NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
86
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
portions, namely the caecum (is very capacious), the colon (which is
the largest portion), and the rectum (which terminates at the anus),
the orifice of which is guarded by a special muscle.
The intestines are attached to the spine by a strong membrane
called the mesentery, which also serves to sustain the bowels, and
affords passage for important vessels.
The total lengths of the large intestine of four elephants were
respectively 38, 40, 46 and 43 ft. Steel records the length of
bowels in an elephant 9½ ft. at the shoulder as follows : small
intestines 76 ft., caecum 5 ft., colon 20 ft., and rectum 12 ft. Total
large intestine 37 ft., and of intestinal tract 113 ft.
" Hunter gives 17 ft. as the length of the small intestine ;
Mayer makes it 37 ft., while he gives the total length as 75 ft."
—(Miall and Greenwood.)
Owen's measurements taken from a young Indian elephant, about
7 ft. at the shoulder, are as follows :—
Length of small intestines ...
Length of caecum
Total length of colon and rectum together
...
...
...
Total length of intestinal canal exclusive of caecum
Ft.
38
1
20
58
in.
0
6
0
6
The liver.—The liver is the largest gland in the body and one
of the most important of the digestive organs. Its chief function is
that of secreting bile. This is collected by small ducts or channels,
which unite to form larger ones, terminating finally in a main one which
conveys the bile to the intestine. Bile is a natural laxative, prevents
putrefaction in the intestines, assists in the digestive process, and is
the colouring agent of the dung. An oversecretion of bile therefore
tends to create diarrhœa with deep clay-coloured motions. Insufficient
secretion on the other hand may produce light-coloured and foul-
smelling dung with constipation. Characters of the dung therefore
give much information regarding the state of the liver. The outline
of the organ is simple, being divided into two lobes, the right being
the larger. The gall bladder is absent. The duct which carries the
bile expands and forms a pouch in the wall of the duodenum ; the
secretion from the pancreas is also received into this pouch. The
liver may be said to occupy a position roughly between the stomach
and diaphragm to the right of the middle line of the body.
The weight of the liver varies between 50 and 58 lbs.
Hawkes, in the case of a male elephant aged 34 years that died
from heart disease, found the liver to weigh 65 lbs., and in a very
small elephant aged 24 years it weighed 58½ lbs. Gilchrist gives
the weight of this organ in an animal he examined as 76½ lbs.
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
87
The spleen.—Average weight of four spleens was 7 lbs. It is
a long flat organ, broadest at its middle and lies to the left of the
stomach. This organ is generally enormously enlarged in animals
that die from anthrax fever.
The pancreas—Is a small gland in close relation to the base
of the spleen and placed across the roof of the abdominal cavity.
CHAPTER VI.
THE URINARY SYSTEM.
This consists of—
Kidneys.
Ureters.
Bladder.
Urethra.
Kidneys.—These
are situated one on each side of the spine
beneath the lumbar vertebrae. In structure they resemble the
kidneys of the ox, in that they are lobulated ; the lobes are distinct,
and vary in number from 5 to 6. The weight is from 6 to 8 lbs.
Gilchrist gives it as 16 lbs. Their function is to withdraw from
the blood passing through them certain poisonous products which
have been elaborated in the system.
These poisons pass in a state of solution called urine from the
kidneys through two ducts called the ureters to the bladder, where,
after a certain quantity has collected, the animal voids it through the
urethra or passage through the penis.
The ureters are two tubes which convey the urine from each
kidney to the bladder. The orifices of the ureters on the inside of
the bladder are in adults from two to three inches apart.
The bladder presents no remarkable features ; it serves as a
reservoir for the urine, and thus prevents the extreme inconvenience
that would result from having to discharge the urine as fast as it
is secreted. On the accumulation of a certain quantity, which
amount varies in different individuals, a very uneasy feeling due to
nervous influence is experienced, which induces the animal to
discharge it. The neck of the bladder is supplied with a large
amount of circular muscular fibres, their office being to keep the
orifice of the bladder closed.
The urine is discharged from the body by means of the urethra,
a membranous canal extending, in the male, from the neck of the
bladder to the extremity of the penis. In the female it is very short
and opens into the uro-genital canal.
The elephant passes water from about 10 to 14 times during
the 24 hours. This fluid in health has the following characters—
specific gravity, 1,004; colour, watery or faint amber, and towards
the close of the act may be a little turbid ; it is clear and has a
peculiar characteristic smell, not disagreeable. Any deviation from
THE URINARY SYSTEM.
89
the above should lead one to suspect disease of the urinary tract,
namely—
(a) Increased frequency in making water.
(b) Arrest of the flow (suppression).
(c) Constant dribbling.
(d) Offensive smell.
(e) Alteration in colour. It is invariably high-coloured in
fever ; may be greenish when the liver is affected,
and markedly reddish when mixed with blood.
(f) Pain evinced by straining and groaning during the act
of voiding ; also by increased restlessness, denoted
by frequent changes of posture, that is constant
shifting of feet, lying down and getting up.
CHAPTER VII.
ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. MILK. BREEDING. PREGENANCY.
PARTURITION.
ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION.
The male organs of generation.— In the male we find glands
(testicles) to secrete the seminal fluid and an organ, the penis, by
means of which this fluid may be conveyed to the female.
The testicles are two glandular bodies, globular in shape ; the
substance is soft and on section of a light brownish colour. They
are suspended freely in the abdomen and are situated below the
posterior extremities of the kidneys.
The penis is a long fleshy body, which serves to afford passage
to the urine and also to eject the semen. At its extremity is the
opening of the urethra which in this animal is Y-shaped.
With a view to preventing that peculiar sexual disturbance
known as ?musth, many attempts have been made to castrate these
creatures ; but owing to the immense size of the carcase and the
peculiar position of the testicles, the operation is necessarily a very
formidable and dangerous one. The operation must be performed
on both sides.
The female organs.—The
female organs of generation are
divided into external and internal.
The external or uro-genital opening known as the vulva is not
situated near the anus, as in many animals, but is drawn forward
and so occupies the position of the penis in the male. The sides
are loose and the labia or lips covered with mucous membrane form
a prepuce or covering for the clitoris.
On separating the lips of the vulva, a fleshy body varying in
length from 12 to 16 ins., known as the clitoris, is observed. It is
the homologue of the penis in the male.
The internal organs are the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes and
ovaries.
The vagina is a canal lined by mucous membrane. It is about
1 2 to 15 ins. long.
At the end of the vagina is the entrance to the uterus or womb,
which organ is peculiar in that the greater part of it is divided into
two horns. Outwardly, the uterus is with difficulty distinguished
from the vagina.
MILK.
91
The fallopian tubes are two tubes leading from the horns of the
uterus to the ovaries.
The ovaries or female testicles are small bodies surrounded by
a firm, fibrous capsule. The substance consists of a network of
tissue, blood vessels, etc., in which are embedded the ova which
are destined, on being fertilised, to develop into the offspring.
Impregnation.—The
ovum on being discharged from the ovary
is caught by the abdominal extremity of the fallopian tube from
which it is passed on down to the uterus, where if it is unimpreg-
nated it dies and is discharged ; but if impregnated by the
spermatozoa contained in the seminal fluid, undergoes certain changes
which ultimately result in the reproduction of the species. The
impregnated ovum goes through a series of divisions and subdivisions,
until finally it becomes a mass of cells arranged in three more or less
distinct layers which form the embryo. The embryo very soon
becomes enclosed in membranous sacs developed from the middle
and outer layers mentioned above and joining the fœtal membranes.
Connection with the uterus is obtained by little short finger-like
processes (villi) growing from the outer surface of the external
membrane (chorion) into folds or crypts in the uterine mucous
membrane. The chorionic villi become surrounded by a plexus of
maternal vessels thus bringing the maternal and fœtal blood into
close relationship. These structures are known as the placenta.
Placentæ are therefore those structures developed for the purification
and nourishment of the fœtal blood ; they are of two types :—
(1) Deciduate, in which new maternal tissue is found in con-
nection with the uterus during gestation and lost after
birth, e.g., the human placenta.
(2) Non-deciduate (animal) placentas.
Placentæ are also classified according to the disposition of the
villi as—
(1) Diffuse, when the whole surface is covered by villi.
(2) Cotyledonary, when the villi are only met with in clumps
or tufts.
(3) Zonary, when the villi are arranged in a strap-like manner
round the membranes.
The placenta of the elephant is non-deciduate and zonary.
MILK.
The udder consists of two glands and is situated on the breast
just behind the fore-legs. In the virgin state it is small, but during
the latter period of gestation it becomes considerably enlarged and
92
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
some little time before parturition milk is secreted. The glands
consist of lobes bound together by connective tissue and fat. The
milk as secreted is carried by sets of channels which converge at
a point where they form dilatations which act as reservoirs. The
ducts again become contracted and open finally on the summit of
the nipples or teats, of which there are two.
"The milk of the elephant is said to be very rich, with an
agreeable taste and odour, its butter and sugar being largely
increased at the expense of the water as compared with other milks."
— (Steel and Symonds.)
BREEDING.
At one time it was much doubted whether elephants ever
bred in captivity. That it does happen, and not infrequently in
Burma and Siam is beyond question. It is true that under certain
circumstances, e.g., when animals are constantly tied up, etc., it is
very rare for them to breed ; but with elephants the property of
large firms engaged in the timber industry, and those owned by
contractors, the case is different; after work the animals are permitted
to roam about the jungles where they lead a more natural life and
under these conditions calves are often dropped. There are many
well-known cases of elephants now working whose mothers were
working for years before their birth. In Burma where wild
elephants are numerous, cases of wild males taking up with tame
females are not infrequent and tame elephants appear to have little
or no difficulty in gaining admission to wild herds. As long as a
sufficient number can be procured by capture, it would be absurd
to attempt to breed them. Owners, especially of working elephants,
have been known to offer to give away calves owing to the expense
attending their keep and the remoteness of the prospect of some
return upon the outlay. The offer has for similar reasons frequently
been refused.
In the female the loose external generative opening hangs
down in much the same situation as that occupied by the penis in
the male. This peculiarity led to a good deal of speculation as to
the manner in which union of the sexes took place ; so much so as
to suggest a deviation from the analogy of other animals for this
purpose. The question as to the manner in which the fecundation
of the female is brought about was set at rest at Thayetmyo, where
two elephants were observed in the act and in the position common
to quadrupeds, but in order to place the matter beyond the possibility
of contradiction, Mr. Porter, Schoolmaster of the Bedford Regiment,
BREEDING.
93
took an excellent photograph ; the trunks and tails came out rather
indistinctly ; this, Mr. Porter afterwards informed me, was due to the
fact that they were in constant and rapid motion. The congress
lasted some time. Some time ago I received a remarkable photo from
Mr. H.G. Batten, of the Burma Commission, depicting elephants during
congress in an open space and they were more or less surrounded by
men armed with spears. During February 1902 the late Mr. Slade
had opportunities of obtaining most accurate information on this
subject. He was enabled to take a remarkable series of photographs,
the elephants paying no attention whatsoever to the people being
round about. The animals in question were his baggage elephants.
The mahouts having suspicions informed Mr. Slade who ordered a
close watch to be kept. The tusker showed no sign of musth. A cow
he was said to have a particular liking for screamed and strained on
her chains at his approach and was accordingly set free ; another
cow also tethered evinced no fear. Mr. Slade remarked that there
was considerable play beforehand, which may have led to the
erroneous opinion that congress lasted some time, whereas it only
occupied one minute. The position of the male is, as I have noted,
similar to that of other animals, except that the fore-legs are placed
one on each side of the spine (not on the sides) and are run along
the back as far as the shoulders ; the tusker neither grips nor steadies
himself with the fore-legs and he gradually sinks on his hind-legs
till he almost assumes a sitting posture, then gradually raising
himself till his hind-legs are straight. After congress the tusker
moves off and remains silent; the females showed some excite¬
ment by trumpeting softly, flapping their ears and whisking their
tails.
As the male keeps his fore-feet so close together, the statement
made by Burmans to the effect that a fettered male loose in the
jungle is capable of mounting is correct.
Mr. Slade could not discern any signs of the cows being in
season, though by their behaviour he was certain three of the four
with him were so during the 10 days he was in camp. In fact he
was quite certain that it was the female and not the male that came
into season and until she does the male takes no notice. Mr. Slade
observed that this tusker mounted one cow daily from the 20th to
the 27th February, inclusive; on the 28th she did not respond to
his addresses, though not evincing any fear. The three cows were
Hla U, Kalè Ma, and Nu Nyun. No result followed in the case of
Hla U, who was covered on the 21st, 22nd, 23rd, 24th and 28th
February. Kalè Ma gave birth to a male calf on the 14th February,
practically two years after, and Nu Nyun dropped a dead calf in
September 1903, 19 months after.
94
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Sanderson witnessed the act on four occasions and on none of
these did the male's exhibit any signs of musth, which goes to
prove that, it is not only when under this influence that male
elephants court the society of the female. One jump is considered
to be sufficient. Sanderson states: "there is ample proof that it
is not the male elephant that comes into season." Owing to the
periodical attacks of musth many people have supposed that such
is the case ; and he remarks that "the period of heat is not marked
by any particular signs in the female, which has probably helped to
strengthen the erroneous opinion spoken of. In approaching a
male elephant, a female desirous of his attentions utters certain
sounds and courts his society; but only those conversant with
elephants would notice this." I have never observed any apparent
signs of "heat" in the female and several friends I consulted
informed me .that though they had seen a great many elephants,
and had been amongst elephants many years, they had not seen any¬
thing noticeable amongst female elephants beyond the fact already
stated that the female when in that state utters certain peculiar
sounds.
PREGNANCY.
Sanderson states that female elephants usually give birth
to their first calf at 16 years of age and continue to breed till
they reach the age of 80. A remarkable instance proving that
they may begin to breed much earlier is recorded by Mr. W. A. Bell,
of the Bombay Burma Trading Corporation, who had authentic
knowledge of the facts. One of the Corporation elephants dropped
a female calf on the 6th May 1894. Exactly nine years and one
month from that date this young cow, to the astonishment of
everyone, dropped a calf and subsequently died. No one had the
faintest suspicion that she was in calf. The calf was practically
full term. They breed about every two and a half or three years.
Calves are not weaned for two or three years. I have seen two
calves (wild) at heel; the elder one I do not think was more than
three years of age. Sanderson has seen three. The same authority
observes that the female will not permit a bull to approach until
eight or ten months after calving. Burmans and Karens put it
down at even a longer period (see Appendix F).
Elephants in calf may be worked up to almost their full term,
but it is only fair to relieve them from work six weeks or so before
the calf is expected. Towards the end of pregnancy females
become very lazy and sluggish; the size of the animal, taken
PREGNANCY.
95
together with the fullness of the mammary glands and the presence of
milk, should afford sufficient indications of approaching parturition.
The dams after calving should be given a good rest and a
plentiful allowance of good nourishing fodder.
The young suckle with their mouths and not with the trunk.
The duration of pregnancy may be said to vary between
eighteen and twenty-two months. Sanderson gives it at eighteen
months for a female calf and twenty-two for a male. Burmans
and Karens state that it may extend to two and a half years.
Mr. Petley kindly gave me notes on two cases :—
(a) A female was covered during the first fortnight of April
1896, and a male calf was born on the 6th February
1898—22 months.
(b) Mr. D. S. Pritchard witnessed the tusker " Yegyan"'
cover the female elephant "Bohgadow" near the
Yatsauk bazaar during the month of February 1896 ;
she dropped a calf (female) during December 1897 ;
Mr. Pritchard saw the calf an hour after birth—22
months.
Steel quoting from the " Asian " of the 5th June 1883 gives two
cases, the duration of pregnancy being 583 and 680 days respectively.
In the "Indian Forester" for April 1899, Vol. XXV, page 158,
signed " C. B. S.", a case is recorded. A female turned out with
others to graze was covered in May 1897. The act was observed
every evening for about a week, from about the 18th to the 25th
May. Neither of the animals showed signs of sexual excitement
previously though the male paid assiduous court to the female for a
few days before coition was permitted. They were both working
regularly dragging timber, and gave no trouble. A female calf was
born on the 3rd November 1898. The day the youngster was
born, the mother had carried a light load for a short march. The
calf was so weak that it had to hold on to a bamboo with its mouth
to keep itself upright. After a day it could stand and suckle.
Period of gestation—a little over 17 calendar months.
In exceptional cases parturition may take place in 17 months,
vide case instanced by " C. B. S.", and as late as 24 months as in
case recorded by Mr. Slade.
In two other instances brought to my notice the periods were
19 and 21½ months respectively ; in the former case the calf was a
female, in the latter a male.
The greater number of calves are dropped during the last quarter
of the year, though several are produced at other seasons. The
late Mr. Bruce, of the Forest Department, informed me that he had
knowledge of at least seven cases where calves were all dropped
96
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
during March. I think one may reasonably say that in large wild
herds one may at any season find a youngster or two only a few
weeks old.
PARTURITION.
Generally speaking, the period of labour is short and the act of
parturition occupies but a short time. One calf occurs at a birth as
a rule.
Mr. Lidderdale kindly wrote to me describing the birth of a
young elephant at Pazundaung. The cow had been working in the
timber-yard during the afternoon and after work was as usual
tethered in her shed about 6 P.M. About 11 P.M. she became
very restless and groaned loudly ; at about 3 A.M. she suddenly
broke her hind shackles ; so those on her fore-feet were removed,
after which she walked out of the shed into some deep mud about
five yards distant, where she promptly assumed the recumbent
posture and gave birth to a female calf in caul which I believe is
not an infrequent event (head and fore-feet presented). The act
of parturition occupied but a few minutes. The Burman attendant,
who had been present at other cases, immediately ruptured the
membranes, etc., the calf remaining lying on its side (the mother
standing over it) for an hour or so, after which it managed to stand
up and in a short time could walk. The "after-birth" (achin)
came away 15 or 20 minutes after the birth of the calf. The
dam ate it.
An intelligent Burman gave me the following description :—
"When the full time has arrived, most animals are very
restless and in great agony for some few hours, and often an hour
or so before birth there is a discharge from the passages. When
about to give birth the female seeks soft ground. The calf may be
presented head and fore-feet first or the hinder parts may appear
first. If the membranes are not ruptured by an attendant and the
calf set free, the female will do so with her foot. The young one
lies from one to two hours after birth, occasionally moving ears,
trunk, and limbs ; after which it gets on its legs and can walk."
Elephants even in their wild state may die in labour. In 1900
I found the remains of a cow elephant in the jungle and a Burman
well-known to me informed me that he had seen the carcass a few
days after the animal died, and that the cause of death was due to
her inability to expel the calf.
A young one can walk well enough after a few days to follow
the mother on a short march and here I may mention that in their
PARTURITION.
97
wild state, when a calf has been dropped, the herd remain in the
vicinity until it is able to follow the mother, which is generally in
about forty-eight hours. Elephants generally eat the after-birth.
At birth the calves are usually covered with longish hair, and
stand from two and a half to three feet at the shoulder. A cow
belonging to Sanger, of Circus fame, dropped a still-born calf in the
London Zoo. Measurements were as follows :—
Length from tip of trunk to end of tail, 95 ins.; trunk, 21 ins. ;
height at shoulders, 35 ins.
Sanderson weighed several calves when two days old and
found the average weight to be 200 lbs. For several months
they live entirely on milk and even for some time after they take to
eating grass, their chief support is milk. The trunk of the young
animal is very short from 10 to 15 inches in length. Mothers rarely
resent their youngsters being handled. The calves soon become
playful and very mischievous.
The mother should not be marched for two or three days after
the birth of the calf.
7