NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
104
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
twenty-one days, death occurs sometimes after the first paroxysm,
but it may be delayed until the seventh or even later.
Diagnosis.—If an elephant be found showing symptoms such as
described, surra may be suspected ; positive diagnosis, however, de-
pends on the demonstration under the microscope of the infusorian
in the blood. The parasites when present are not difficult to detect
under an ordinary high power.
Prognosis.—In equities, invariably fatal. Dr. Lingard, who has
been working at this disease for some years, succeeded in cur-
ing one or two cases after a very prolonged course of treatment.
Though cattle are subject to surra they nearly always after consider-
able loss of flesh recover from the disease.
Treatment.—Arsenic is the only drug that has proved of service
in this malady. Commence treatment by giving two grains twice
daily, the quantity of arsenic should be increased by half a grain
every second or third day till 10 grains per diem is reached, when the
dose may be decreased daily by half a grain until two grains is
reached. If the patient shows intolerance of the drug manifested
by loss of appetite, weeping from the eyes, partial loss of power
in hind-quarters, evidenced by unsteady gait, nervousness, the
medicine must be discontinued. Liquor arsenicalis is the most
convenient preparation, each ounce contains four grains of arsenic
and as it is tasteless it is easily administered in sweetened gruel.
The medicine should be given after the animal has taken some food.
Prevention.—When grain is allowed it should be carefully cleaned
and inspected, an ample allowance of salt daily is necessary to
maintain animals in health. Where possible elephants should be
grazed on high ground and the water-supply should of course be
from a pure source.
In unhealthy places a short course of arsenic at the beginning of
the rains may be tried.
Post-mortem.—Body generally much emaciated, on opening the
abdomen a considerable quantity of straw coloured fluid may be
observed. The internal organs are pale in colour, i.e., more or less
bloodless. The liver, also spleen, is sometimes enlarged, dark
(claret coloured) spots or patches are often present on surface of
the latter organ. The kidneys are often enlarged, congested and
blotched with dark coloured spots. In mules and ponies in Burma
we frequently notice that the mucous membrane of the stomach is
ulcerated and stained a peculiar yellow, in fact there may be a
general tinge of yellow all over the membrane owing to the escape
of colouring matter of the bile. In the chest we find the heart pale,
often flabby, and there is usually a quantity of straw-coloured
FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE.
105
jelly-like material about the base, and beneath the lining membrane
blotches and dark coloured spots may be seen. They are also to be
seen beneath the internal lining membrane of the heart.
Note.—Surra has been described at some length as further infor-
mation on this disease is solicited. 1 have received a few reports
about cases of surra in elephants, and have seen cases of "Zahirbad"
"Thut" which looked very suspicious ; unfortunately I had not a
miscroscope with me to make a satisfactory diagnosis. As much
light can be thrown on the subject, I appeal to those gentlemen
in charge of large numbers of elephants in the districts to keep a
sharp look out on all cases of debility. Careful daily observation
of the temperature will prove of great assistance in suspicious cases
and I shall be pleased to receive early information of any outbreaks
of intermittent or remittent fever amongst elephants.
Thut (ogc8).—It is desirable to mention here a so-called disease
well-known by name to all elephant owners in Burma, namely, thut.
I have noted that about half the deaths amongst elephants are attri-
buted to snake-bite (see Poisoned wounds, page 167) and I think I
may state without fear of contradiction the remaining half to the
above-named malady. I have made many enquiries on the subject
and have seen many cases amongst elephants and other animals
and the conclusion I have come to is, that thut is a term applied
especially to dropsical swellings under the abdomen and chest.
These swellings are generally met with as a symptom in cases of
surra, advanced debility, heart, kidney diseases, &c. In cases of
surra, bilious fever, &c., amongst mules, ponies, as long as there are
no swellings the Burmans diagnose the cases as fever, but once the
limbs begin to fill and swellings appear about the belly the case
is at once diagnosed as 'thut.' It is therefore merely a symptom
which may develop during the course of many severe ailments.
Foot-and-mouth disease.
This is a specific contagious fever, accompanied by an eruption
of vesicles (blebs or blisters) in the mouth, lining membrane of
the trunk, and on the feet. At times only the mouth and trunk are
affected, at others only the feet, but generally speaking all are in-
volved.
Causes.—Contagion, usually from cattle suffering from the ma-
lady.
Prognosis.— Good, except in very young animals.
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106
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Symptoms.—The first symptom that generally attracts attention
is, that the animal according to the soreness of the mouth, and
degree of fever present is partially or wholly "off feed" or may
be found limping. The disease is ushered in by fever with its at-
tendant signs as already noted under that condition. This, how-
ever, often passes unobserved. If the mouth be carefully examined,
there will be seen blebs or blisters (technically known as vesicles),
sometimes the size of a broad bean which burst in from twenty-four
hours, to a couple of days, leaving ugly red sores. The tongue,
gums, palate, and cheeks may all be affected. The mucous mem-
brane lining the trunk is also involved. Steel points out that in
some instances "the eruption invades the mucous membrane of the
alimentary canal, giving rise to exhausting diarrhoea and death."
This occurs chiefly in young animals. When the feet are attacked
lameness is manifested, and, if examined, the parts above the nails,
around the margin of the hoof slipper, will be found swollen, hot and
painful. A discharge may be apparent; if not, pressure on the
parts will probably reveal some oozing. The great danger here is,
that the purulent matter may burrow, underrun the sole, and thus
lead to casting of the slipper. Steel remarks that " when this
" casualty occurs, the case is not to be given up as hopeless, for so
" simple is this horny investment of the lower part of the limb that
' it can be well reproduced in the course of time." Owing to the
great weight to be sustained, severe pain and fever may be present
in these cases.
Diagnosis.—This is distinguished from elephant-pox by the seat
and nature of the eruption.
Treatment.—Foot-and-mouth disease being highly contagious,
must be treated exactly as already laid down under anthrax. In
simple cases, a little careful nursing, attention to cleanliness and
diet, will be all that is necessary The bowels should be kept re-
gular by administration of mild laxatives (see Appendix 23 to 28).
The mouth should be washed out three or four times a day with
tepid water containing a little Condy's fluid (½ ounce to a pint), or
alum wash 1 to 2 drachms to a pint of water (a little treacle may
be added). See also Nos. 109, 110, 113, 117 to 119. A tub of fresh
water should be kept at standing.
Diet.—The diet owing to the soreness of the mouth, must con-
sist of soft green grass, and as much freshly made gruel, linseed,
tea, arrow-root, rice, as the patient will take. Fever must be treat-
ed as already laid down under that heading.
When the feet are involved, the affected parts, if tender and pain-
ful, should be fomented, or washed with carbolic lotion (1—60), o-
corrosive sublimate (1—1,000) (see Appendix 116) carefully remov-
BLOOD POISONING.
107
ing any dirt. The parts should then be dressed with camphorated
oil No. 122, carbolic oil No. 121, or ointment of eucalyptus No. 128,
covered with tow, and a piece of clean cloth tied round the foot,
which should then be enveloped in a clean gunny-bag which has
previously been dipped in some disinfecting solution and the same
precautions observed with regard to soiled dressings as laid down
in anthrax. In severe cases a leather boot must be applied. Every
care must be taken to see that the affected parts are protected from
flies and dirt. No specific remedy is known.
Blood-poisoning.
(1) Septicœmia is met with in two forms:—
(a) Septic poisoning.
(b) Septic infection.
(a) Septic poisoning.—The effects produced by the absorption
of a poisonous dose of the chemical products of germs without the
germs being alive that elaborate these poisons. In this the symp-
toms must be directly in proportion to the dose absorbed, which
dose cannot increase in the body.
(b) Septic infection.—The effects produced by the absorption of
living infective germs. The symptoms here are not proportionate
to the initial dose which may be infinitesimal and not lethal, but
which owing to multiplication of the germs in the blood and a cor-
responding increase of poison elaborated by their vital processes
leads to death, sooner or later.
This naturally is of a graver character than the preceding.
(2) Pyœmia—Occurs in the same way as septic infection, but
differs in its symptoms.
Prognosis.—In septic poisoning if the dose is small recovery
probable. In septic infection and pyœmia recovery rare.
Causes.—Always due to absorption through some abraded sur-
face, i.e., sores, scratches, heel cracks, abscesses. The poison
may have been introduced by the weapon causing the injury or may
have been absorbed subsequently from neglecting the wounds (a
frequent cause).
Symptoms.—In all forms the following are the most frequent,
repeated shivering often unnoticed, and sudden accessions of high
fever, often followed by a fall of temperature sometimes to normal
before the next rise, grave prostration, and muscular tremors being
marked symptoms, and towards the end foetid diarrhœa ; occasion-
ally there may be paralysis of the hind-quarters. The disease takes
a rapid course, ending usually in death after a short period.
108
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
In septie poisoning no further symptoms are observed, but in
septic infection there may be swelling of joints and collections of
fluid in the body cavities (chest, belly), and in pyœmia abscesses
scattered over the body and in the organs. In septic poisoning death
occurs more rapidly than in the other two forms.
(a) Treatment: Preventive—is the most important and consists
in strict attention to all kinds of wounds, however trivial, which if
properly treated should almost preclude chances of infection.
(b) Curative.—First thing necessary is local treatment, which
consists in thoroughly cleansing with disinfectants, the wound or
wounds, and when abscesses occur, freely opening them, and syring-
ing the cavities out with some disinfecting solution (Carbolic acid
lotion 1—40) and see Nos. 114 to 120 and afterwards dressing.
Soiled dressings should be treated as already noted under anthrax.
With regard to general treatment no certain remedy is known, but
the following may prove useful. The diet must be nourishing, such
as fresh green grass, fruits, wheaten cakes, gruels, and, though
fever is present as an exception, rice or other grains should be offered,
also stimulants.
Hyposulphite of soda, or sulphite of soda in 2 ounce doses every
three hours, or small doses of calomel, say, ½ drachm repeated every
three or four hours.
Rabies.
Rabies is a specific disease caused by the introduction into
the system of a specific poison, through the bite of an animal,
generally that of a dog 5 but jackals, wolves, may also communi-
cate it. It is a rare affection amongst elephants. The following
case was communicated to Dr. Gilchrist by a mahout personally
acquainted with the facts : "A mad dog, about five years ago, ap-
peared in the elephant lines at Hyderabad. It attempted to bite
" several elephants, but was by each driven away. During the night it
" attacked an elephant when asleep and bit it on the trunk. The
" bite marks having been distinctly observed next day, a little oil was
" applied, but nothing more was done and nothing particular oc-
" curred till a month after the infliction of the bite, when decided
" symptoms of delirium, as described under the head ' Ahren Bhao,'
" suddenly supervened. During the first three days the animal took
" fodder, ratib, and water, but afterwards took nothing. It did not
" appear to be afraid of water, as it drew it into its trunk and squirt-
ed it about, but did not drink any. It continued furious for two
" days, not allowing even the mahout to approach, after which it fell
" down and died suddenly. On the same occasion another elephant
TETANUS OR LOCK-JAW.
109
" died fifteen days after the one above alluded to, with the same
" symptoms, but it was not clearly known whether the animal had
" been bitten by the dog, though it was one of those it attempted to
" bite. The above cases occurred about the month of October. A
" man and bullock had been bitten by the same dog, and both died
" mad."
An account of a case is also contributed to the Oriental Sporting
Magazine, by Captain F. H. Hood, B.S.C., Volume III.
Treatment.—Should an elephant chance to be bitten by a dog,
the wound should be thoroughly cauterized without delay with pure
carbolic acid and dressed with carbolic lotion 1 in 40, or a very
strong solution of lunar caustic, or the wound may be cauterized
with a hot iron. Liquid caustics are preferable to solid (Appendix
57 to 60). Soiled dressings should be treated as mentioned under
anthrax.
The elephant should be well secured and kept under constant
observation.
The early symptoms are excessive trembling and convulsive
twitchings ; later on inability to swallow. On the manifestation of any
extraordinary behaviour, extra shackles should be applied and the
animal destroyed without delay.
Tetanus or lock-jaw.
Definition.—An infective disease due to the entrance into the
blood of a poison generated by a germ, the tetanus bacillus. This
disease is as far as I am aware rare in these creatures.
Incubation—Varies from a few hours to several days.
Prognosis.—Unfavourable; frequently fatal.
Causes.—Absorption of the germ through an abraded surface,
wound, sores, and particularly punctured wounds about the feet.
This germ remains local and does not enter the blood.
Symptoms.-Dulness,
stiffness of the muscles about the jaws,
stiffness in movement, sunken eyeballs, timidity, sensitiveness to
sounds, with repeated attacks of violent spasms of the muscles
of the body and often irregular fever, and the most characteristic
symptom after spasms is the partial or complete locked condition of
the jaw.
Treatment : Preventive : Segregation.—Though it is a less con-
tagious disease, infection has been known to attach itself to certain
stables, for years.
Curative: (a) Local.—Careful inspection for abrasions, sores,
and, if found, careful cleansing with carbolic lotion (1 to 40),
110
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
cauterization with pure carbolic acid, and careful dressing. Search
should be made for thorns, splinters, and, if found, removed, and
wounds treated as above.
(b) General.—Isolate, preferably in a quiet, dark, shady place.
Quietude as perfect as can be arranged for is one of the most es-
sential points in furthering a favourable issue. Clean water,
freshly made gruel and some tempting fresh fodder should be
placed within easy reach. When possible a brisk purgative should
be given by the mouth ; if not possible by this means, remove the
dung from the rectum and give an enema, a pint of castor-oil with
15 to 20 drops of croton oil (Appendix Nos. 77 to 80). Powdered
henbane leaves or seeds in 2-drachm doses may prove beneficial.
Take of extract of belladonna 4 drachms and glycerine 1 ounce,
water 2 drachms and rub the mixture into the muscles of jaws.
Unnecessary interference in these cases is to be deprecated.
All dressings when removed must be placed in a proper re-
ceptacle (never on the ground or floor) and subsequently burnt
under supervision and the receptacle cleansed with carbolic solu-
tion (1 in 40).
Epidemic pneumonia.
This is based on the description of an epidemic in 1839 on the
coast of Tenasserim and recorded by Dr. MacDonald.
Many elephants were attacked simultaneously, and at that time
bullocks were suffering from apparently the same disease. The
mortality was very high ; no symptoms are recorded, but on post mor-
tem usually one lung was found extensively diseased, the other
pretty healthy, which leads one to infer that it was not quite
healthy. The diseased portions of lung were engorged and in
colour varied from florid red to black. Referring to the works I
have had access to, it is significant that no other author has seen
a similar outbreak. The post mortem appearances recorded are
more or less compatible with cases of pulmonary anthrax.
Rheumatism.
Rheumatism is a painful and not uncommon ailment, usually
affecting joints and other parts of the body and may prove very
troublesome owing to its liability to recur. Moreover, recovery is
often tardy.
Causes.—Chiefly due to exposure to cold and wet, more es-
pecially when an animal is heated, such as after hard work or a
RHEUMATISM.
111
march, by being taken into cold water for bathing, or being al-
lowed to stand without protection, insufficient shelter, removing gud-
dela, &c., before the body has had time to cool, working in and out
of streams for hours together. It is naturally more prevalent at
high elevations and during the rainy season. By exposure I wish to
imply that elephants for want of a little forethought are subjected to
constant conditions without any reference to changes of weather
and temperature ; for instance, when it is raining with a very cold
wind blowing it may be difficult to protect him from rain, but re-
moval to a distance of 50 yards might give ample shelter from the
wind, yet no one thinks of it. The animal remains tethered and
even after the storm cannot free himself to revive his vitality and
warmth.
Prognosis.—Variable. Some cases tend to get quite well, others
to frequent recurrence and thus become a nuisance to their em-
ployers.
Diagnosis.—It may be distinguished from sprain owing to the
shifting nature of the seat of pain; one day a fore limb may be affect-
ed and a day or so after it may be better, or quite sound, but
another member may be affected. In the case of a sprain, lameness
does not wear off with exercise, but is probably aggravated by it,
and is constant in the limb originally affected.
Symptoms.—There is little or no fever, and it generally at-
tracts attention owing to considerable stiffness or lameness. The
animal is usually able to walk about and, though very stiff or lame
at first, this wears off with a little exercise, the aff6cted joints are
tender, painful, and swollen, the appetite is unimpaired.
The joints most frequently attacked are the knees, hocks, and the
joints about middle of fore and hind leg.
Treatment : Preventive.—Must be directed to removal of the
causes enumerated above.
Curative : Local.—Rest and hot fomentations frequently applied
to affected parts rubbing in with friction liniments (see Appendix
Nos. 70 to 76). Hayes recommends the following handy lini-
ment,—Kerosine oil in which as much camphor as it will take up
has been dissolved.
General.—Bowels to be kept regular by administration of laxa-
tives (see Appendix 23 to 28). Bicarbonate of soda or potash,
½ an ounce once or twice a day for two or three days often does
much good, also course of arsenic.
Change to a dry climate is most beneficial, and which at times
can be managed.
CHAPTER VI.
THE HEART-PULSE-BLOOD-LETTING OR BLEEDING.
Heart.
THE heart is a hollow muscular organ consisting of four chambers,
situated within the chest and enclosed within a bag (the pericar-
dium).
The two upper chambers are called auricles, the lower two, ven-
tricles.
The circulation of the blood is carried on by means of the heart,
arteries, capillaries, and veins.
(a) The heart beats from 46 to 50 times a minute.
(b) The arteries are the channels which convey blood from the
heart, distributing it over the system. If an artery be pressed by the
finger, an impulse or shock is felt, known as the pulse.
(c) Capillaries are the very minute channels which allow certain
portions of the blood to pass through their walls into the surround-
ing tissues for their nourishment.
(d) Veins are the channels which carry blood back to the heart.
The veins unite and reunite, finally carrying the venous blood to
the right auricle, from which it passes into the right ventricle, and
from thence through the artery of the lungs (pulmonary, the open-
ing of which is in the ventricle) to those organs, where after oxyge-
nation it is carried to the left auricle, then to the left ventricle into
the aorta, a large artery which distributes the purified blood over
the body.
The orifices between the auricles and ventricles are guarded by
valves, as also is the entrance to the pulmonary artery and aorta.
What happens is roughly as follows : The blood pours into the right
and left auricles, which when full contract, thus driving the blood
into the ventricles, which on filling the valves shut off their com-
munication with the auricles ; the ventricles now contract driving the
blood on the right side through the pulmonary artery to the lungs for
purification, and through the aorta on the left side for distribution of
the blood over the system ; the valves close when the vessels are
filled, preventing a reflux into the ventricles.
PULSE.
113
Pulse.
" The impulse or shock caused by the overfilling of the aorta
during the ventricular systole (contraction of ventricles) is the cause
of the pulse"—(Ashby).
In a healthy elephant when at rest, if the finger be applied to an
artery, the vessel will be found to expand between 46 and 50 times a
minute ; a short increase or decrease may be quite normal.
Many things increase the frequency of the pulse rate—exercise,
fever, fear, age. In young animals it is faster than in aged beasts.
The pulse is a useful indication as to the state of the circulation ;
the character also has to be noted, as it varies ; for instance in debility
we often get a soft and frequent pulse; in some heart affections an
intermittent pulse, that is, there is an occasional interval between
the beats.
The most eligible place for taking the pulse is at the back and root
of the ears, where will be distinctly seen a branch of an artery run-
ning over the cartilaginous root of the ear and subsequently ramify-
ing on its surface. The pulsation will readily be felt by applying the
finger. It is not, however, so easy a matter to determinate the ex-
act number of pulsations, as the animal approached by a stranger,
and especially in the recumbent position, in which it requires to be
placed for the purpose, will not easily remain sufficiently quiet for
the required time. The better way is to cause an intelligent mahout
to count aloud the pulsations while the animal is standing and when
the circulatory system is not disturbed by fear or exertion on the
part of the animal. In every establishment one or two mahouts
may be taught to take the pulse accurately. It may be assumed
that this organ (the heart) becomes diseased in the elephant as it
does in other animals, but possibly not nearly to the same extent.
Whatever conditions may exist are at present shrouded in obscurity
for obvious causes—lack of specially trained men and the difficulty
in dealing with these creatures.
The symptoms which might point to this organ being diseased
are alterations in the character of the pulse, intermittent, &c.,
breathlessness as soon as put to work, or exhaustion and fainting
shortly after, the presence of dropsical swellings such as have
been mentioned under debility, and conditions pointing to a weak
circulation such as ulceration of the ears and tail and finally sudden
death unattributable to no other cause.
Treatment consists in absolute rest and bettering the condition of
the animal by means of liberal diet and stimulants, such as whisky,
rum.
15