NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
BOLTING.
47
a longish swim, or a stiff current to contend against, they should be
allowed a short rest. With an unruly animal I found the plan re-
commended by Steel answer well, namely, to put the troublesome
elephant between two quiet animals, and to tie them neck to neck;
the attendant should carry a knife in case it may be necessary to cut
the rope. In rivers where the fords are not well known, a quiet ele-
phant and a good swimmer with an intelligent driver should be first
sent across to explore the route. Elephants are good and powerful
swimmers. In deep water the driver should stand, as the animals
are fond of ducking themselves.
Bolting.
This is one of the most dangerous but fortunately rare vices of
the elephant. It is nearly always the result of fear. Small ani-
mals such as fox-terriers are particularly distasteful to them and,
ridiculous as it may appear, often cause them to bolt. On one
occasion in the Shan States I saw a tusker carrying my kit sud-
denly run away trumpeting, the only cause I could assign was
that a couple of cackling hens ran out close to him from under
a hut. In the open it is poor fun being on the back of a run-
away elephant, but in jungle, it is needless to remark, a very
serious matter. Blind-folding with a cloth often answers in check-
ing their flight, but all animals known to be liable to bolt, should
have a fairly long heavy chain attached to a hind leg; the free end
should be attached to the saddle within easy reach of the driver, so
that if occasion arises he can release it in the hope that it may be
caught in some bush or stump. Sanderson cured a bolter by having
a hoop of iron made with sharp spikes to encircle a hind leg, kya-pazat
(
) of the Burmese (see Figs. 2 and 3). This was kept in
position round the leg by being suspended from the pad by a rope, and
it fitted the leg so loosely as not to inconvenience the elephant, except
when required. To the ring was attached a chain fifteen feet long,
at the other end of which was a pick-axe head. This grappling-
iron was slung to the pad by a cord in a slip-knot, handy to the ma-
hout who could set the anchor free with a pull at the cord. In the
Karen Hills I noticed that unruly beasts and those given to bolting,
generally have a hole about the size of a rupee pierced through the
lobe of one ear. A piece of cord is passed through the hole, and
the free ends kept handy by the driver. On giving trouble the
driver hangs on to the string ; the method appears to be fairly effec-
tive. The oo-sis when bringing certain animals in from grazing,
pass a cord through the hole in the ear, take hold of the free ends,
48
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
and lead the animals into camp. A method employed in Siam with
nervous elephants is very effective : A bent hook like a magnified
fish-hook hangs loosely on the ear close to the head, a string is at-
tached to the hole on the straight end. When the animal is nervous
and shows signs of wanting to bolt, the cooly pulls on the string.
Some mahouts take the trouble to teach their elephants certain
methods by which they alone can approach and catch their animals,
when out grazing. For instance, a driver seeing his elephant, hails
him, upon which the animal at once charges down on his keeper
with (to a stranger) apparently alarming intent, but having done this,
he permits himself to be caught.
Other elephants will permit their fetters to be removed from the
near or off-side only, and some will only allow approach from behind;
or the driver must pass under the elephant's uplifted trunk, before he
proceeds to remove a fetter.
These little eccentricities are useful in a way, in that they help to
prevent a casual thief, or a professional, who has perhaps not had an
opportunity of studying the habits of certain animals he desires to
steal from capturing them.
Restraint.
For this purpose fetters, chains, and ropes are employed.
Fetters are of various patterns, those most commonly used consist
of short lengths of chain. A fetter is carried for each foot, the fore-
fetters are connected by a short chain like hand-cuffs, and those for
the hind-legs are also joined in a similar manner (see Fig. 4).
The fetters are fastened by means of a specia link-hook. Some
elephants can undo this fastening; in such cases a peculiar spring
lock of native pattern is applied to fasten the fetter. Many foresters
employ these locks when they let their animals free in the jungle to
prevent their being stolen.
Fetters made of plaited cane are those generally employed by
the Burmese. The fetter is a simple hoop of plaited cane (see
Fig. 5); when in position, it is lashed between the legs with a rope
or thong.
Special fetters are sometimes used such as the kya-pazat (
)
tiger's-mouth ; this consists of three pieces of iron, jointed and fitted
with spikes on the inside ; the hind fetter consists of two pieces of iron
jointed and spiked; they are only used on unruly beasts, or when
there is a chance of animals stampeding through fear, or on those
given to bolting.
TO SECURE FOR OPERATIONS.
49
Tethering chains are of variable lengths and thickness; they are
usually fitted with a stout iron ring at one end.
Tethering.—Elephants are often secured by one fore-limb only,
both fetters are passed through the ring of the tethering chain, after
which they are applied to one of the fore-legs; this method allows
the animal plenty of freedom. Where space does not permit or
when other elephants are near by, the hind-fetters are put on in a
similar manner to the fore, and the tethering chain secured to a post
or tree behind.
When "musth" is anticipated extra precautions are taken; the
fore-fetters are applied, one to each limb, and a tethering chain runs
from each to a tree or post, so with the hind-legs ; and in animals
known to be vicious when musth, for extra security they often have
their fore-legs brought close together, and a long rope is then passed
round the limbs above the fetters in a figure of 8, and secured between
the limbs. Sometimes only one hind-leg is secured, in which case a
rope is wound round the leg about half-way up and tied, the tethering
chain is applied above this. For animals given to trying to throw
the mahouts off an iron spiked chain collar is sometimes employed.
To secure for operations.
As a rule elephants are very good about being operated on; they
do not appear to mind being cut; there are, however, many
troublesome, dangerous beasts who require to be carefully secured.
The two more common methods employed are as follows:—
(a) The mahout should bring the animal up to a post or tree,
the fore and hind fetters and tethering chains are applied,
the hind chain is tied to a post or tree behind, the ani-
mal is then made to bring his fore-legs as near as pos-
sible to the post round which the fore tethering chain is
tied. The fore-legs are now brought together as close
as possible, and a long rope is wound round the limbs
above the fetters in a figure of 8 and secured between
the legs. The elephant is then made to place his hind-
legs together, when they are tied in a similar manner to
the fore-legs, only much higher up (about half-way up
the limb), and a tethering chain applied. The free end
is secured round a tree or post.
To fix the head a long rope is taken, one end is tied round
the post and the free portion passed under and over the
neck and round the post three or more times and care-
fully tied.
7
50
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
An elephant can shake a man off his back. To dimmish the
chances of such an accident, take a long rope, pass it
round the neck and tie a knot between the shoulders;
carry the free end under the tail round to the loop where
it should be knotted near where the first knot is tied,
by this means it is almost impossible for a man to be
shaken off. This leaves only the trunk to be dealt with ,
and any mischief from this source can be guarded against
by the presence of the mahout on the neck, and a man or
two below armed with spears.
(b) Fetter both the fore-limbs, then take the tethering chain
attached to fetter, say on left-leg, and pass it over the
neck, the animal is now made to assume the crouching
posture; the free end of chain is then passed through
fetter on right-side, brought back over the neck, and the
operation repeated once or twice and the chain secured.
It is as well to apply a few gunny-bags over the neck as
it is liable to become galled if the animal strains much.
In the jungle and in Siam a ' break ' or ' crush ' is sometimes used
(see Figs. 11 and 12). This consists of a number of stout, rough logs
set in a V-shaped manner. The elephant is ridden or driven in at A
and when he gets near B, posts at D are run through to prevent his
getting out, and also at C to prevent his backing. In this cramp-
ed position he is unable to apply his strength. It may on very
rare occasions be necessary to throw an elephant for the purpose
of operation. I only tried it once and this was at Pakôkku. The
elephant, a fine powerful and most troublesome tusker, was suffering
from a severe wound on the spine ; also two enormous abscesses on
the back; he would not permit any interference. While the ma-
hout was trying to dress the wound the elephant started the bear-like
motion and the man fell off and was injured. The cooly could do
nothing beyond applying fetters ; the animal could not be induced to
assume the recumbent posture, so we determined to try and throw
him. Two heavy tuskers were brought in case matters became
serious. The animal was tethered by one fore-leg to a tree with a
good stout chain ; fetters were then placed on all four legs, a long
chain being fixed on one fore-fetter ; this chain was passed through
all the fetters, the free end was given to a very fine old elephant
' Rajgopal '; he immediately started to walk away ; the men about
then took their spears mounted on long bamboo shafts and whenever
opportunity offered they touched a fore or hind foot causing him to
draw it away. As ' Rajgopal ' had a steady strain on the chain, we
soon got the legs so far under the beast that he was obliged to sink
down amidst much shrieking and trumpeting.
TO SECURE FOR OPERATIONS.
51
The abscesses were promptly opened and dressed, the wound
owing to the presence of maggots was opened up and the maggots
removed, after which he was allowed to get up which he only suc-
ceeded in doing after several efforts. The shaking he got or the
relief afforded by the operation quietened him down ; he did not try
to injure any one, and next day after a little trouble he allowed the
cooly to mount and dress the wounds. This elephant after a
course of tonics made an excellent recovery.
Another form of kya-pazat is used for the recapture of escaped
elephants. Some animals after being free for a time, though permit-
ting men they know to approach them, will not allow them to mount,
so the kya-pazat is used (see Fig. 1); the head is similar to an ordi-
nary pitch-fork, but barbed like a fish-hook, it is wide enough to stick
on to a limb, a light chain or rope is attached to a ring on it. The
head can be fixed on a long bamboo. The man sneaks about the jun-
gle after his animal, and when opportunity offers, sticks the pitch-fork
on a hind limb ; the handle soon comes out, but before long the rope or
chain gets entangled in bushes, and the animal cannot get away.
A more barbarous method employed by Karens and Shans is to
load a gun with a piece of pointed cane, which is fired into a leg at
close range, thus laming the beast.
Most mahouts arm themselves with a light iron hook fixed into a
cane or bamboo handle about 2 feet in length (Fig. 7). It should only
be employed in emergencies. Some drivers only use a pointed stick.
From time to time endless other coercive appliances have been
devised for purposes of restraint (Fig. 8); though patience and gen-
tleness should be exercised in dealing with any animal, it is still more
necessary in these" creatures, and everything should be tried before
forcible measures are resorted to.
The following are the instructions laid down for securing elephants
in the Manual of Mountain Artillery, 1882:—
(i) Anklet on one fore-foot only, the other ankle linked
through the ring of a long chain, hook-end secured
round a tree, post, or into the ring-bolt. For day use.
(ii) Long chain round one hind-leg to tree, post, or ring-
bolt. For day use.
(iii) Above, with anklets on both fore-feet.
(iv) Anklet on one fore-foot only, the other linked on ring-
bolt.
(v) Both anklets on fore-feet, coupling chain through ring
bolt.
(vi) Above, with long chain on one hind-leg (only allowed in
special cases).
52
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Instructions for securing elephants for transport by train or sea
are given in the Government Regulations on the subject.
Destruction.
It occasionally happens that owing to severe injury or incurable
disease an animal has to be destroyed. To those who may be call-
ed upon to do this it is necessary to know the shots by which the
brain may be readily reached. The brain is not large and is
situated low and far back. The places usually selected are the fore-
head, ear, and behind the ear (see diagram No. 26),
(a) Front or forehead.—The point to aim at is the centre of
the forehead, near the top of the large bump at the base
of the trunk, which if a line is drawn between the eyes
would be about 3 inches above them. Both the person
shooting and the animal should be on more or less level
ground, the animal also facing and carrying the head in
the natural position.
(b) Ear, temple, or side shot.—The animal standing on more
or less level ground and head held in natural position ;
the best spot to aim at, if the person shooting be also on
level ground, is the ear-hole, in a line to pass through the
opposite ear-hole. Other side shots may be taken in
the region of the temple, depending on position of
person shooting.
(c) The rear or behind ear shot.—Sanderson describes as
follows:—" The spot behind the ear is in the hollow just
" over the large lump or swelling at the junction of the jaw
" and neck. It must be taken at about an angle of 45
" degrees with the elephant's course from behind."
When charging, the head is elevated and the trunk curled up, so it
is necessary to fire at least a foot lower than when the head is held
in the natural position. If a tusker, fire between the tusks.
The chief thing in shooting an elephant is to approach as close as
possible in order to make certain of the shot, as the mark at a little
distance is easily missed. Cover should be taken, and the best
time to stalk the beast is while he is feeding; great care must be
paid to the direction of the wind, which should be from the animal,
the wind should be taken every few yards with feathers or wood-ashes.
With regard to the weapon to be used, there are many advocates
for small bores, and a rifle such as a 303 with nickel bullet, owing to
its great penetration, will kill an elephant as efficiently as a much
larger bore; still picked shots are required, and luck also, and we sel-
DESTRUCTION.
53
dom hear of the animals wounded by small bores and not bagged.
A small bore is a poor weapon when face to face with an infuriated
elephant. To inexperienced persons I recommend the heaviest
weapon they can conveniently carry, such as a 450 cordite (nickel
bullets) a .577 express, with steel tipped bullets, or, better still, an 8-
bore with hardened lead bullets. It is desirable to have a second
rifle at hand in case of accidents.
The body shot should be taken rather low, a little above and be-
hind the elbow just near the wrinkle usually observed in that
region. This shot should not be taken where people are about, as
even with a four-bore bullet placed in this position, an animal may
run for 60 or 80 yards.
CHAPTER III.
OUTLINE OF THE ANATOMY OF THE ELEPHANT-ARTICULATIONS-SKULL—TEETH-THE
SPINE—CERVICAL VERTEBRÆ-DORSAL VERTEBRÆ—LUMBAR VERTEBRÆ-SACRAL VER-
TEBR/E-CAUDAL VERTEBRÆ-STERNUM-RIBS-EXTREM1TIES-PELVIS–FOOT–THE ALI-
MENTARY
CANAL–MUCOUS
MEMBRANE-STOMACH–SMALL
INTESTINES–LIVER–
SPLEEN—URINARY ORGANS–ORGANS OF GENERATION—IMPREGNATION—ACCESSORY
ORGAN OF REPRODUCTION–THE THORAX OR CHEST-HEART-RESPIRATORY ORGANS
–NOSE–EYE–LACHRYMAL APPARATUS–EAR–MUSCULAR SYSTEM-SKIN-WEIGHT OF
CARCASS.
Outline of the anatomy of the elephant.
EXTERNAL form is dependent upon an internal basement structure.
This consists of a number of definitely but diversely shaped masses
of a hard substance called bone. This basement structure is known
as the skeleton. The bones entering into its formation are of vari-
ous forms and sizes depending on the uses for which they are in-
tended. They are divided into three classes : long, flat, and irregu-
lar. The first named are situated in the limbs ; they have a shaft,
and two extremities. Examples:—arm bone (humerus), thigh bone
(femur). The scapula or shoulder blade, pelvis, and frontal bones of
the head are examples of flat bones. The bones of the knees and
vertebral column are examples of the irregular type of bones. Bone
of which the skeleton is composed, is a tough, hard, elastic sub-
stance, consisting of animal matter impregnated with earthy salts.
The earthy salts may be removed from the bone by immersion in
dilute hydrochloric acid ; the figure of the bone remains unchanged,
but instead of being hard, it will be found to resemble cartilage or
grizzle, and may be twisted in any direction. The composition of
bone is as follows :—
Earthy matter
... ... ... ...
Animal matter
... ... ... ...
Total ...
667
33.3
100.0 Ashby.
The ends of the bones are constructed in different ways to per-
mit of more or less motion. In some parts there is a ball and socket
arrangement, in others hinge-like joints, and so on.
The skeleton gives support to the animal frame, and affords fixed
objects for the attachment of various parts. In order to admit of
ARTICULATIONS—SKULL.
55
motion, the bones are connected one to another by means of strong
bands, known as ligaments.
Locomotion is effected by means of muscles, which have usually
two separate attachments to bones, so that when they contract, they
become shorter and broader, and the points of attachment are thus
brought nearer.
Articulations.
The various bones that form the skeleton are connected together
in different ways : such connections are known as joints or articula-
tions.
In the skull we find the bones united by a dovetailed arrangement
(sutures), the edges of the bones are serrated, the projections of
one bone fitting into depressions of the other, which are held to-
gether by the periosteum (the membrane covering bone). In joints
such as these no motion is required.
The connection between bones in the spinal column is an example
of another form of joint. Here only a very limited amount of mo-
tion is required, and we find that the contiguous surfaces of the
bones are connected by interposed cartilaginous tissue running from
one bone to the other.
And lastly we have moveable joints. In these joints we have the
surfaces of the extremities covered with a thin layer of cartilage, or
grizzle (a firm elastic substance, of a bluish colour ; it helps to lessen
friction, gives freedom to movement, and to diminish shock), which is
surrounded by a capsular ligament, which is attached to the edges
of the articular surfaces. This ligament is lined by a membrane,
which secretes synovia, a lubricating fluid commonly called joint
oil. The amount of motion permitted varies least in the knees, and
greatest in the ball and socket joints, as shoulder, hip.
Skull (see Figs. 21 and 22).
The construction of the skull differs widely from that of most
animals. The cranial much exceeds the facial portion in size, its
upper part forming an expanded dome, the remainder being formed
of bony cell structure (air sinuses), which separate the outer from
the inner table of the skull; the structure is so disposed as to afford
great strength with little material. During early life these cavities
are small, but with age they increase greatly.
56
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
The nasal bones are short, triangular, and pneumatic, forming
the lump or boss, seen immediately above the root of the trunk.
The cavities or sinuses are broken up into numerous subdivisions by
irregular partitions, and are lined with a delicate membrane ; they
communicate freely with one another and with the nasal cavities, and
while their aggregate bulk constitutes a very considerable portion
of the skull, so very thin and light are they, that if a section be made
of that portion of the head which includes the greater portion of them,
it will be found to weigh from eight to eleven pounds, whereas
that of the entire skull often exceeds 100 lbs. in weight. The aver-
age weight of five skulls of male elephants was found to be 114 2/5
lbs.; one of these, however, was an exceptionally large head, weigh-
ing 175½ lbs., i.e., upper jaw 59 lbs., lower jaw 116½ lbs. Owing to
the peculiar structure of the skull referred to, a large extent of bony
surface is provided for the attachment of muscles, without materially
adding to the weight of the head, and by means of the air con-
tained in the sinuses, the skull is rendered buoyant, the animal being
thus enabled to support the enormous weight of the teeth and lower
jaw. The large amount of cell structure interposed between the
outer and inner tables of the skull affords such an important organ
as the brain great protection.
The bony nostrils are formed by the nasal and premaxillary bones ;
the nasal chambers are very short and vertical. The turbinal bones
situated within the nasal aperture are rudimentary, and it is here that
we find the apertures admitting air into the extensive air chambers
of the skull.
The lachrymal bone is small, protuberant, and imperforate.
The cavity in which the brain is lodged is situated low and far back.
The brain is oval in shape (see Fig. 23), and the division between
the large and small brain is vertical, i.e., they lie on a level plane
without overlapping. ' The olfactory lobes from which the nerves
' of smell proceed are large, whilst the nerve of sight and muscular
' nerves of the muscles of the eye are singularly small for so vast an
' animal ; and one is immediately struck by the prodigious size of
' the nerve which supplies the proboscis with its exquisite sensibility,
' as well as by the great size of the motor portion of the nerve which
' supplies the same organ with its power of movement and action.'—
(Emerson Tennent.) In animals of ordinary size, the brain weighs
from 15 to 17 pounds.
The lower jaw is short, the ascending portion being almost as large
as the horizontal branch ; the junction between the two is short and
pointed. The dental canal is wide and excavated to accommodate
the enormous grinders, and to afford space for the formation and
growth of the succeeding teeth.