NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
20
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
It has been explained in the foregoing pages that whenever
kaing grass is procurable it should be given in preference to
anything else. The daily quantity of green fodder should differ
in accordance with the quantity of dry fodder (straws) allowed ; yet
I can strongly recommend that whenever practicable each animal
should have as much green grass as it can consume.
At times green crops that have partially failed and are no good
for reaping should be bought up. As is well known to all culti-
vators in jungle tracts inhabited by elephants, these animals are
very fond of growing crops—a fact only too well evidenced by
their many depredations.
Sanderson made numerous experiments with regard to the
quantity of the fodder elephants will eat, and gives most interesting
information on the subject. He states : "800 lbs. may be looked
upon as the minimum weight of good fodder that should be placed
before full-sized elephants per diem." He has seen a tusker eat
800 lbs. in eighteen hours ; he also remarks on the insufficiency of
the fodder usually placed before them.
It may be said with truth that most grasses, the leaves and
branches of many trees, in fact most green stuffs, are acceptable.
No amount of grain will compensate for a continued short allowance
of fodder
When good fodder is abundant, the extras may be
reduced in quantity or entirely dispensed with.
The leaves and branches of the peepul tree (nyaung-ni) are reputed
to be heating and should therefore be given sparingly. Plantain
stems and leaves are not recommended in cold weather. When dry
fodder is given for a short time, such as stems of maize and millet,
a change to green fodder will be necessary. Sanderson points
out that branches and leaves are best for food when the twigs snap
rather than bend under pressure ; the branches are not relished when
the sap runs. Only the inner bark of the stems of the larger
branches is eaten, but the whole of the smaller branches.
The great thing is to see that the animals have plenty to eat and
that the fodder is always of good quality, clean and to their taste.
Elephants are fastidious beasts and will not eat anything. It is desir-
able not to permit them to graze in swamps or in inundated country
(see Appendix E).
ARTIFICIAL
FOOD.
In so far as the domesticated elephant is in an artificial state,
his natural diet must be modified and supplemented, and more
particularly so in the case of working elephants. If the animal in
his natural condition, in which he develops a very small degree of
FEEDING—ARTIFICIAL FOOD.
21
energy, requires the whole day and the greater portion of the night
to feed, whereby he may be able to replace that energy, then in the
domesticated state when a greater consumption of energy is demanded
and a reduced time prescribed for the repair of the loss, food must
be supplied in a more concentrated form. Whatever the practice
of native owners may be to the contrary, common sense, no less
than the percentages of mortality among native-owned elephants,
points to the propriety of giving working elephants a daily ratib.
The ratib may consist of rice, paddy, or coarse flour. Our object
is to supply increased nourishment without undue stimulation. Rice
fulfils these conditions verv well, and gives good enough nutritive
results with a minimum expenditure of energy on the digestion.
Twenty to thirty pounds of rice per diem is the ratib most in favour,
although paddy is also occasionally given, either alone or with an
equal quantity of rice. If the rice or paddy is coarsely bruised, it
is more easily digested. The husk of paddy is believed by many
to cause irritation of the bowels, especially when given dry. It may
on rare occasions do so. Government elephants, when given rice,
are allowed some paddy straw in which the grain is enclosed in
small bundles to prevent waste. This I think is superfluous, as
in my experience they do not waste much. Wheaten flour is
commonly given in India ; it is made up into native cakes or
chupattees ; it may be given in the form of a cake which may be
sweetened with raw sugar, known as gur or jaggery (
), or
mudh (honey,
) ; dhall (
) and onions (
) when
cooked may be incorporated with the loaf. During the hot season
tamarind pulp (
), which acts as a cooling laxative, may
also be added. A loaf from three to six pounds in weight, consisting
of flour and other needful ingredients, which may be added in
lesser proportion, may be given daily when much muscular exertion
is demanded. Medicines are sometimes mixed up with the ratibs
and mussauls.
The best time to give ratibs is after some of the
ordinary fodder has been consumed.
Aromatic spice balls known in India as mussauls (
)
(see Part III, page I 36) are also given occasionally. They consist
of a variety of vegetable substances, many aromatic, such as —
Ginger (
),
Assafœtida (
),
Aniseed (
),
Turmeric (
),
Caraway seed (
),
Onions (
),
Mustard seed (
),
Red pepper (
),
Black pepper (
),
Coriander (
),
Cardamoms (
),
Garlic (
),
Cloves (
),
Nutmeg (
),
2 2
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
and others. These mussauls are very useful in the hot season,
being stimulant to the digestive organs thus promoting digestion.
The ingredients are usually mixed with clarified butter (ghi,
), jaggery, or honey. Useful as these undoubtedly
are where an indication exists, they should only be used sparingly.
The long continued daily administration of these mussauls tends to
blunt the sensitiveness of the digestive organs, creates new wants,
and reduces the full natural reactive powers of the system. It is
essential that they be given a liberal ration of salt, at least two to
three ounces per diem. In fact a ratib may have to be given merely
as a vehicle for the salt in order to establish the habit. Salt greatly
assists the assimilative powers and, moreover, is most useful in
helping to free the intestines from parasites to which elephants
are very subject.
Wild elephants in common with other wild
animals are frequent visitors to salt-licks, where they eat the earth
which is impregnated with natron.
As noted further on, petty peculation and appropriation of a
portion of the ratib allowed by owners is a crime common to most
elephant attendants and is, when the ratib cannot be given in the
presence of a trusted person, one of the great drawbacks to allowing
such extra food.
TIMES OF FEEDING.
With regard to the time of feeding, elephants should be allowed
to feed at all times except when at work. If ample fresh fodder
be brought in morning and evening and the animal is left alone,
then of the twenty-four hours all but four to six will be devoted to
munching. When continuous exertion of any kind is demanded,
before and after work are the most appropriate times for supplying
fresh fodder.
I have repeatedly observed yard elephants after work waiting
for an hour or two for their food. This is a malpractice which
cannot be known to employers, for they could not countenance
a practice so cruel and one so likely to be damaging to their own
interests.
The Commissariat scale of rations for elephants in Bengal,
Madras and Burma is given in Appendix 39, Volume 5, paragraph
1917, Commissariat Transport, and is as follows:—
(I) Elephants when not on the line of march will be allowed
two ounces of salt and one ounce of oil each
The following
are the scales of green or dry fodder, as the case may be,
TIMES OF FEEDING.
23
provided that the latter does not consist of straw alone, i.e.,
without grain in it :—
Large elephants, i.e., those over 8½ feet in height
Medium-sized, those between 7½ and 8⅓ feet
Small elephants, those below 7½ feet
Fodder.
Green.*
lbs.
650
575
500
Dry.
lbs
330
290
250
* Sugarcane, green wheat, etc.
(2) When plantain stems, branches of trees, or jungle grass is
given, the fodder allowance will be regulated as follows :—
When such fodder is procurable free of charge.
Large elephants
Medium-sized elephants
Small elephants
lbs.
1,300
1,150
1,000
When it has to be paid for.
The quantities are not to
exceed in value the cost of
sugarcane ration calculated
at the price current rate.
(3) The dry fodder is to be issued only when green fodder is
not obtainable.
(4) The following is the daily scale of rations for elephants on
command :—
On command.
Large elephants
Medium-sized elephants
Small elephants
Grain.
lbs.
15
15
15
Dry.
lbs.
200
175
150
Green.
lbs.
480
400
320
Bhusa.
lbs.
Salt.
oz.
2
2
2
Oil.
oz.
1
1
(5) Elephant attendants will get a special allowance of four annas
a day when fodder is to be cut by them, and is provided free of
charge. The allowance is admissible when animals are at graze.
24
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
(6) Commissariat Transport Officers are authorized to refuse to
draw the allowance of four annas per diem for attendants if their
elephants are not kept in good condition.
(7) When the cost of the fodder ration for elephants in Canton-
ments exceeds that of the command scale of rations, elephants in
Cantonments should be fed on the latter scale.
(8) The rules in the preceding paragraph do not apply to
elephants with heavy batteries, which are allowed rations on the
scale (Appendix 38, paragraph 1917).
Appendix 38, paragraph 1917, gives the scale of rations as
follows :—
Cattle.
Elephants—
First class
Second class ...
IN CANTOMENT.
Grain.
lbs.
*15
*15
Fodder.
Dry.
lbs.
200
150
Green
lbs.
480
320
Bhusa.
....
...
Salt.
oz.
2
2
Oil.
oz.
1
1
ON COMMAND.
Fodder.
Grain.
lbs.
15
15
Oil and
Salt.
lbs.
....
...
AT GRAZE.
Grain.
lbs.
15
15
Oil
and
Salt.
...
...
* Atta or Rice.
When dhaii or paddy is given to elephants in lieu of rice or
flour, the allowance is to be doubled. When paddy or rice is issued,
10 lbs. of grass is allowed per elephant per diem for tying up the
grain in small bundles to prevent waste.
As already pointed out, this system of regulating an elephant's
food requirements, at least to the elephant as shown in the
above tables, cannot be satisfactory, as small thick-set animals
often require as much food, if not more, than those of greater
stature.
WATERING.
If an elephant be bathed morning and evening, and the water
be good, he will generally drink the chief portion he requires on
those occasions, which amounts to from thirteen to eighteen gallons
at a time. If the water available at the bathing place be stagnant,
he should be given drinking water from a better source beforehand,
or be washed outside. Spring or well water is the best. Many
[Facing page 25.
PLATE II.
A WELL-KNOWN ELEPHANT IN MESSRS. MACGREGOR'S YARD, RANGOON.
WORK AND EXERCISE.
25
ailments are traceable to the use of bad water. Elephants like
running water, and prefer to drink the water of tributary streams to
that of the large rivers. At all times the water offered should be
as sweet and clean as can be procured, though they are not averse
to drinking muddy water (wild ones have little else during the rainy
season). During the dry season good water-holes (such as the
Burmans dig for their own use) should be dug in the sandy beds of
streams ; failing these, well water must be given. On no account
are they to be permitted to drink from the tanks and pools used by
cattle. In their natural state they drink shortly after sunrise and
before sunset. Domestic animals ought to be watered at least twice
daily, three times when possible, namely, morning, midday and
evening. They should be watered about three-quarters of an hour
before they are fed. On the march if any animal attempts to drink,
although he be heated, he may be allowed to do so (this does not
apply to squirting water over the body). A lengthened hot march
(over seven hours) should not be attempted unless water is procur-
able on the way. When travelling with elephants during the hot
season, marches should be regulated in accordance with the
prospects of good water-supply.
WORK AND EXERCISE.
It is difficult to lay down fixed rules as to the amount of work
which may be exacted. This must necessarily depend in some
measure upon individual idiosyncrasies and constitution, which
can only be ascertained by the careful observation of those in
attendance (supervisors, etc.). What would undoubtedly prove
moderate work in one individual might prove excessive in another,
though to all appearances of equal size, age and condition. Again,
the early symptoms of failing vigour which should be recognized by
the mahouts are either not reported by them, or often after having
been reported are paid no heed to by those in authority. I can
call to mind instances in which an animal palpably suffering pain
and going lame was found working. Regrettable as it is, the
sufferings of an animal that may have toiled for years in his master's
cause and contributed materially to his fortunes are passed unnoticed.
Too often therefore it happens that an animal's energies are
overtaxed to such an extent that he suddenly breaks down. So far
as one can frame rules, I would strongly recommend that during the
hot weather, from 15th February to the breaking of the rains, no
animals should be worked in the open after 10 A.M., and never
before 3-30 P.M. Moreover they should never be worked more than
26
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
three hours at a stretch without being given half an hour's interval
or rest in the shade, during which time the gear should be loosened,
parts examined for galls, and a little water and some bundles of
fodder presented. I consider it imperative for humanity's sake that
employers should detail, whenever possible, a European assistant to
frequently (at least three times a week) inspect and report upon
the health of the animals, their physical capability for work, also
the sanitary condition of their surroundings, and above all the quality
and amount by weight of fodder supplied.
When elephants are idle, it is essential that they have daily
exercise, as they frequently fall out of condition from sheer want of
it, especially so if under these circumstances ratibs be allowed.
In some cases the daily journey for fodder will suffice. When
however this is too short, and no work can be found, it will be
necessary to give them a march for an hour or so in the early
morning and the cool of the evening. In the hot season they should
be rested between 10 A.M. and 4 P.M. It is cruel to work them
in the heat, and is also dangerous, as they are liable to go down
with sun-stroke. Where there is work, and in a great many
instances there is more than the animals kept for it can properly
accomplish, the following system may be tried. Assuming that the
gear is a good fit, that the parts where it presses are healthy, and
the animal in other respects in full health and vigour, it will as just
mentioned be conducive to the maintenance of both that he should
perform a daily task, be it marching, dragging, or pushing. An
hour or so morning and evening of continuous exertion, such as the
animal can compass without evident strain, is about what might be
demanded without giving any extra diet. The question of the
amount of additional work he can do will then resolve itself into
that of how many hours taken from his legitimate occupation of
munching green fodder can we make reparation for by offering a
more generous diet. This is a clear issue and makes the answer
easy. We can by these means assuredly not more than double or
treble the duration of the working hours. The healthy elephant
with good treatment, liberal allowance of fodder, can work regularly
for six or seven hours a day without injury. But the question just
answered is in practice rarely ever asked. The more common
question which too, for reasons assignable, we are bound to answer,
is not what are the limits of fair work, but what constitutes overwork,
particularly in respect to carrying. In a campaign sometimes these
rules cannot be adhered to, for conditions may arise demanding the
utmost strain upon the elephant's capabilities. It is useful to know
to what degree ordinarily the powers of the elephant may be taxed
within twenty-four hours, without depriving ourselves of his services
WORK AND EXERCISE.
27
for the next twenty-four hours or longer period. The reply is com-
plicated, and can hardly be given in the form of any definite amount;
so many are the elements of each problem, so variable may these
separate elements be upon one and the same occasion, as to make
the laying down of rigid rules inadvisable. There are to be considered
(1) the load ; (2) the configuration of the ground over which the road
lies ; (3) the nature of its surface; (4) the time of day; (5) the
existence or absence of shade ; (6) the number of days' rest enjoyed
immediately before, and in prospect immediately after, the march ;
(7) the quality and quantity of fodder and water available. From
which collectively may be deduced the number of miles the animal
can safely traverse. It must never be lost sight of that the elephant
is a nocturnal animal ; therefore all work should as much as possible-
be done in the early morning and evening. It must also be borne
in mind that in continuous exertion like marching, fatigue comes on
almost imperceptibly ; we are then more likely to be deceived in
measuring the staying power of the elephant than in work of a
spasmodic and intermittent kind, such as dragging or pushing timber
on the ground. If a log be too heavy, the animal will snort, refuse,
or move it but a short way at a time ; but in carrying a load that at
the first start off sits easily, the animal becomes exhausted almost
unconsciously to himself. After a pause on the march he is unable
to overcome the stiffness that immediately supervenes, and if he be
goaded too much may drop down suddenly to rise no more. A
good attendant will generally give timely notice of the possibility of
such an occurrence.
The elephant is by conformation a beast of burden, and though
he goes in draught he is out of place in it, as it throws him into an
unnatural position, and he loses much of the advantage his size,
weight and strength give him.
Elephants are employed for
draught in the heavy siege batteries. Opinions vary as to the
absolute weight an animal can carry. Of course the greatest weight
he can sustain can be moved over short distances only, and medium
loads over less space than light ones. Under some circumstances it
is as much as an elephant can do to move the weight of his own
body, not to speak of a heavy load, or a log of timber.
The Government loads vary from 1,000 to 1,200 lbs., but
1,000 lbs. including everything is a good load, and if elephants are
to be worked for any time, it is inadvisable to make them carry
even so much.
As regards dragging in the hills, if about three hours in the
morning and three in the evening. and not more, be devoted to work,
it will doubtless occur that the number of logs worked out in a season
will fall below the average. Figures quoted with reference to this
28
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
heading can have but little general application ; local circumstances,
such as the configuration of the ground, the distribution of the
logs, and of the floating streams, will decide. A few facts may
nevertheless be interesting. Two hundred logs, say two hundred
and fifty tons per animal, dragged ex situ to the floating streams in
the course of the season, may be regarded as an exceptionally
favourable figure. It could not be accomplished except in a district
newly opened up, where dead trees were still standing in consider-
able numbers in proximity to the streams. But taking Burma
jungles in their ordinary form, an elephant might have to drag the
logs some miles to the streams, and would probably die before he
collected half that amount. In some cases the hill streams are fit
for floating timber, and the work is about a third less than in others
where a second land journey has to be made from the confines of
the hills through the plain to the point where the stream becomes
suitable for floating. The principal and the most trying part of the
dragging work, namely, that of the isolated trees from their original
sites up and down hill to the preliminary dep6ts, should be under-
taken in the cold-weather months when the deepest leaf covering
is on the ground, which, moistened by heavy dews, allows the logs
to slide more easily.
A small dragging cart (Fig. 2) has been employed with profit
even in the hills, and there is little doubt that by bringing thought to
bear on improving such appliances and placing less reliance on
sheer brute force, elephant labour might be economized (see Figs. 3
and 4) both in regard to the number of animals needed and the
strain placed upon the powers of each.
Before and after work it is necessary to inspect all parts liable to
gall, and if the animal has been carrying a load the attendant should
shampoo the back with his feet and hands. The trunk and feet
should be carefully examined for cuts, bruises, and foreign bodies,
such as thorns, bamboo spikes, and during the rains the body for
leeches, which are very plentiful in some parts of the Province and
the bites from which at times cause nasty sores.
POWER OF ENDURANCE.
Though such large animals, their power of endurance is much
less than is generally supposed, as they are constitutionally delicate.
Through lack of appreciation of this fact, these animals have not
received the attention they justly deserve ; and owing to the popular
impression that they are extremely strong, the error obtaining in
this respect has led to their being too highly tasked, and much of the
POWER OF ENDURANCE.
29
FIG. 2.—One pattern of a wooden
timber cart for removal of logs
from the forest.
FIG. 3.—Four-wheeled cart for transporting timber.
FIG. 4.—Two-wheeled cart for transporting timber.