NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
30
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
ill-health and mortality prevalent amongst them may in a great
measure be attributed to this cause. The smaller kinds of animals
employed for transport are born and bred in captivity, and have
thus by custom, training and other causes become more or less
inured to hardships, but with elephants the case is entirely different;
here, we have animals that have lived a natural life for many years,
when one day (unfortunately for themselves) they are surrounded
in their native haunts and captured. Soon after capture they are
trained, put to work, frequently overworked, often neglected, and
altogether submitted to conditions in every way foreign to their nature
and well-being. It should not be a matter of surprise that the
mortality runs high. Therefore it cannot be too forcibly impressed
on the persons entrusted with their care, that untiring and vigilant
supervision over the attendants, not merely giving orders but
seeing them carried out whenever circumstances permit, is the
means above all others for the proper preservation of the efficiency
of the animals ; they must remember that the class of men
usually attending the elephants, if left to themselves, are from
general indolence, carelessness, or from a desire to avoid the
fatigue and hardships of jungle-life, or a campaign, quite liable
to render their elephants unserviceable; ample supervision and
systematic checks can alone prevent malpractices. A little neglect
will often deprive an owner or a force of the valuable services of
many animals.
As regards elephants employed in forest operations in Burma,
the life of the elephant is frequently the only security capitalists
have against advances made for timber to be worked through their
aid.
The percentage of deaths that annually occur amongst
elephants employed in this branch of industry is probably from 10
to 20 per cent. Not an inconsiderable number of such deaths
are due to over-exertion and exposure, and ignorance on the part
of native owners as to the powers of endurance of an animal and
their inability to detect the first symptoms of exhaustion ; while
in many instances they attempt to exact from a poor beast the last
effort of strength it is capable of exerting. With reference to timber-
dragging operations in Burma and Siam, the duration of daily
employment naturally varies with the time of year, physical aspect
of the country, and the food and water-supply. In timber-yards in
Rangoon and Moulmein, where elephants are much exposed to the
sun, they usually work from three to four hours in the morning and
three hours in the afternoon. In forests, where the shade of the
trees afford shelter from the direct rays of the sun, and where the
country is not too hilly, or the drag too heavy, the hours of work
generally extend from about seven or eight o'clock in the morning
REST AND SLEEP.
31
till three o'clock in the afternoon during the working season, i.e.,
from about the month of June to the middle or end of February.
During the hot season the animals are allowed to rest, or at most
they may be employed for a couple of hours in the morning in shady
places and where good water and grazing are at hand, so that on
being released from work they can be set free to eat to their heart's
desire. In all such matters, however, it only requires common-
sense and a little intelligent supervision to soon be in a position to
ascertain the powers of endurance of each animal one may have to
deal with, as these powers vary in individual elephants as much as
in human beings, except that in the former case, when once an
animal's strength is overtaxed, the evil is less readily remedied
owing to the difficulty of treatment.
PACES.
The only pace of the elephant is a walk ; any increased pace he
may put on is a fast shuffle. He can neither trot, canter, gallop
nor jump. A ditch 6 ft. or 7 ft. wide and 6 ft. deep is impass-
able. A moderately loaded animal can, on a good road, travel three
miles an hour.
REST
ANDSLEEP.
Rest extraordinary comes into question only before and after work
extraordinary. Sleep in the case of the elephant is confined to a
very few hours ; generally speaking from about 11 P.M. to 3 A.M.,
but often only for a couple of hours. It is of the utmost importance
that the animal should have his sleep, such as it is, and this will be
interfered with prejudicially if too frequent night marches or other
night work be required, or if the feeding hours are too often
curtailed by long continued work at any period of the day. To
keep an animal waiting for his fodder on coming off work is already
mentioned as one of the worst offences of which a mahout can be
guilty, for by that means the animal's feeding time is wantonly
subjected to further diminution, and the opportunity for sleep as
well lessened in proportion.
If the animal have not time to
eat a sufficiency before midnight, it will continue eating all night,
supposing that enough fodder has been provided.
Care should
be taken to see that the standing selected is on a slope, the
ground even, free from stones, and that the elephant is allowed
plenty of room.
32
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
EXPOSURE.
As already observed, the elephant is by nature a nocturnal
animal, and is therefore most impatient of the sun. He appears to
be more himself during the night, and in the mornings and evenings
than during the day, even when protected by shade ; at these times
he is more active, and can in every way perform more work.
Animals tethered in the sun will show their dislike to it by heaping
bundles of fodder, blankets, in fact anything that will afford pro-
tection on to their heads, and constantly kick up sand which they
collect and throw on their heads and backs. When working in
the heat they frequently place the trunk in the mouth and squirt
watery fluid over their bodies. Perhaps no elephants are exposed
more to the sun and weather than those working in timber-yards,
where they are at work from early morning till eleven o'clock and
again from 1 or 2 P.M. to 5 P.M. The work however varies,
sometimes light, at others heavy ; occasionally they get a rest,
owing either to there being no work, or to some part of the mill
machinery having given away. It is possibly owing to the frequency
of these rests, the variation of the work, and the extras in the way
of food they receive, that they stand it longer than might be
expected ; but on the whole the mortality is high. If the animals
are picketed out during the hot season, when the glare is very
great, it is advisable to hang moist cloths or shades over the eyes.
It is also desirable that elephants working in the sun be provided with
a pad of material similar to the guddela, or of a lighter material,
say cotton large enough to cover the neck and head and hang
down a span or two around the latter. A careful attendant will
often be seen spreading his turban or jacket over his animal's head
to shield it from the sun. Exposure to rain and even having to dis-
pense with other shelter than that of a tree, provided the drainage
be good, does not seem to act prejudicially. On the other hand,
exposure to cold night winds in open sheds erected upon bare,
unsheltered and elevated sites, which again become heated to a pro-
portionate degree during the day, has been justly regarded as a
source of disease. Artificial shelter is required only where good
natural shelter fails. The best shelter is a grove of evergreen trees
standing on a slight slope, where the drainage is good and so large
as to permit of the standings being frequently changed. But for
elephants working in yards, sheds have to be built. They should
be erected on sheltered and well-drained sites, and ought to be
provided with jhamps on the north-east and south-west sides, and
have raised sloping floors of concrete or laterite. Floors made of
slabs of wood are objectionable, unless well raised with a concrete
BATHING AND GROOMING:
33
floor beneath which can be swept as well as flushed, otherwise urine,
etc., runs down between the boards, thus saturating the soil beneath.
Several short stout posts with or without ring-bolts should be planted
firmly within and without for the purpose of tethering the animals.
Quarters should also be provided for the attendants in connection
with the sheds in order to remove any excuse for absence from
their respective animals.
Elephants are often kept in stations without their presence being
turned to good account, and where facilities not only for obtaining
their natural fodder and for bathing but natural shelter also fail.
Much sickness, mortality, as well as current outlay would be done
away with were the elephant depots to be moved to the nearest
place which offered natural advantages for the keep of the animals.
Some localities have been observed to be very badly suited for the
keep of elephants, in which nevertheless their services are required
for sorting timber, etc. Such places will generally be found to be
of a kind varying to the furthest extent from the conditions in which
we meet with elephants in their natural state. Perhaps none are
more objectionable than the daily inundated tidal marsh lands, where
the sheds are situated on patches of ground which barely escape
inundation.
In selecting camping-grounds it is essential that the ground be
sloping; the elephants should face with heads uphill, otherwise if
they lie down they might experience much difficulty in rising ; care
should also be taken to see that the standings are not on uneven
ground, and that they are free from stones and stumps.
All dung, litter, etc., should be removed morning and evening to
a considerable distance from any standing.
BATHING AND GROOMING.
Bathing is one of the natural functions of the elephant, and
most important to his health. In the wild state the animals pay
daily visits to the deep cool pools in hill streams, and even the
large rivers, and immerse their bodies, lashing the water about
them, or squirting it over themselves. Inactive as the exhalatory
functions of the skin appear to be, dirt speedily produces much
irritation, and continued want of a bath general indisposition. It
is of advantage that the water be deep enough to admit of
immersion of the whole body in the crouching position, if not other-
wise. They should on no account be kept in places where facilities
for bathing fail. They may when in health be taken into the
water in the early morning, as they appear to possess no sense of
3
34
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
chilliness, for if left to themselves they will not hesitate to enter
water shortly after daybreak. Sunset is the best hour for the
evening bath. While bathing the attendants should rub the body
over with a soft stone or the husk of a cocoanut; the animal will
squirt water over himself constantly. The natural orifices and feet
must be kept clean. When a halt has to be made at a place where
no body of water exists, the attendants must draw water from wells
and pour it over the animals. Bathing is never to be undertaken
when animals are in a heated condition. If a river is encountered
on the march, they should be halted and not permitted to enter till
their bodies have cooled. When dry after bathing, it is customary
for the attendants to smear oil all over the upper portion of the head,
the idea being that it has a very cooling effect and soothes the
irritation with which the scurfy state of the head is so commonly
attended. If this part was kept thoroughly clean and protected
from the sun by a pad, this remedial anointing might perhaps be
dispensed with. It must be remembered that the application of oil
deepens the colour of the skin to a perfect black, thus vastly
increasing the capability of the surface for absorption of heat. If
a sun pad is necessary under ordinary conditions, it would appear
to be doubly so after oiling.
ATTENDANTS AND THEIR DUTIES.
Every domesticated elephant necessarily has its own particular
attendant, oo-si (
, the man who rides in front) or mahout.
In the case of Government animals and those of some private
owners, the oo-si is allowed an assistant, known as the pai-si
( , the man who rides behind). In India he is called cowardie.
The oo-si either is directly under the control of his employer,
or, where there are a number of animals, indirectly through an
overseer, sin-ôk (
), singaung, sometimes called kyun-ôk or
jemadar.
The duties of an oo-si are the continual immediate care
of his elephant, both on and off work. In the former case, he rides
on the neck of the elephant, guides it on the march or directs it
in dragging, pushing of timber, etc., and it is at all times his
duty to be on the alert for means of economizing the strength
of the animal, saving it unnecessary exertion and exposure. Off
work it should be his first care to see that the animal receives its
drinking water, bath, and a sufficiency of good clean fodder; also
to see that it is kept in the shade, or in a shed, his personal con-
venience being secondary. He must wash and examine every part
of the body daily, notice any departure from the normal state as
PLATE III.
[Facing
page 34.
THIS ELEPHANT WAS PROBABLY ONE OK THE BHST-TRAIND ANIMALS IN BURMA.
Photographed when aged ; hence prominence of spinal ridge and worn condition of tusks. He shows all the good
points of elephant in Plate I. Height about 8 feet.
ATTENDANTS AND THEIR DUTIES.
35
regards appetite, evacuations, external temperature of the body,
and report the same without delay. If the animal is turned loose
after work, he must after careful inspection of the body take him
to where the grazing is good, see that the drinking water is clean
and near at hand, and also take care to fetter the elephant carefully
and securely to prevent straying, fighting, etc. He should in the
very early morning follow up his elephant and note how the night
has been spent. It is important in addition to signs of feeding,
amount and condition of the evacuations, to note how often the
animal has slept. One " bed " is usual ; two or more or the
absence of any " bed " at all is an indication of something being
amiss, as also if the animal has been known to sleep during the
day. He is responsible for the proper adjustment of the harness
and arrangement of loads, also that no long-continued undue pres-
sure takes place upon any part; he must be on the look-out and
report the first symptoms of fatigue, whether arising from exposure,
overwork, overloading, or from failing health. The oo-si should have
experience of the most approved methods of fettering, catching,
subduing, and approaching unruly animals. He should administer
all medicines directed to be given, but should not on any pretence
whatever be permitted to prescribe or give any drug unless specially
authorized to do so.
The pai-si has to attend to the instructions of the oo-si and assist
him in such manner as may be desired. He is generally employed
on cooly work, i.e., collecting fodder, keeping the standings clean.
On the march it is his dtity to precede the elephant to explore
the route, with a view to the avoidance of quagmires and quicksands,
as well as of sharp stumps or stones. This important duty is
however frequently not carried out efficiently owing to laziness,
the pai-si riding on the elephant. In the case of timber-working
elephants, it is the duty of the pai-si to fix the dragging chain on to
the logs, and he is then frequently called the pai-chaik (
), or the
man who " hooks behind." It is in the capacity of pai-sis that oo-sis
serve their apprenticeship. The sin-ok or jemadar, when one is
kept, controls the oo-sis in the duties above detailed ; he should
possess superior experience and judgment in the recognition of the
more ordinary ailments, also a knowledge of the uses of some of the
common drugs, as well as ability to dress wounds, etc., and perform
minor operations such as opening abscesses. All who are directly
connected with the care of elephants should be firm, kind, and
above all even-tempered, qualities for which they have a ready per-
ception. I have known the training of a previously well-behaved
animal to be lost to such a degree that she would endure neither
load nor rider, simply owing to the accident of being placed in the
36
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
charge of an irascible fitful keeper, who first negligently indulged,
and then wantonly punished her. A rider who ordinarily shouts
out his words of command in a needlessly
harsh and loud voice, and who extensively
and passionately employs the goad {see
Fig.5), is usually of this class. In timber
working many elephants are ruined in this
way ; hence the danger in changing drivers.
The essence of good riding consists in con-
trolling the animal entirely by word of
command, and the proper application of the
knees and feet when necessary. There
is a word in Burmese which describes a
good driver as a " knee rider." Elephant-
keepers are a peculiar class of men, who
require delicate handling, but with a little
tact much good can be got out of them.
Elephant driving is an art which takes some
learning ; good men know their value, so must be pampered a little ;
they are well aware of the fact that most Europeans are ignorant
as regards elephants and their management, and are consequently
very often a little above themselves. One point in connection with
elephants must never be lost sight of, namely, the importance of
securing a maximum degree of permanency of the particular attendant
of a particular animal. A keeper who is possessed even in a
moderate degree of the qualifications already enumerated, and who
has been with his elephant a sufficiently long time to have studied
the peculiarities of his charge, has become invaluable to his employer.
The knowledge in question can only be gained by experience, and
lengthened individual observation ; it cannot be placed on record
or otherwise handed down ; hence any animal placed in the hands
of a succession of keepers is subjected to treatment extremely
calculated to prove prejudicial to its health, temper, and utility.
Much ill success in the maintenance of elephant establishments is to
a great extent traceable to this cause ; accordingly it will be found
expedient to condone much in a good keeper.
The common offence for which mahouts are dismissed is the
appropriation to their own use, or sale for their own benefit, of the
ratibs (special allowances, such as flour, rice) allowed by their
employers. The best remedy for this is extra supervision and
whenever practicable to make certain of the animals receiving
their full daily allowance by having them fed in the presence of
some trusted person. If this cannot be done, flagrant as is dis-
honesty of this kind, a really good keeper should not be dismissed,
FIG. 5.—Driving hook
made entirely of iron.
ATTENDANTS AND THEIR DUTIES.
37
unless his peculation is of such a degree as to affect the health of
the animal in his charge, thus evincing a lack of concern in its well-
being. Petty peculation, submission of false and exorbitant bills
for medicines said to have been purchased and given in emergency,
and regularly stealing a portion of the ratibs, are drawbacks which
in an elephant establishment must be regarded as lesser evils.
Elephant attendants appear to be unable to abstain from these
methods of defrauding their employers, and any attempt to enforce
honesty by severe measures would eventually be visited upon the
animals, and thus a much greater evil brought about than that which
it was sought to avoid. Supervision will ensure the animals receiv-
ing the food ordered for them, and by keeping a supply of ordinary
drugs and mussaul ingredients, the attendants would soon recog-
nize that it was quite unnecessary for them to submit bills for
medicine.
As a rule a driver is proud of his elephant, and it is astonishing
to see what a good man can make his animal do ; all his orders are
given in a quiet persuasive manner, and his hints (conveyed by his
knees and feet behind the animal's ears) are given in such a quiet
way as to make it almost appear that the movements of the elephant
are spontaneous.
There are many offences for which keepers should be severely
punished or dismissed, namely, a man who takes no pride in his
animal, and shows no concern about its prosperity, evinced by
making the immediate wants of the animal subordinate to his own,
by cooking his food, sitting down to smoke before he has watered
and fed his elephant, neglecting to bathe it when proper oppor-
tunity offered, taking the animal into water when the body is heated,
overworking or overloading it, tying it up at nightfall instead
of allowing it to graze so as to save bother in tracking it up the
next morning, failing to administer medicines ordered, and neglect-
ing to report any symptoms of ill-health, injuries, etc.
Nevertheless, keepers of almost tantamount value with their
animals and to their employers are frequently dismissed or discour-
aged for offences which by comparison with the above are mere
bagatelles ; often too upon charges not thoroughly enquired into or
proved. Much care as may be exercised in the choice of a good
keeper, it is singular how little is occasionally bestowed on that of
the disposition and attainments of the person empowered to deal
summarily with him.
As a matter of fact in a great many instances the occupation of
the care and treatment of elephants as oo-si or mahout runs in
families for generations, the father training his son to a knowledge
of the work.
38
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
In this Province, when elephants are purchased, they are
generally in the care of Burman, Karen, or Shan drivers. There is
little doubt that in regard to the handling and general management
of domestic elephants, they are rarely as good as the Indian mahout
as seen in India, but they are in every respect better than the
majority of so-called mahouts met with here, who are readily dis-
cerned to be adventurers as far as their pretensions to any previous
knowledge or experience of elephants goes. The few Indians
employed are generally on Government animals, or those working
in yards. There are many excellent keepers amongst the Burmans
and Karens ; many however are careless and lazy, and a few are
impatient and at times cruel. As a general rule they are kind, can
stand the climate and heavy jungle work, and are usually cheery
willing fellows.
The pay of a sin-ok or jemadar ranges, according to qualifica-
tions, from Rs. 20 to Rs. 40 per mensem ; the pay of an oo-si or
mahout, from Rs. 12 to Rs. 18 per mensem ; the pay of a pai-si
or cowardie, from Rs. 10 to Rs. 12 per mensem.
Burman employers usually supply their men with food and in
addition give them a few rupees monthly.
It is a good plan to give a good mahout a bonus at the end of
the year, but I think it would be preferable to give such men a small
increase of pay. Increments of pay are thought much more of by
these people.