NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
ANTHRAX.
291
before death or within an hour after death, it is generally
useless making specimens.
Microscopical examination of the blood taken immediately before
or shortly after death will afford a correct diagnosis. The disease
will be best understood by quoting a few illustrative cases. Some
of these occurred among elephants at the same time that this disease
was raging amongst horned cattle in the same locality.
Case No. 1.—Red spots observed on the mucous membranes,
eyes staring, passed blood with the excrement. During illness kept
shivering and leaning against trees ; after falling he did not rise
again. Died on the second day of illness. Putrid smell from the
mouth soon after death. Another animal had a short time previously
died suddenly near by.
Case No. 2.—One morning an animal to all appearances well,
was saddled, loaded and started from camp ; she had only gone a
short distance, when it was observed that she was not walking
properly, i.e., signs of weakness behind were evident ; she suddenly
stopped and refused to go on, so was turned to return to camp,
but in a short time she fell down ; the baggage and kah (basket)
ropes were cut through at once but she did not rise again,
dying in a short time. This elephant had a day or so before
grazed over a place where the carcase of an elephant which had
recently died had been dragged by two elephants for about a mile
for burial.
Case No. 3.—Three elephants, namely, Nos. 100, 101, 103,
were working in the same creek. These elephants had worked
through the hot weather ; they had a day off after every three days'
work. Grazing was scarce ; they lived chiefly on dry bamboo and
were given a liberal ration of paddy daily. The drinking water was
taken from shallow wells freshly made ; the water however was
described as putrid and offensive : and that in which the animals
were bathed was stagnant. It had rained for a couple of days prior
to the first elephant being attacked.
On the morning of the 5th May, No. 103 was noticed to be out
of sorts, so was not sent to work ; after receiving some medicine he
was set free to graze. In the evening, when brought to water, he
was observed to be much worse ; he drank as usual, but his ears and
body were cold, and he was very dull. His mahout took him into
the jungle, and during the night he was observed to fall once and lie
down several times ; in the morning he was found standing alongside
a clump of bamboo, looking very sick ; his mucous membranes were
yellow, trunk swollen, and he was unable to move ; he dropped and
died. This was on the 6th May. Cause of death supposed to be
sunstroke, but proved to be anthrax.
292
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
The remaining elephants were thrown out of work, rested for a
few days and were then moved to another creek.
Case No. 4.—On the morning of the 18th, No. 100 was found
dead and was buried where he died. Death was reported to be due
to anthrax. No signs of illness were manifested.
Case No. 5.— On the morning of the 23rd, No. 101 was found
dead. This elephant was fettered, set free to graze the evening
previous apparently well, and was found dead within a few yards of
where No. 100 died.
Three elephants were stationed together, Nos. 9, 10 and 11.
Case No. 6.—No. 11 when seen on the morning of the 5th
June was to all appearances well ; he was let loose to graze. In the
evening he was noticed to be very dull, trembling, ears cold, eyes
bluish, appeared unable to see, did not obey orders, breathing very
hard. In fifteen minutes or thereabouts his hind-legs suddenly gave
way under him ; he fell, was delirious, and soon died.
Case No. 7.—No. 10 had done no work for some months, as he
was being treated for a sore ; he was seen on the afternoon of the
6th of June leaning against a tree shivering ; on inspection he was
found to be dull, a swelling was observed behind the jaw, he took no
notice of his keeper, and later on became delirious ; his hind-
quarters were weak ; he tried to move away, but fell forward and
soon afterwards died. In about an hour the body was noticed to be
enormously distended. This elephant died at a place 1½ miles
distant from where No. 11 died.
Case No. 8.—An elephant which was apparently quite well the
previous evening was next morning observed to be very ill : the ears
and legs cold, body hot, breathing hard, trunk swollen, eyes staring ;
blood was noticed on dung that was passed ; when made to move
his hind-quarters swayed to and fro ; he dropped, and died in
convulsions. Soon after death the body became greatly distended
and blood was observed passing from the natural openings. The
rectum was everted, dark in colour, and presented the appearance
of a tumour.
Case No. 9.—On the morning of the 10th October, the mahout
went out to catch his elephant ; on finding him he observed that the
animal was sick, his breathing was distressed, there was swelling
behind the jaws and also on the belly, and the trunk appeared swollen,
especially in its upper portion ; on trying to take the animal to water
he seemed very weak. He was left under a bamboo clump. In the
evening he was worse, was very dull, the trunk flaccid, breathing
very audible. Next morning he seemed no worse, refused food, and,
though he took water in his trunk, appeared to have some difficulty
in swallowing. He died about 3 P.M.
ANTHRAX.
293
Case No. 10.—On the 31st July this animal, while out grazing,
was found in the morning standing perfectly quiet amongst some
bamboos ; he was made to move a few feet with difficulty, and it was
noticed that he had a large swelling, called thut by the Burmans,
extending from between the fore-legs on to the belly and sheath of
penis ; he was given water which he drank ; during the day another
small swelling was noticed on the hind-quarter ; he passed some
foetid liquid motions and also urinated in small quantities during the
day ; swellings were treated with mixture of turmeric, etc. 1st
August.—No sleep during the night, ate and drank a little, passed
liquid motions, animal very drowsy, listless, and stiff ; swellings no
better. 2nd August.—Died early this morning.
Cases Nos. 11 and 12 are quoted from Frost.
Case No. 11.—This is the third elephant that has perished at
this depot within twelve days. Case 1 died after a short illness.
She was seemingly in perfect health on the evening of 14th June,
and died about 3 or 4 A.M. on the 15th. I did not attempt a post-
mortem examination, but merely examined the contents of the
abdomen as removed from the body. In this case nothing attracted
my attention save large abscesses in the liver, which I thought
sufficient to account for death. Case 2 died on the 22nd ; no post-
mortem held. Case 3.—The following are the symptoms which were
given to me by the sergeant in charge of the animal :—The first
symptoms of sickness were noticed on the morning of the 23rd
instant in the shape of a lameness of the front and hind leg, left
side. During the day it refused all food (Colonel Hawkes corrects
this and states it ate a little food) ; no sleep at night. On the 24th
left side improved by fomenting with hot water. Refused all food,
and kept lying down and getting up at irregular intervals throughout
the day and night ; slept very little and ate no food. Administered
a purgative through the medium of plantains and boiled rice, which
slightly acted on the system, the excrement being mixed with slime.
On the 25th the animal grew worse : no sleep, no food, lying
down and getting up till about 3-30 P.M. Appeared during the day
to be in pain, as the animal was noticed sitting on its haunches and
biting its trunk ; passed urine once yesterday. At 4-30 P.M. it
expired.
P.S.—During the day a large swelling formed behind the left ear.
With the exception of the P.S. I do not think there is much
value to be attached to the symptoms quoted. Colonel Hawkes
adds that the tumour formed very rapidly.
The symptoms which I noticed were not characteristic : pulse 68,
pupils dilated to their fullest extent, breathing hurried, animal down
and very uneasy.
294
A
TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Case No. 12.—The following symptoms were detailed by the
sergeant in charge:—27th of June, 4 P.M., was observed to be
limping when brought from shed to feeding-place ; ate rice and straw ;
no sleep during night and ate very little. Favoured left hind-leg on
account of pain. 28th of June.—Swelling on right of penis was
observed early this morning ; animal drags left hind-leg ; ate charah
freely from 9-30 to 10 A.M. Urinated at 9-45 A.M.; urine of whitish
colour, but without pain ; ate and drank and seemed better. 29th
June.—No sleep during night ; swelling increased ; grew worse
between 8 and 9 A.M. Tumour greatly enlarged since morning. At
9-10 A.M. lay down, biting trunk from pain. About this time
Veterinary-Surgeon Frost opened the tumour.
Elephant died at
10-10 A.M.
Case No. 13.—This elephant, No. 86, was taken ill at six o'clock
on the evening of the 6th July 1906, when he stopped feeding. He
was seen at 9 P.M. on that day, when he appeared to be suffering
from very severe colic, for which he was treated.
The elephant was very dull, abdomen very much distended ; he
yawned a great deal, breathed very heavily, frequently put his trunk
in his mouth, and swayed from side to side almost to the point of
falling. His temperature at 9 P.M. was 99 0 F., but at midnight it
had risen to 102.8° F.
The following is a record of temperatures taken daily during the
animal's illness :—
Date.
6th
...
7th
...
...
8th
...
9th
10th...
11th
...
12th...
13th
...
...
A.M.
...
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
Tempera-
ture.
102.8
102
101.2
101.8
100.8
99.6
99.8
P.M.
9
12
6
6
6
6
6
6
Tempera-
ture.
99
102.8
102.8
101.8
101.8
101.4
100.8
98.2
...
On the morning of the 7th, although the temperature was
was not quite so dull and had stopped rolling his body from side to
side. At 6-30 P.M. on this day he was distinctly better, and again
commenced feeding, having been without food for over 24 hours.
This improvement in the elephant's condition continued steadily
until 5 P.M. on the 12th July, when he was again seized with very
ANTHRAX.
295
severe colicky pains which, gradually getting worse, continued
throughout the night and terminated in death at 9-20 A.M. the
following morning, 13th July.
NOTES.—6th July.—Elephant
had no food from 6 P.M. on this
day until 6-30 P.M. the following day.
10th July.—Swelling
appeared on neck, very slight and soft at
first, but gradually getting larger, harder and quite insensible before
death took place.
12th July.—Temperature,
12-30 P.M., down to 97.8° F. Urine
very much discoloured elephant seized with very severe colicky
pains, 5 P.M.
13th July.—Colicky pains continued ; 9-15 A.M. elephant fell
down ; 9-20 A.M. elephant died ; 9-25 A.M. specimen of blood taken
and examined under microscope.—Anthrax.
POST-MORTEM
EXAMINATION.
If blood smears can be obtained shortly before or after death a
post-mortem is unnecessary. Whenever possible it is best to avoid
making one, as much harm is clone by soiling hands, cloths, and the
surrounding ground—a most important matter in connection with this
disease.
In all cases in which an animal has died or been found dead
from some unknown disease it should be remembered that before
undertaking this operation no attendants on healthy animals should
be permitted to handle the carcase or instruments. Some persons
who are not likely to come in contact with healthy animals should
be selected, and in Burma at least there is no difficulty about this.
The men chosen must be inspected carefully, and no one with
abrasions or scratches, however trivial, should be permitted to take
on the work. They should be made to rub themselves with carbolic
oil (1 to 20), and solutions of carbolic acid (1 to 40), or even
stronger, should be at hand to cleanse without delay any cut or
wound which may occur accidentally. Any such cut must be dressed
and the man forbidden to continue work.
After the operation the men engaged must be made to wash
their bodies, and especially their hands and feet, with carbolic lotion
(1 in 60 or 70) or weak phenyle lotion. Any clothes worn by them
had better be burned and their scanty wants in this direction renewed
by the employers. All instruments used must be washed in carbolic
lotion (1 in 40) and boiled before being restored to their cases.
And here I may remark that all instruments employed in any post-
mortem, whether anthrax or anything else, must be kept locked up,
296
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
and on no account be made use of in any surgical case, as for
instance, opening an abscess. Care must be taken not to scatter
organs or blood about the place, but to restrict the area infected
to the smallest limits. A very deep pit should be prepared alongside
and the carcase tumbled in. The soiled area should be well sprinkled
with carbolic powder or other strong disinfectant, the ground dug up
and thrown into the pit, a thick layer of straw should then be spread
all over the ground and fired. The area should be strongly fenced in.
The belly is usually greatly inflated, bloody discharge may be
noticed from the natural openings, decomposition sets in rapidly,
swellings may be present beneath the skin.
The blood is of a dark, tarry and fluid character, often staining
the cavities of the heart and interior of the blood vessels a peculiar
red tinge. Any of the organs or all, namely, liver, spleen, kidneys,
lungs, brain, may be found engorged with blood, and their substance
softened, and the spleen especially is usually found
enormously
enlarged.
In one case it weighed 62½ lbs. The cavities, that is,
the abdomen, chest, heart-bag, and cranial, may contain blood-stained
fluid, and the lining membranes have scattered over them purplish
blood spots or blotches. The bowels may be thickened, their
contents bloody, and the lining membrane scattered over with
purplish blood spots or patches.
The tumours above referred to consist of a yellowish greengage
jelly-like material, which may have a dark centre and may be found
in other parts, notably in the mesentery, or membrane connecting
the bowels to the spine, around the kidneys, furrows of the heart,
about the throat and other places, and when present may be taken
as very indicative of anthrax.
The following cases are recorded by Frost :—
" Post-mortem on an elephant belonging to the Commissariat
Department, Rangoon. Died at 4-30 P.M. on the 25th of June
1878, after an illness of two days.
" Body well nourished and muscles of healthy hue. On
removing the right fore-limb, my attention was at once drawn to
the peculiar jelly-like deposit found in cases of anthrax. This
deposit existed to a considerable extent in the connective tissue of
the chest, muscles, and between the shoulder-blade and the ribs.
In parts the deposit was of a yellowish white, and in others of a rosy
hue.
" Before commencing my examination of the body, and when
conversing with Colonel Hawkes, Executive Commissariat Officer,
1 was told that amongst other symptoms exhibited by the animal
was a small tumour in the region of the left parotid gland. I had
the body turned in order to examine the tumour. On removing the
ANTHRAX.
297
skin covering the enlargement, a true anthracoid tumour presented
itself. The same jelly-like exudate occupied a space of about 8
inches by 6 inches.
" The blood in the veins was of a dark, tarry consistence and
colour, and in almost all the veins a certain degree of coagulation
had taken place. Only the normal quantity of fluid in the abdo-
minal cavity. Peritoneum healthy, mesentery congested. Spleen
of a dark colour, with considerable bloody spots and blotches all over
its surface. The same deposit alluded to before existed between
the layer of membrane attaching it to the stomach. On removing
the spleen from the body I found it weighed 37½ lbs. On cutting
into its structure, and on withdrawing the scalpel, the blade had
adhering to it a thick layer of blood as dark as ink. The gland
could easily be broken down by pressure of the linger.
"On the under surface of the stomach, close to the pyloric
orifice, I found a patch of the size of a dinner plate consisting of
the same kind of deposit as I noticed in the tumour. In the tissue
under the loins I also found the same thing to exist. Above the
penis another large tumour was found.
" Intestines and kidneys healthy. There was a slight deposit
in the substance of a lung which, to a certain extent, blocked up
the bronchial tubes. A large quantity of frothy mucus was found
in the windpipe and large bronchi, yet there was no symptom of
breathlessness noticed before death.
" On laying open the pericardium (bag of the heart) my
attention was arrested by the large quantity of fluid which was
contained in the sac. From a careful but rough calculation, I
came to the conclusion that it contained from 35 to 40 ounces of
serum, possessing more the colour of venous blood slightly diluted
with water than true serum. The external surface of the heart
presented a peculiar appearance. Intensely dark blood spots
studded its surface—some of the size of a rupee, others the size of
an eight-anna piece, and others still smaller ; these were particularly
numerous on the right auricle.
" The horizontal and vertical grooves of the heart were filled
with peculiar jelly-like deposit. Large clots in right heart and
pulmonary artery and none in left. Although it is a remarkable
fact that in anthrax the blood is generally found in a fluid state,
I did not find this to be the case in the present instance. There
was no unpleasant odour from the body, although the post-mortem
did not take place until fifteen hours after death."
These are the leading post-mortem appearances noticed by me :—
Post-mortem No. 2 on an elephant that died at 10 A.M., 29th
of June 1878, after two days' illness. Body examined seven hours
298
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
after death ; in good condition. On each side of the penis, about
the region of the scrotum in other animals, I found two large
tumours of the true anthrax character. Further, with the excep-
tion of the intestinal mucous membrane I did not notice anything
peculiar. The mucous membrane of the intestines was highly
congested. The blood in the vessels was fluid. Spleen weighed
24 lbs., liver 61½. I saw this animal at 9-30 A.M. (while still
alive) and examined the tumours. They were cold as ice, and on
cutting into them no pain was exhibited by the animal, nor did any
discharge take place subsequent to the incision being made. Once
I saw the nature of the effusion, I had no doubt of the result, which
was death soon after.
Treatment : Preventive.—From
the above remarks, especially
with regard to infection and contagion, easy transmission to man,
and high mortality, it will be readily grasped how dread and impor-
tant is the nature of the disease, and from the fact that no specific
remedy has been discovered of any avail in treatment, it follows
that the most important way to combat the malady lies in preven-
tion.
Precautions therefore such as have been discussed in
Chapter I should be carefully observed.
Vaccination.—Having been questioned so frequently with regard
to vaccination I have mentioned the subject in detail more for
information than with any intention of recommending it. By the
practice of protective vaccination the heavy mortality has in certain
countries, France, etc., been reduced to less than one per cent. Two
inoculations are necessary. The first is a weak vaccine. This is
followed in from twelve to fifteen days by a second, which is stronger.
The second vaccine matter must never be used before the first, for
the second might kill unless the animal had been protected by the
first.
The vaccinal liquid is sent out in glass tubes, sealed by rubber
stoppers, and bear labels "First vaccine matter" or "Premier
vaccin charbonneux," usually a red label, and " Second vaccine
matter "or " Deuxième vaccin charbonneux," white label. A note
is printed on the second vaccine label to the effect that it should be
employed twelve days after the first. The vaccine is introduced
under the skin by means of a Pravaz or other special hypodermic
syringe; behind the ear is about the best place to inoculate an elephant.
The elephant having been made to assume the recumbent posture,
the hands of the operator must first be thoroughly washed with
soap and warm water, and then disinfected, as also the site selected
for inoculation ; this completed, a portion of the skin is to be taken
up between the thumb and forefinger of the. left hand, the needle
carefully introduced beneath the skin and the contents of syringe
ANTHRAX.
299
injected without force. The metallic wire is removed from the
needle and the latter adjusted on the syringe, or the needle may
be introduced first and syringe adjusted after. After the contents
of the tube have been well shaken the stopper is removed and the
required amount withdrawn. Care must be taken to see that the
syringe is working properly. Air bubbles may be removed by
holding the syringe upright and gently pressing the piston till a
drop issues from the needle. The second inoculation should be
made on the opposite side. It is a matter of vital importance that
the vaccine be introduced in a pure state ; for this reason, if a tube
be opened, the contents must be used forthwith. If the whole
contents cannot be employed at once, the portion remaining must be
dispensed with. It is of equal importance that the syringe be
absolutely clean. New syringes are generally safe enough, but one
that has been used must be cleaned before and after the inoculations
are performed. In order to effect this, the syringe is taken to pieces,
placed in water, and boiled in it for five or ten minutes. Immediately
before use it is as well to draw up some absolute alcohol : this will
render syringe and needle sterile.
Cheap and easily sterilized
syringes are procurable from most instrument makers. If the vaccine
be not pure, or the syringe not clean, foreign organisms may be
introduced, which may render vaccination ineffective, or what is still
more serious may give rise to virulent blood-poisoning.
Every care must be taken to see that the first vaccine is properly
introduced under the skin ; for if this operation be performed
hurriedly or carelessly no protection will be afforded and death may
result after the introduction of second vaccine.
There is no denying that vaccination is attended with certain
risks, owing to defects in the operation, quality of the vaccine
employed, and susceptibility of individuals. In sheep and cattle
vaccination has in some cases resulted in death ; in others serious
illness, swellings, have followed the operation.
On the Continent the accidents vaccination gives rise to are said
not to be so frequent as to cause much alarm. Generally speaking,
the animals inoculated become sufficiently protected to resist natural
and even experimental infection. It is stated that vaccine sent to a
long distance is not easy to preserve, and in order to obtain really
good results it must be used as soon as possible after preparation.
Firms having an interest in or owning a large number of elephants
and desirous of trying experiments should make some arrangement
by which they could, on despatch of telegraphic order, be supplied
with fresh vaccine, syringes, etc. All information and appliances
can be obtained from the Director of " The Sociètè du Vaccin
Charbonneux Pasteur," 14, Rue des Pyramides, Paris.