NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
366
Anti-oxidants of Ghee
The protective action of the unsaponifiable matter from gingelly oil was
found to be the greatest of the three oil samples used. Whether the un
saponifiable matter from ghee samples with long periods of induction had
any effect on poor quality ghee was ascertained in a similar study. It is seen
(Table II) that the unsaponifiable matter from ghee samples which showed
better resistance to oxidation (Gir, Jersey and Sindhi) did have a small protec
tive action on other ghee samples. Though this effect is not considerable, it is
evident that at least part of the anti-oxidative substances in ghee are of an
unsaponifiable nature and to that extent resemble the inhibitols of the vege
table oils.
Besides substances possessing phenolic groups, compounds which are
easily oxidisable are also known to act as anti-oxidants [Moureu and Dufraisse,
1927]. The anti-oxidant properties of a few compounds which come under
the latter type, along with a range of inhibitols coming under the two types
defined by Olcott and Mattill [1936] referred to above, were studied on two typi
cal ghee samples. Most of these chemical compounds suffer from the dis
advantage that they are objectionable from points of taste and flavour except
when used in low concentration. At concentrations of 0.01 per cent and under
their protective action is not satisfactory. A search for a substance of vege
table origin which did not suffer from these disadvantages showed that Kamala
dye served the purpose very well. A short note on the use of this dye has
already been published [Govindarajan and Banerjee, 1939].
TABLE III
Influence of anti-oxidants on the induction period in ghee in hours
Inhibitor added per cent
0.02 hydroquinone . . .
0.05 hydroquinone . . .
0.02 α-naphthol . . .
0.05 α-naphthol . . . .
0.02 Kamala dye . . .
0.05 Kamala dye . . .
0.10 Kamala dye . . .
0.02 phloroglucinol (solid added) .
Substrate
Kathiawar
Control
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
3.0
With
inhibitor
added
6.0
7.0
5.0
5.5
8.5
9.5
11.0
6.0
Tiruppur*
With
inhibitor
added
9
33
5
..
7
13
22
..
* Induction period of Tiruppur ghee, 1 hour.
S. V. GOVINDARAJAN AND B. N. BANERJEE
367
Inhibitor added per cent
0.05 phloroglucinol (solid added) . . . .
0.03 phloroglucinol (added in alcoholic solution) .
0.05 phloroglucinol (added in alcoholic solution) .
0.01 diphenyl oxide . . . . . .
0.05 diphenyl oxide . . . . . .
0.10 diphenyl oxide . . . . . .
0.50 diphenyl oxide . . . . . .
0.10 sodium citrate . . . . . .
0.20 sodium citrate . . . . . .
0.10 sodium tartrate . . . . . .
0.20 sodium tartrate . . . . . .
0.02 Na 2 HPO 4 . . . . . . .
0.05 Na 2 HPO 4 . . . . . . .
0.01 l-ascorbic acid . . . . . .
0.02 l-ascorbic acid . . . . . .
0.02 cystine . . . . . . .
0.05 cystine . . . . . . .
Substrate
Kathiawar
Control
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
With
inhibitor
added
7.0
42.0
48.0
11.0
14.0
13.0
24.5
3.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
4.0
6.5
11.0
3.0
4.5
Tiruppur*
With
inhibitor
added
8
29
36
..
..
..
..
2.5
3.5
5.0
7.5
..
..
7.0
11.5
..
..
* Induction period of Tiruppur ghee, 1 hour.
Table III gives the values of the induction periods before and after the
addition of anti-oxidants to the ghee. Phloroglucinol (added in solution of
alcohol) was found to have inhibitive properties considerably more than that
of hydroquinone. The addition of the solid as such to the fat caused little
improvement in the induction period. In work on lard, Olcott and Mattill
[1936] found hat phloroglucinol was not very efficient in protecting the fat.
There is no published record of the anti-oxidant properties of l-ascorbic acid
but the observation in this work has brought evidence for the existence of this
c 2
368
Anti-oxidants of Ghee
property. Cystine has little influence on the oxidation. The superior protec-
tive property of Kamala dye is clearly seen, while the addition of salts like
sodium citrate, tartrate and phosphate do not influence the oxidation. Addi-
tion of organic acids like citric, tartaric, and lactic did not increase the induc-
tion period, while oleic acid was found to shorten it (Table IV).
Of the two ghee samples used in the above experiments, one had a fairly
high acid value and its induction period was short. In spite of this, the addi-
tion of hydroquinone and Kamala resulted in prolonging the induction period.
Further investigation revealed that the addition of small amounts of acids
particularly oleic acid together with the anti-oxidant had the effect of consider-
ably increasing the inhibitive action of the latter. This behaviour resembles
that observed by Olcott and Mattill [1936] who record that mixtures of orcinol
and phosphoric acid prolong the induction period of lard to a far greater extent
than either of them individually. Table IV shows the influence of organic
acids on anti-oxidants when used together.
TABLE IV
Synergetic effect of organic acids and inhibitors
Substrate : Kathiawar (Agmark ) ghee
Inhibitor per cent
0.02 citric acid . . . . .
0.20 citric acid . . . . .
0.02 tartaric acid . . . .
0.20 tartaric acid . . . .
0.20 lactic acid . . . . .
0.50 lactic acid . . . . .
0.20 oleic acid . . . . .
0.50 oleic acid . . . . .
0.2 oleic acid+0.02 hydroquinone .
0.5 oleic acid+0.02 hydroquinone .
0.2 oleic acid+0.02 Kamala . .
0.5 oleic acid+0.02 Kamala . .
0.20 tartaric acid+0.02 Kamala . .
0.20 citric acid+0.02 Kamala . .
0.1 oleic acid+0.02 phloroglucinol .
0.2 oleic acid+0.05 phloroglucinol .
0.2 lactic acid+0.02 ascorbic acid .
0.5 lactic acid +0.02 ascorbic acid .
0.02 ascorbic acid+0.02 hydroquinone .
Induction
period *
hours
2.0
4.5
2.0
3.5
2.5
1.5
1.5
1.0
23.0
36.0
78.0
86.0
26.0
19.5
20.0†
26.0†
7.0†
9.5†
14.0†
Anti-oxi¬
dative
index
1.0
2.25
1.0
1.75
1.25
0.75
0.75
0.50
11.5
18.0
39.0
43.0
13.0
9.75
6.7
8.7
2.3
3.2
4.7
* Induction period of untreated ghee 2 hours.
† Induction period of untreated ghee 3 hours.
Effect of anti-oxidants on (1) peroxide value and (2) vitamin A value of ghee.—
The effect of heating samples of untreated ghee in oxygen on the peroxide,
acid and vitamin values and also the extent to which the addition of anti-oxi-
dants prevented the deterioration of these samples were studied. The results
are given in Table V.
S. V. GOVINDARAJAN AND B. N. BANERJEE
369
TABLE V
Effect of oxidation with and without anti-oxidants on peroxide and vitamin
values
Substrate
Kathiawar
(Agmark) ghee
Jersey ghee
Treatment
Nil
.
.
.
Nil . . .
Nil
.
.
.
+ 0.02 per cent
hydroquinone
+0.02 per cent
hydroquinone
+ 0.02
per cent
Kamala
+ 0.02
per cent
Kamala
+ 0.05 per cent
Kamala
+ 0.05 per cent
Kamala
+ 0.05 per cent
Kamala
+ 0.1
per cent
Kamala
+0.1
per cent
Kamala
+ 0.1
per cent
Kamala
Nil . . .
Nil . . .
Nil . . .
Nil . . .
+ 0.03 per cent
hydroquinone
+ 0.03 per cent
hydroquinone
+0.03
per cent
hydroquinone
+0.02 per cent
Kamala
+0.02 per cent
Kamala
+0.02 per cent
Kamala
+0.02 per cent
Kamala
Time of
heating in
oxygen at
95°C
hours
0
3
11
3
10
5
10
5
10
21
5
10
21
0
5
10
22
4
19
32
4
19
36
44
Peroxide
value ml.
0.002N
thiosul¬
phate per
gram of
fat
1.2
3.4
56.2
1.9
4.5
1.7
3.1
1.4
3.0
4.9
1.7
2.2
3.1
3.6
4.2
7.2
29.5
5.4
6.5
7.9
4.2
5.9
8.4
10.1
Vitamin values
Lovibond
Blue
units
Yellow
units
per gram
8.8
4.4
0.0
0.4
0.2
0.0
(Red units 0.3)
4.4
2.2
6.6
2.2
6.6
3.3
0.0
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.1
(Red units 0.2)
7.7
5.5
3.3
45.4
33.0
26.4
0.0
0.3
0.3
0.2
24.0
18.0
12.0
0.1
(Red units 0.1)
38.5
31.9
29.7
40.7
34.1
29.7
22.0
21.0
19.0
16.0
20.0
20.0
17.0
15.0
370
Anti-oxidants of Ghee
In the Jersey ghee, which had previously been found to have a long
induction period (8.5 hours), the vitamin destruction with heat was slow.
In the Kathiawar ghee, which had a comparatively short induction period,
the vitamin destruction was complete in a few hours. This proved that the
anti-oxidants which protect the fat from oxidation also protect the vitamin from
destruction. Simultaneously with the commencement of the destruction of
the vitamin during the period of heating in oxygen the peroxide value was
found to increase rapidly. The addition of hydroquinone and Kamala was
found to result in prolonging the period of vitamin destruction.
Generally, in the crude methods adopted in the villages for the preparation
of ghee, conditions are rendered favourable for the rapid oxidation of fat.
This oxidation, which results in rancidity, is accompanied by the destruction
of even the small amounts of vitamin A contained in them. The results of
experiments described above clearly show the additional advantage of adding
anti-oxidants to ghee either during or even after preparation on the oxidation
of the fat and the destruction of the vitamin.
SUMMARY
The method of determining the rate of oxygen absorption has been used
for ascertaining the natural resistance of butter-fat to oxidation. The induction
period is taken as a measure of this resistance. A simple apparatus for the
study by this method is described.
The protective action of various anti-oxidants towards fat oxidation has
been investigated and the use of the vegetable dye, Kamala, in small con-
centrations for this purpose is described. The presence in small amounts of
oleic acid is found to intensify the protective action of most of the anti-
oxidants possessing one or more active hydroxyl groups.
Anti-oxidants in inhibiting fat oxidation are found also to delay the des-
truction of vitamin A in ghee.
REFERENCES
Barnicoat, C. R. (1931). J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 50, 361T
Bevis, J. F. (1923). Ibid. 42, 417T
Bradway, E. M. and Mattill, H. A. (1934). J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 56, 2405
Coe, M. R. and LeClerc, J. A. (1934). Ind. Eng. Chem. 26, 245
Dastur, N. N. and Banerjee, B. N. (1936). Current Sci. 5, 99
Davies, W. L. (1928). J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 47, 185T
Evans, E. I. (1935). Ind. Eng. Chem. 27, 329
Fellenberg, T. (1924). Mitt. Lebensm. Hyg. 15, 198
French, R. B., Olcott, H. S. and Mattill, H. A. (1935). Ind. Eng. Chem. 27, 724
Govindarajan, S. V. and Banerjee, B. N. (1939). Current Sci. 8, 559
Greenbank, G. R. and Holm, G. E. (1930). Ind. Eng. Chem. Anal. Edn. 2, 9
Holm, H. N., Corbett, R. E. and Hartzler, E. R. (1936). Ibid. 28, 133
Holm, H. N. and Greenbank, G. R. (1924). Ibid. 16, 518
Holm, H. N., Greenbank, G. R. and Deysher, E. F. (1927). Ibid. 19, 156
Huston, R. C., et al. (1928). J. Biol. Chem. 79, 507
King et al. (1933). Oil and Soap 10, 204
Kreis (1902). Chem. Ztg. 26, 1014
Lea, C. H. (1931). Proc. Roy. Soc. 108 B., 175
—
(1934). Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Edn. 6, 241
Mattill, H. A. and Crawford, B. (1930). Ibid. 22, 341
S. V. GOVINDARAJAN AND B. N. BANERJEE
371
Milas, N. A. (1930). J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 52, 739
Moureu, C. and Dufraisse, C. (1927). Chem. Rev. 3, 113
Olcott, H. S. (1934). J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 56, 2492
Olcott, H. S. and Mattill, H. A. (1931). J. Biol. Chem. 93, 59, 65
—
(1936). J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 58, 1627, 2204
Osborne, T. B. and Mendel, L. B. (1920). J. Biol Chem. 41, 549
Pennington, M. E. and Hepburn, J. S. (1912). J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 34, 210
Steenbock, H., Boutwell, P. W. and Kent, H. E. (1918). J. Biol. Chem. 35, 517
Taffel, A. and Revis, C. (1931). J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 50, 87T
Wagner, A. M. and Brier, J. C. (1931). Ind. Eng. Chem. 23, 40, 662
Wheeler, D. H. (1932). J. Oil and Soap 9, 89
OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS OF THE FINGERLINGS OF AN
INDIAN CARP, CIRRHINA MRIGALA (HAMILTON)
BY
HAMID KHAN, M.Sc., LL.B. (PUNJAB), PH.D. (CANTAB), F.A.Sc.
Fisheries Research Officer, Punjab, Lyallpur
(Received for publication on 29 March 1940)
F ISHES, like all other animals, require oxygen for their respiration, and it
is oxygen dissolved in water which is utilized by them. The amount
of oxygen consumed by fresh-water fishes of different species varies consider-
ably and the lower limit for dissolved oxygen in water up to which the fish can
live also varies with the species of the fish.
Kupzis [1901] states that in general the European roach (Leuciscus
erythropthalmus) could live for sometime in water containing 0.7 c.c. of dis-
solved oxygen per litre, but it died of asphyxia when the dissolved oxygen
was reduced to 0.4 to 0.5 c.c. per litre. Plehn [1924] finds that the carp live
well in water containing 5 c.c. dissolved oxygen per litre or lower. If the
water be cold carp can live for short time in water containing only 0.5 c.c.
per litre of dissolved oxygen. Thompson [1925] has found carp living in
water carrying as little as 2.2 p.p.m. of dissolved oxygen.
In America and on the continent good deal of work has been done on
oxygen requirements of fishes and much of this literature has been summarized
by Ellis [1937]. In India this aspect of fish culture has not received any atten-
tion so far. In this article it is proposed to give the oxygen requirements of
the indigenous species of fish in India.
METHODS
In order to determine the amount of oxygen consumed by fingerlings of
Indian carp (Cyprinidae) such as Morakha (Cirrhina mrigala Hamilton)
in a closed container the method adopted was one described by Keys [1930]
and followed by Schuett [1933] and others. The method consists in merely
determining the oxygen concentration in the medium before and after the ex-
periment. The container is stoppered to avoid air contamination during
the time of experimentation. This method has been criticised [Keys, 1930]
specially when the period of duration of experiment is long because of the
fact that oxygen is diminishing and carbon dioxide and nitrogenous excretions
are accumulating in the water in which the animals are living during the
period of investigation. In the present investigations the fingerlings were
starved beforehand to avoid the possibility of contamination with excretory
products having influenced the oxygen consumption, and the amount of carbon
dioxide before and after the experiments was determined to find its accumula-
tions during experiments of various durations.
Determination of oxygen was done by Winkler's method as given by
American Public Health Association [1933]. Amount of carbon dioxide was
( 372 )
HAMID
KHAN
373
determined by Seyler's method as described by Kemmerer, Bovard, and
Boorman [1924] and pH values were found by Hellige Comparator. The
capacity of all the glass containers used in these experiments was 8.17 litres
each. Tap or clean tank water was used as medium.
Carp fingerlings (Cirrhina mrigala) of the same age and of almost the
same length were used in the experiment. The fingerlings measuring 5 to 5.6
inches from tip of the snout to the base of the caudal fin were selected for use.
OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS
(a) The lower limit for dissolved oxygen.—The point at which the dissolved
oxygen is so reduced as to present a lethal condition for fishes was determined
by keeping a known number of carp fingerlings in closed containers till they
showed signs of asphyxiation, i.e. either they turned upside down or died
due to insufficiency of dissolved oxygen. Results are given in Table I:—
(i) Four fingerlings at 68° to 71° F consumed from 2.613 to 3.3877
c.c. per litre of dissolved oxygen in three hours. The oxygen
consumed per fish ranged from 0.653 to 0.844 c.c. per litre.
The dissolved oxygen in the container at the end of the experi-
ment was 0.144 to 0.2235 c.c. per litre, that is to say the oxy-
gen available per fish was not more than 0.0558 c.c. per
litre.
(ii) Eight fingerlings, of almost the same size of Cirrhina mrigala, when
confined in a closed container showed signs of asphyxiation when
the oxygen at the end of the experiment was so reduced as to
range from 0.1418 to 0.339 c.c. per litre, i.e. the oxygen
available per fish was not more than 0.0424 c.c. per litre in
any case.
(iii) Similarly when 12 carp fingerlings were put in a closed
container, they turned upside down when the oxygen
concentration in the water at the end of the experiment was so
reduced as to range from 0.351 to 0.6095 c.c. per litre, i.e.
the oxygen available in the medium per fish was not more than
0.0508 c.c. per litre.
The results of these investigations indicate that the carp fingerlings seem
to find great difficulty to live if the dissolved oxygen available in water per
fish is reduced to 0.05 c.c. per litre or lower. The duration of experiment
depended upon the amount of oxygen available in the medium at the
commencement of the experiment, and it varied from one hour to 8 hours 31
minutes.
(b) Oxygen requirements of eight carp fingerlings.—Table II gives results
of oxygen requirements of eight carp fingerlings in one hour. The oxygen
consumed varied from 1.619 to 3.363 c.c. per litre, i.e. 0.202 to 0.4204 c.c.
per litre per fish. The oxygen content of the medium did not at any time
during the experiment become so low as to be a limiting factor. The lowest
value of oxygen concentration in the medium was 0.5476 c.c. per litre for
eight fish, i.e. 0.0684 c.c. per litre per fish, which is above the lethal limit.
HAMID
KHAN
375
SUMMARY
1. Oxygen requirements of the fingerlings of an Indian carp—Cirrhina
mrigala Hamilton—have been determined by confining them in air-tight
glass containers and determining the dissolved oxygen concentration in the
medium before and after the experiment.
2. The fingerlings show signs of asphyxiation if the dissolved oxygen
available in water per fish is reduced to 0.05 c.c. per litre.
3. The rate of oxygen consumption ranged from 0.202 to 0.678 c.c.
per litre per fish in one hour. In three hours the rate of oxygen consump-
tion was 0.375 to 0.8476 c.c. per litre per fish.
4. The carbon dioxide accumulation varied according to number of
fingerlings and in the case of one fingerling accumulation was negligible, in
the case of four it increased from 0.253 to 1.348 c.c. per litre and in the
case of eight to twelve fingerlings it ranged from 3.2232 to 4.98 c.c.
per litre.
5. The pH value showed a fall from 8.2 to 7.2 and 7.4 when eight to
twelve fingerlings were under experiment.
TABLE I
Lower limit of oxygen requirements of carp fingerlings in a closed container
No.
of
fish
4
4
4
8
8
8
8
8
8
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
Tempe-
rature
68° F
68° F
71° F
70° F
74° F
75° F
76° F
76° F
56° F
55° F
55° F
55° P
55° F
57° F
57° F
70° F
Duration
of
experiment.
Hr.
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
8
4
4
4
3
2
3
1
Min.
0
0
0
40
30
0
8
8
31
10
30
12
57
47
16
10
Dissolved oxygen in c.c. per litre
Control
2.793
2.793
3.6112
3.316
3.496
2.591
3.4445
3.4445
8.506
6.795
6.947
0.7394
7.1366
5.754
5.444
3.316
At end of
experiment
0.144
0.181
0.2235
0.339
0.1518
0.273
0.1778
0.1418
0.295
0.4349
0.4069
0.351
0.4591
0.6095
0.4567
0.364
Available
per fish
0.036
0.045
0.0558
0.0424
0.0189
0.034
0.0222
0.0177
0.037
0.0362
0.0339
0.03
0.038
0.051
0.038
0.0303
Consumed
by all
fish
2.649
2.613
3.3877
2.977
3.3442
2.318
3.2667
3.3027
8.211
6.3601
0.5401
6.3884
6.6775
5.1445
4.9864
2.952
Consumed
per fish
0.662
0.653
0.844
0.372
0.418
0.289
0.408
0.4128
1.026
0.53
0.545
0.5323
0.5564
0.4287
0.4155
0.246
Condition of fingerlings
at end of experiment
All turned upside down
All turned upside down
Three fingerlings died
Two fingerlings died
Two fingerlings died
All turned upside down
Two fingerlings died
Three fingerlings died
All turned upside down
but revived in fresh water
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
376
Oxygen Requirements of Indian Carp
TABLE II
Oxygen requirements of eight carp fingerlings in a closed container for one hour
Temperature
70° F
70° F
70° F
70° F
71° F
72° F
73° F
73° F
73° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
75° F
75° F
76° F
76° F
76° F
77° F
77° F
Dissolved oxygen in c.c. per litre
Control
3.983
3.983
3.691
3.691
3.969
3.656
4.432
4.432
3.498
4.206
4.206
3.87
3.87
3.601
2.932
3.441
3.441
3.992
3.992
2.591
3.583
3.853
4.1147
4.1147
3.911
3.911
At end of
experiment
2.364
2.314
1.293
0.9784
1.763
0.924
1.642
1.666
1.872
1.895
1.827
1.375
0.6889
1.153
0.7448
1.027
0.8621
1.321
1.365
0.6519
1.203
0.7065
1.799
1.068
0.7731
0.5476
Available
per fish
at end of
experiment
0.295
0.289
0.161
0.1223
0.22
0.115
0.205
0.208
0.234
0.237
0.228
0.172
0.0861
0.144
0.0931
0.128
0.1076
0.165
0.17
0.0813
0.15
0.0883
0.225
0.133
0.0966
0.0684
Consumed
by 8 fish
1.619
1.669
2.398
2.7126
2.206
2.732
2.79
2.766
1.626
2.311
2.379
2.495
3.1911
2.448
2.1882
2.414
1.7243
2.671
2.627
1.9391
2.38
3.0425
2.3157
3.0467
3.2379
3.3634
Consumed
per flsh
0.202
0.208
0.299
0.339
0.275
0.341
0.348
0.346
0.203
0.288
0.297
0.312
0.3988
0.306
0.273
0.301
0.3223
0.334
0.328
0.2424
0.297
0.3803
0.289
0.3808
0.4047
0.4204
Condition of fingerlings at
end of experiment
All in good condition
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
HAMID
KHAN
377
TABLE III
Oxygen requirements of four carp fingerlings in a closed container
Temperature
64° F
64° F
64° F
64° F
66° F
66°F
66° F
66° F
68° F
68° F
68°F
69° F
69° F
69° F
69° F
72° F
72° F
72° F
72° F
72° F
72° F
74° F
74° F
70° F
71° F
72° F
73° F
73° F
74° T
74° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
75° F
76° F
76° F
77° F
Time
3 hours
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
1 hour
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
Dissolved oxygen in c.c. per litre
Control
5.363
5.363
5.363
5.363
4.7545
4.7545
4.7545
4.7545
2.793
4.0945
4.0945
3.9207
3.9207
3.9207
3.9207
3.737
3.737
3.765
3.765
4.0435
4.0435
3.454
3.454
3.691
3.969
3.656
3.498
4.432
3.601
2.932
3.583
3.441
3.992
4.206
3.870
2.591
3.749
4.1147
3.911
At end of
experiment
3.470
3.152
3.862
3.411
2.8435
2.965
2.388
1.8655
0.822
1.852
2.07
0.9102
0.8548
0.5304
0.5353
0.8501
0.4266
1.015
1.979
1.377
0.7993
0.7279
0.5679
2.436
2.432
2.164
2.343
2.841
2.478
1.63
2.343
2.173
2.67
3.045
2.194
1.085
1.654
2.929
1.8
Available
per fish
0.867
0.788
0.965
0.852
0.7108
0.741
0.597
0.4661
0.205
0.463
0.52
0.2275
0.2137
0.1351
0.1363
0.2125
0.1066
0.254
0.492
0.344
0.1998
0.1819
0.1419
0.609
0.608
0.541
0.585
0.71
0.619
0.407
0.586
0.543
0.667
0.761
0.548
0.271
0.413
0.732
0.45
Consumed
by 4 fish
1.893
2.211
1.501
1.952
1.911
1.7985
2.3665
2.889
1.971
2.2425
2.0245
3.0105
2.659
3.3903
3.3854
2.8869
3.3104
2.75
1.786
2.6665
3.2342
2.7261
2.8861
1.255
1.537
1.492
1.155
1.591
1.123
1.302
1.240
1.268
1.322
1.047
1.676
1.506
2.095
1.1857
2.111
Consumed
per fish
0.473
0.553
0.375
0.488
0.4777
0.4476
0.5916
0.7222
0.495
0.5606
0.5061
0.7526
0.5165
0.8476
0.8466
0.7217
0.8276
0.687
0.446
0.6666
0.8085
0.6815
0.7215
0.313
0.384
0.373
0.289
0.398
0.281
0.325
0.31
0.317
0.3305
0.262
0.419
0.376
0.523
0.2964
0.528
Condition of fish at end of
experiment
All fish in good condition
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
378
Oxygen Requirements of Indian Carp
TABLE IV
Oxygen requirement of one carp fingerling in a closed container
Temperature
66°F
66°F
66°F
66°F
67° F
67° F
67°F
67° F
68° F
68°F
68° F
68°F
68° F
68° F
69° F
69° F
69° F
69° F
71° F
71° F
72° F
72° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
70° F
72° F
73° F
73° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
74° F
75° F
75° F
76° F
76° F
77° F
Time
3 hours
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
1 hour
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
Oxygen in c.c. per litre
Control
3.966
3.966
3.966
3.966
4.168
4.168
4.168
4.168
4.6537
4.6537
4.6537
4.6537
4.0945
4.0945
3.3602
3.3602
3.3602
3.3602
3.6112
3.6112
3.737
3.737
3.454
3.454
4.0435
4.0435
3.691
3.656
4.432
3.498
4.206
3.87
3.601
2.932
3.441
3.992
2.591
3.583
3.749
4.1147
3.911
At end of
experiment
3.114
2.922
3.409
3.302
3.418
2.382
3.161
3.25
3.2325
3.871
3.83
3.96
3.269
3.229
2.271
2.074
1.8695
2.337
2.032
2.162
3.115
3.119
2.74
3.0723
3.365
3.286
3.163
3.073
3.917
3.226
3.893
3.192
3.222
2.643
2.856
3.543
2.289
3.340
3.188
3.722
3.269
Consumed
per fish
0.852
1.044
0.557
0.664
0.75
1.886
1.007
0.918
1.4212
0.7827
0.8237
0.6937
0.826
0.866
1.0892
1.2862
1.4907
1.0232
1.5792
1.5492
0.622
0.618
0.714
0.3817
0.6785
0.7575
0.528
0.583
0.515
0.272
0.313
0.678
0.379
0.289
0.585
0.449
0.302
0.243
0.561
0.3927
0.642
Condition of fish at end of experiment
All fish in good condition
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.