. Lingard, late Imperial Bacteriologist to the Government
of India, experimented on two elephants as to their susceptibility to
equine surra.
The conclusion he arrived at was that old Indian
elephants in health are either insusceptible or only very slightly
susceptible. In carrying out these experiments he injected subcu-
taneously in large doses virulent blood containing " Trypanosoma
evansi " in numbers.
I am indebted to Captain J. D. Holmes, C.V.D., now holding
the above appointment, for the following note on these experiments.
One elephant inoculated with 20 c.c. of blood drawn from the
jugular vein of a control pony and kept under observation for about
four months did not show any organism in the blood and was then
discontinued.
The second elephant inoculated with 500 c.c. equine surra
blood defibrinated, showed few organisms on the fourth day after
inoculation, and these continued for six weeks.
The following numbers of Paroxysms and Intermissions were
observed :—
1st P.
...
1st I.
...
2nd P.
...
2nd I.
3rd P.
...
3rd I.
...
4th P.
...
4th I.
...
5th P.
5th I.
6th P.
...
Length.
Six weeks
Three days
...
Nine days
...
Two days
Four days
Six days
Sixteen days...
Two days
Six days.....
Four
days...
?
No. of Organisms.
Few.
—
Few.
—
Few.
—
Few.
—
Few.
—
Few.
The observations were discontinued and later on the animal
was disposed of in good health, without any visible effects of the
disease.
Post-mortem.—Body generally much emaciated ; on opening the
abdomen a considerable quantity of straw-coloured fluid may be
observed. The internal organs are pale in colour, i.e., more or less
bloodless. The liver, also spleen, is sometimes enlarged, dark
(claret-coloured) spots or patches are often present on surface of the
latter organ. The kidneys are often enlarged, congested and
blotched with dark-coloured spots. In mules and ponies in Burma
we frequently notice that the mucous membrane of the stomach is
ulcerated and stained a peculiar yellow, in fact there may be a
general tinge of yellow all over the membrane. In the chest we find
heart pale, often flabby, and there is usually a quantity of straw-
TRYPANOSOMIASIS.
309
coloured jelly-like material about the base, and beneath the lining
membrane blotches and dark-coloured spots may be seen. They
are also to be seen beneath the internal lining membrane of the
heart.
Treatment.—Arsenic
is the only drug that has proved of service
in this malady. Commence treatment by giving 4 grains twice
daily, the quantity of arsenic should be increased by half a grain
every second or third day till 12 grains per diem is reached, when
the dose may be decreased daily by half a grain until 2 grains is
reached. If the patient shows intolerance of the drug manifested by
loss of appetite, weeping from the eyes, partial loss of power in hind-
quarters, evidenced by unsteady gait, nervousness, the medicine
must be discontinued. Liquor arsenicalis is the most convenient
preparation, each ounce contains four grains of arsenic and as it
is tasteless it is easily administered in sweetened gruel. The
medicine should be given after the animal has taken some food.
Within the last few years several methods of treatment have
been tried with varying success, the most promising up to date being
what is known as the " atoxyl " treatment. Atoxyl is a preparation
of arsenic with an organic acid of complex composition. The theory
of the treatment is that if ordinary preparations of arsenic are
pushed one quickly observes symptoms of poisoning, but the
compound atoxyl can be given in doses exceeding by several times
the dose of arsenic it is possible to give. Still more recently
Captain Holmes, C.V.D., in India, in experimenting with atoxyl
and orpiment obtained most satisfactory results. The matter is still
more or less in the experimental stage, and time alone will show
whether or not the method can be extensively employed as a
permanent cure in cases of trypanosome affections.*
Prevention—Is
difficult, but the following suggestions are
made :—
(1) Avoid camping in marshy localities in the neighbourhood
of which the disease is of course most common.
(2) Protect the animals from the bites of flies when they
are prevalent, by means of smearing their bodies with
some weak mixture containing some tarry preparation
or evil-smelling drug and by burning refuse about
camps.
(3) Prevent certain flies from breeding, by attending carefully
to the proper disposal of manure and refuse about stand-
ings and in camps.
* Later reports have been so encouraging that this method of treatment will
probably be generally adopted.