NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
86
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
pendix 11 to 15, and stimulants such as rum or whisky in six-ounce
doses twice or thrice daily should be given. During convalescence
a course of tonics is indicated, especially the preparations of arsenic,
iron, or copper, mixed with vegetable bitters or aromatics, see
Appendix Nos. 39 to 46. Also dilute nitric acid in doses of one to
three drachms in a bucket of water, or dilute sulpruric acid in simi-
lar doses once daily, or iodide of iron in two drachm doses once a
day.
If worms are the cause, for treatment see Appendix Nos. 47 to
53.
(b) Local.—When the dropsy under the skin of the belly tends
to become tense and the area is extensive, the skin may be stabbed
in several places to allow the fluid to drain away. This is best done
by protecting a knife by winding round the blade, tow, cloth, or string,
so as to leave only half to three-quarters of an inch of the blade ex-
posed, so that when stabbing the part, it cannot go deep enough to
cause injury. The stabs should be four or five inches apart. This
done, the parts should be fomented and afterwards dressed with anti-
fly preparations, see Appendix Nos. 122, 123, and 128 to 130. A trocar
and canula may be employed for tapping the fluid; the trocar should
be about 3 inches in length and the canula 2½ inches, the diameter
of which should be nearly ¼ inch.
CHAPTER V.
ANTHRAX FEVER, OR CHARBON-AVOIDANCE—DISPOSAL OF CARCASSES—VACCINATION-
POST MORTEM EXAMINATION—APPEARANCE OF CARCASSES-ELEPHANT-POX—SURRA-THUT
—FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE-BLOOD POISONING-RABIES-TETANUS OR LOCKJAW—
-EPIDEMIC PNEUMONIA—RHEUMATISM.
Anthrax Fever or Charbon.
BEFORE considering the disease as it occurs in elephants, it will
be advisable to discuss it as it affects some other animals. From
numerous records of the disease and the heavy mortality reported
therein, as well as its extreme contagious and infectious character,
we have learnt to consider it one of the most formidable diseases
we have to encounter.
Definition.—A virulent infective fever caused by the entrance
into the blood and multiplication therein of a micro-organism known
as the "bacillus anthracis."
Incubation (That is, period which elapses between the time
of entry of the organism into the system and the appearance of its
first symptom).—One to several days.
Prevalence.—Certain localities are peculiarly adapted for the
development of the disease which recurs in them repeatedly, notably
low-lying swampy districts subject to inundation, especially in hot
and damp climates, with clay and loamy soils; some areas in these
localities, particluar pastures, are specially notorious for frequent
outbreaks. From these localities the disease may be carried in
various ways and infect extensive areas constituting epidemics.
Season.—Outbreaks in Burma among cattle generally occur
during April, May, and early part of June, i.e., the advent of the rains,
and September and October the close of the rains. At these times
there are heavy thunder-storms often followed by intense heat
during which time there is a rapid withdrawal of moisture from the
soil.
Altitude.—It is rarely met with on any elevated well-drained
land.
Sources of infection.—Food and water—
(a) Food.—In the case of carnivora, the flesh of animals that
have died of the disease.
(b) In herbivora, fodder or water which has been infected by
discharges from affected animals or carcasses.
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A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
(c) Respiration.—The spores of the organism may be car-
ried by the wind and thus taken in with air to the
lungs.
(d) Local wounds and sores may be infected by being
brought into contact with the anthrax poison either
through the discharges of infected animals directly,
or through the agency of flies, or suctorial insects,
that have either settled on infected material, or have
bitten infected animals.
General symptoms.—The most characteristic features of the
disease consist of the suddeness of the onset, accompanied with
violent shiverings or twitchings, early pronounced prostration ; the
very aspect of the animal, which it is impossible to describe, but
which once seen will not be forgotton, denotes the gravity of the
seizure; fever, which rapidly becomes high, bleeding from the mucous
membranes, evidenced by purplish spots and blotches on the mouth
and palate, or by blood-stained discharges from the mouth, anus,
or bladder. These symptoms run a severe and rapid course and are
usually succeeded by a fatal issue in from one hour or less, to several
days, according to the virulence of the poison, or more rarely to re-
covery. Over and above these ordinary symptoms may be seen
those arising from local conditions—
(a) The lungs, shown by distressed breathing which may
culminate in suffocation.
(b) Intestinal colic, with often urgent diarrhoea, attended
with voiding of dark liquid or blood-stained evacu-
ations.
(c) Nervous system, in which spasms, wild excitement, ex-
treme listlessness or insensibility, paralysis with totter-
ing gait, and convulsions ending in death.
(d) The skin.—Rapidly formed swellings or tumours localized
or diffused beneath the skin which may either precede
or succeed the advent of fever, and which are at first hot,
painful, and doughy, but later become cold and painless,
and which on incision are found to contain a jelly-like
material but never matter. The swellings are more fre-
quently seen behind the jaws (parotid glands), between
the limbs, groins, on the front of shoulders, belly, or
hind-quarters ; sometimes sores on the skin.
As regards the disease in elephants it will be sufficient to observe
that all degrees of severity and diversity of symptoms may be met
with. It frequently happens that the most virulent forms are
encountered during the early period of an outbreak. Sometimes
death ensues so rapidly without any symptoms having been noticed,
that it has been attributed to apoplexy, heat-stroke, lightning-stroke,
ANTHRAX FEVER OR CHARBON.
89
and snake-bite. During the rains, when anthrax is prevalent, occa-
sionally more or less sudden deaths are recorded in which the
mouth, tongue, and throat have been observed to be in a diseased
state, which symptoms have been attributed by Burmans to a black
hairy caterpillar which is common at this season of the year in cer-
tain localities where they often do immense damage to teak and
other trees. Burmans state that if an elephant takes up one of
these creatures with its food death will result. In the same way
similar cases in horned cattle have been ascribed to this caterpillar,
but these cases are often cases of anthrax. I have handled the
caterpillar and have not suffered except some slight irritation.
Prognosis.—Most unfavourable: Friedberger and Fröhner give
the average mortality amongst domestic animals from 70 to 90 and
even 100 per cent. in the worst types (i.e., apoplectic). After an
epidemic has continued some time the disease may assume a milder
type and recoveries without any treatment are not very rare.
Diagnosis.—Though it is highly important to readily recognize
anthrax, it is in reality often a most difficult matter owing to the
variation in symptoms, or owing to a fatal issue arising without any
symptoms at all having been discovered. Again, it is often difficult
in dealing with isolated cases. When some of the more important
symptoms enumerated above have been detected there is less diffi-
culty in pronouncing the character of the disease. Positive diagnosis
can only be made by finding the anthrax bacillus in the blood
through the aid of the microscope. If anthrax has been prevalent in
a locality previously, and sudden deaths occurred among cattle at the
same time as among elephants, or if elephants have grazed in places
where carcasses have been known to be buried, the disease may be
suspected to be anthrax.
When anthrax is suspected as a cause of death, thin cover glass
preparations should be made and sent in at once for examination.
Cover glasses may be obtained at any chemists, and officers should
be supplied with them. I shall only be too glad to examine any
specimens sent to me.
One important point to remember is, that all preparations to be
any good must be made as soon as possible after death, as the
bodies of animals dead of this disease soon undergo decomposition.
To prepare specimens, a minute quantity [half a drop] of blood,
or pulp from the spleen or other organs, or jelly-like diseased
material is taken on the point of a needle which has just previously
been heated in a flame. The material is placed between two cover
glasses, which are to be pressed gently together in order to expel
any excess of material, and to leave a very thin layer between them,
they are then to be separated by sliding them gently one over the
12
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A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
other and allowed to dry under a watch or wine glass to exclude
dust, or the layer may be fixed by taking the cover glass, coated
surface uppermost, between the finger and thumb, and passing it
rapidly two or three times over the flame of a spirit lamp. When
dry, they should be carefully packed in cotton wool with slips of
paper intervening and placed in a small wooden box, and for extra
protection this box should be again packed inside a tin one to en-
sure safety. About half a dozen specimens should be sent. All
cover slips must be boiled and cleaned and kept in some disinfect-
ing fluid—carbolic acid (1—50) prior to use.
Microscopical examination of the blood after death will afford a
correct diagnosis, and a post mortem examination alone will usually
do so. The disease will be best understood by quoting a few illus-
trative cases. Some of these occurred among elephants at the same
time that this disease was raging amongst horned cattle in the
same locality.
Case No. 1.—Red spots observed on the mucous membranes,
eyes staring, passed blood with the excrement. During illness kept
shivering and leaning against trees; after falling he did not rise
again. Died on the second day of illness. Putrid smell from the
mouth soon after death. Another animal had a short time previous-
ly died suddenly near by.
Case No. 2.—One morning an animal to all appearances well, was
saddled, loaded, and started from camp; she had only gone a
short distance, when it was observed that she was not walking pro-
perly, i.e., signs of weakness behind were evident; she suddenly
stopped, and refused to go on, so was turned to return to camp,
but in a short time she fell down ; the baggage and kah (basket)
ropes were cut through at once, but she did not rise again, dying in
a short time. This elephant had a day or so before grazed over a
place where the carcass of an elephant which had recently died had
been dragged by two elephants for about a mile for burial.
Case No. 3.—Three elephants, namely, Nos. 100, 101, 103, were
working in the same creek. These elephants had worked through
the hot weather ; they had a day off after every three days' work.
Grazing was scarce; they lived chiefly on dry bamboo, and were
given a liberal ration of paddy daily. The drinking water was taken
from shallow wells freshly made ; the water, however, was described
as putrid and offensive ; and that in which the animals were bathed
was stagnant. It had rained for a couple of days prior to the first
elephant being attacked.
On the morning of the 5th May, No. 103 was noticed to be out of
sorts, so was not sent to work ; after receiving some medicine he was
set free to graze. In the evening, when brought to water, he was
observed to be much worse; he drank as usual, but his ears and
ANTHRAX FEVER OR CHARBON.
91
body were cold, and he was very dull. His mahout took him into
the jungle, and during the night he was observed to fall once and lie
down several times; in the morning he was standing alongside a
clump of bamboo looking very sick; his mucous membranes were
yellow, trunk swollen, and he was unable to move; he dropped and
died. This was on the 6th May. Cause of death supposed to be
sunstroke, but proved to be anthrax.
The remaining elephants were thrown out of work rested for a
few days and were then moved to another creek.
Case No. 4.—On the morning of the 18th, No. 100 was found dead
and was buried where he died. Death was reported to be due to
anthrax. No signs of illness were manifested.
Case No. 5.—On the morning of the 23rd, No. 101 was found dead.
This elephant was fettered, set free to graze the evening previous
apparently well, and was found dead within a few yards of where No.
100 died.
Three elepants were stationed together Nos. 9, 10, and 11.
Case No. 6.—No. 11 when seen on the morning of the 5th June
was to all appearances well; he was let loose to graze: In the even-
ing he was noticed to be very dull, trembling, ears cold, eyes bluish,
appeared unable to see, did not obey orders, breathing very hard.
In 15 minutes or thereabouts his hind-legs suddenly gave way under
him; he fell, was delirious, and soon died.
Case No. 7.—No. 10 had done no work for some months, as he
was being treated for a sore ; he was seen on the afternoon of the
6th of June leaning against a tree shivering ; on inspection he was
found to be dull, a swelling was observed behind the jaw, took no
notice of his keeper, and later on became delirious; his hind-quar-
ters were weak; he tried to move away, but fell forward and soon
afterwards died. In about an hour the body was noticed to be
enormously distended. This elephant died at a place 1½ miles dis-
tant from where No. 11 died.
Case No. 8.—An elephant which was apparently quite well the
previous evening was next morning observed to be very ill: the ears
and legs cold, body hot, breathing hard, trunk swollen, eyes staring;
blood was noticed on dung that was passed; when made to move
his hind-quarters swayed to and fro; he dropped, and died in con-
vulsions. Soon after death the body became greatly distended and
blood was observed passing from the natural openings. The rectum
was everted, dark in colour, and presented the appearance of a
tumour.
Case No. 9.—On the morning of the 10th October, the mahout
went out to catch his elephant; on finding him he observed that the
animal was sick, his breathing was distressed, there was swelling
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A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
behind the jaws and also on the belly, and the trunk appeared swollen,
especially in its upper portion; on trying to take the animal to water
he seemed very weak. He was left under a bamboo clump. In
the evening he was worse, was very dull, the trunk flaccid, breathing
very audible. Next morning he seemed no worse, refused food, and,
though he took water in his trunk, appeared to have some difficulty
in swallowing. He died about 3 P.M.
Case No. 10.—On the 31st July this animal while out grazing was
found in the morning standing perfectly quiet amongst some bam-
boos, he was made to move a few feet with difficulty, and it was
noticed that he had a large swelling called "thut" by the Burmans,
extending from between the fore-legs on to the belly and sheath of
penis; he was given water, which he drank; during the day another
small swelling was noticed on the hind-quarter; he passed some
fœtid liquid motions and also urinated in small quantities during the
day: swellings were treated with mixture of turmeric, &c. 1st
August.—No sleep during the night, ate and drank a little, passed
liquid motions, animal very drowsy, listless, and stiff; swellings no
better. 2nd August.—Died early this morning.
Cases Nos. 11 and 12 are quoted from Frost.
Case No. 11.—This is the third elephant that has perished at this
depot within twelve days. Case 1 died after a short illness. She was
seemingly in perfect health on the evening of 14th June, and died
about 3 or 4 A.M. on the 15th. I did not attempt a post mortem
examination, but merely examined the contents of the abdomen as
removed from the body. In this case nothing attracted my attention
save large abscesses in the liver, which I thought sufficient to account
for death. Case 2 died on the 22nd; no post mortem held. Case 3.
The following are the symptoms which were given to me by
the sergeant in charge of the animal. The first symptoms of sick-
ness were noticed on the morning of the 23rd instant in the shape of
a lameness of the front and hind leg, left side. During the day it re-
fused all food (Colonel Hawkes corrects this and states it ate a little
food) ; no sleep at night. On the 24th left side improved by fo-
menting withhot water. Refused all food, and kept lying down and
getting up at irregular intervals throughout the day and night; slept
very little and ate no food. Administered a purgative through the
medium of plantains and boiled rice, which slightly acted on the
system, the excrement being mixed with slime. On the 25th the
animal grew worse ; no sleep, no food, lying down and getting up
till about 3-30 P.M. Appeared during the day to be in pain, as the
animal was noticed sitting on its haunches and biting its trunk ;
passed urine once yesterday. At 4-30 P.M. it expired.
AVOIDANCE.
93
P.S.—During the day a large swelling formed behind the left ear.
With the exception of the P.S. I do not think there is much value
to be attached to the symptoms quoted. Colonel Hawkes adds that
the tumour formed very rapidly.
The symptoms which 1 noticed were not characteristic ; pulse 68,
pupils dilated to their fullest extent, breathing hurried, animal down
and very uneasy.
Case No. 12.—The following symptoms were detailed by the
sergeant in charge. 27th of June 4 P.M. was observed to be limp-
ing when brought from shed to feeding-place ; ate rice and straw;
no sleep during night and ate very little. Favoured left hind-leg on
account of pain. 28th of June, swelling on right of penis was ob-
served early this morning; animal drags left hind-leg; ate charah
freely from 9-30 to 10 A.M. Urinated at 9-45 A.M.; urine of whitish
colour, but without pain; ate and drank and seemed better. 29th
June.—No sleep during night; swelling increased ; grew worse be-
tween 8 and 9 A.M. Tumour greatly enlarged since morning. At
9-10 A.M. lay down, biting trunk from pain. About this time Vete-
rinary Surgeon Frost opened the tumour. Elephant died at 10-10
A.M.
Treatment.—From the above remarks, especially with regard to
infection and contagion, easy transmission to man, and high mortal-
ity it will be readily grasped how dread and important is the nature of
the disease, and from the fact that no specific remedy has been dis-
covered of any avail in treatment, it follows that the most important
way to combat the malady lies in prevention. Firstly, then, preven-
tive treatment will be discussed, after which attention will be given to
curative measures.
Avoidance.
Before halting at a village it is as well to ascertain from villagers
or herdsman the state of health of their cattle ; should there be
disease prevalent and anything indicative or suspicious of anthrax
(the names by which it is ordinarily known in Burma are daungthan,
gyeik-na, hauk-na, yine-na, and apu-shut). It is better not to halt the
elephants near the village, but at some convenient place well away.
If this is not feasible, it is necessary to observe the following pre-
cautions, namely, to tether the animals on the highest ground
available, and to allow no strange animals in the camp. On the
march it is wiser to avoid all tracks frequented by cattle drovers; fod-
der and water must be brought to them ; the former, if grass be
given, should be cut well above the ground, and rushes, reeds,
and swamp grasses on no account permitted. It is even better
to restrict the fodder to boughs of trees, bamboos, &c. If there
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A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
be no fast running stream in the vicinity, it will be necessary to
procure water from deep wells. On no account should animals
be permitted to wander into cattle grazing-grounds, stagnant pools,
or swamps.
When a case has been discovered or is suspected, the affected
animal, with its attendants, must be segregated forthwith at a dis-
tance (a quarter mile) from water-supply and public roads. The
healthy animals should, if numerous, be divided into batches two or
three in each and sent off without delay to the highest ground near
at hand. To facilitate inspection these elephants should be picketted
only a few hundred yards apart. Inspection should be carried out at
least once daily and the temperature of each animal taken. Any
animal showing a rise must be promptly removed and treated as
already laid down, which treatment has proved successful on more
than one occasion in my experience when the outbreak was checked
forthwith. Attendants on suspicious or diseased animals must not on
any pretence approach or attend to the wants of healthy animals.
All refuse, dung, &c., should be mixed with some strong disinfec-
tant, removed without delay and destroyed by fire, or buried in a
deep pit. Any gear, ropes, that may have become soiled should
be burned, and any ironwork, chains, passed through a fire. The
standings are to be kept clean and frequently sprinkled with some
disinfectant, and if the animal be removed to another place a deep
layer of straw may be spread over the old standing and then fired.
Drinking utensils should not be used for other animals unless passed
through a fire or thoroughly washed with boiling water. If elephants
can be spared, it is a good plan to send them to the hills from 15th
of April to the end of June, or for a longer period when convenient.
Should a case of anthrax occur in a shed, if inexpensive, it should
be burned. If costly, the walls must be thoroughly washed with
boiling water mixed with very strong carbolic acid or phenyle. As
the floor becomes soiled with the discharges, it is necessary to remove
the earth to the extent of 2 feet at least, throw in new earth and
disinfect the whole standing. The shed should not be occupied
for some little time. All posts and other wood should be washed with
strong carbolic and later on dressed with tar.
Strange elephants and those that are newly purchased should
always be kept separate from the others for a few days.
Disposal of carcasses.
It sometimes happens that an elephant dies at a place where the
removal of the carcass for burial is a necessary measure. As a
rule a couple of elephants are put on to drag it away. In such cases