NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
RINDERPEST.
323
Second stage.—Fever runs high, the pulse fast and irregular, respiration
increased, the surface temperature varies, the tenderness over spine is more marked,
as also the muscular twitchings, and movement is difficult; the animal may lie
down. Thirst is intense, the appetite lost. A slight discharge from the eyes may
be observed, the mucous membrane of mouth and along gums is very red and the
tongue furred. The bowels are constipated, any dung passed is hard, covered with
blood and mucus, and the act is accompanied by much straining.
Third stage.—The animal is as a rule much prostrated and lies down. There
is considerable discharge from the eyes, nostrils and mouth, the skin and
extremities are cold, the animal moans and grunts. There is often a cough and
difficulty in breathing, the breath is offensive and the mucous membrane of the
mouth will be found excoriated and covered with a yellowish deposit, especially
the corners of the mouth, along the gums, roof of mouth and, in very severe cases,
even inside the nostrils and eyelids. The constipation is now succeeded by
diarrhoea, at first the evacuations are covered with mucus and blood, later they
become watery and finally they consist of liquid with a mixture of blood, and flakes
of mucus. Towards the end the faeces—a liquid bloody discharge—are passed
involuntarily. The pulse becomes imperceptible and the temperature drops
considerably. Cows in calf generally abort.
It is probable that the attention of Foresters will be drawn to cases somewhat
advanced, so it will be well to remember the predominant symptoms: dejected
state of animal, marked prostration, discharge from eyes, nostrils and mouth,
offensive breath, soreness of the mouth, violent dysentery which is most offensive.
Post-mortem appearances.—In acute and rapidly fatal cases the mucous
membrane of the mouth and throat will be found swollen and congested, the
mucous membrane of the fourth stomach particularly so. In the bowels patches of
congestion will be noticed, and the membrane covered with a nasty blood-stained
secretion.
In less rapid cases more characteristic lesions are met with, the chief of which
are seen in the fourth stomach and bowels. In the former the mucous membrane
will be found deeply congested, often of a claret colour, with streaky patches of
haemorrhage. Ulcers round about pyloric orifice and on the folds are often
observed, also a sort of false membrane formed by the inflammatory exudate. This
can readily be removed. For some distance the condition of the first portion of the
small bowel is in a state similar to that of the fourth stomach. In the remaining
portion patches of congestion will be met with, also the inflammatory exudate.
The large intestines are more or less congested and haemorrhages are met with.
In the rectum the congestion is a bright red, and in longitudinal streaks as a rule.
In some cases it is almost black.
The lungs are generally congested ; the liver is often soft and sometimes
congested ; the gall bladder generally full, and the mucous membrane ulcerated
with patches of yellowish deposit.
APPENDICES.
APPENDIX A.—LAW CASES.
IN Burma tame animals are constantly escaping and joining wild
herds. It is therefore well to know the law on the subject, as the
question of ownership of such animals has often been raised in India.
The following case is quoted from Sanderson :
"The following is a case on appeal decided in the High Court of
Judicature, Calcutta, in favour of the Government establishment that
recaptured an escaped elephant:—
"Plaintiff, a zemindar, alleged that he had the female elephant
in question in possession for six years, when she fled to the jungles.
He made diligent search for her, and reported her loss at the nearest
district police-station. He heard a year later that she had been
recaptured in the Sylhet district in the Government Kheddahs. His
claim to the animal being rejected by the Superintendent of
Kheddahs, he instituted a suit for her recovery in the Court of the
Collector of Sylhet. The Collector gave judgment in favour of the
Superintendent of Kheddahs on behalf of Government. Plaintiff
thereupon appealed to the High Court of Judicature, Calcutta, but
his appeal was dismissed on the grounds that such animals being
originally feræ naturæ are no longer the property of man than while
they continue in his keeping. If at any time they regain their
natural liberty, his property ceases, unless they have animus rever-
tandi which is only to be known by their usual custom of returning
or, unless instantly pursued by their owner, for during such pursuit
his property remains. In this case pursuit had ceased, and the
animal had returned to its natural and independent state."
CIVIL SECOND APPEAL NO. 25 OF 1900, MAY 7TH,
1900.
Before the Judicial Commissioner, Upper Burma.
MAUNG KYAW DUN...
(1) MA KYIN...
(2) NARAYANAN CHETTY
... Applicant
Respondents.
Injury caused by animal, tame or wild—Injury due to owner's negligence-
Liability for—Proof of negligence—Proof of scienter—Necessity for.
326
APPENDICES.
A man should be liable for injury caused by his animal, whether tame or wild,
if it is proved that the injury was due to the owner's negligence.
Maung Gyi v. Po To (1) approved.
In that view it would not be necessary to draw a distinction
between wild and domestic animals. The point for decision would
be whether the owner was guilty of negligence or whether he used
such care as in the circumstances of the case was reasonable and
ordinarily sufficient. The amount of care required would vary
according to the class of the animal and according to its own dispo-
sition. It would not be laid down in this country that a man is
liable for any damage done by his elephant without any proof of
negligence or that he knew it to be of a vicious disposition. In
view of the manner in, and extent to, which elephants are employed
in this country, such a proposition would be manifestly unjust.
—Filburn v. People's Palace Company (2) distinguished.
In the present case it was for the plaintiff to prove that the
damage done to his elephant was caused or rendered possible by
the defendant's negligence. In considering the question of negli-
gence, the defendant's knowledge or want of knowledge that her
elephant was of a vicious disposition would be an important point.
In a suit of this kind, where an animal like an elephant is concerned,
the burden of proving negligence is in the first place on the plaintiff
who avers it. It might be otherwise if the injury by a tiger or a
bear were concerned.
White, J.—The plaintiff-appellant sued to recover damages on
account of the death of his elephant, " Do," which died from the
effect of wounds inflicted by the respondent's elephant, " Kya
Gyi."
The issues which arise in a case of this kind have been stated
in two cases of this Court. In Maung Gyi v. Po To (1) it was
observed that the issue generally would no doubt be the usual issue
as to the existence of negligence on the part of the owner of the
animal doing the damage. In Maung Swa v. Maung Kyaw (3)
points which arise in a case very similar to the present were indi-
cated. There has been some argument in this Court on the applica-
tion of the doctrine of scienter.
It is said that " any one who keeps
a wild animal, as a tiger or bear, which escapes and does damage, is
liable without any proof of notice of the animal's ferocity ; but
where the damage is done by a domestic animal, the plaintiff must
show that the defendant knew the animal was accustomed to do
mischief (4)." Again, " a person keeping a mischievous animal with
knowledge of its propensities is bound to keep it secure at his peril.
APPENDICES.
327
If it escapes and does mischief, he is liable without proof of negli-
gence, neither is proof required that he knew the animal to be
mischievous, or if it is a notoriously fierce or mischievous species (5)."
In Smith's leading cases, in the notes on Fletcher v. Rylands (6) it
is said:—
" The law of England recognizes two distinct classes of animals: The first
class consists of such animals as sheep, horses, oxen, and dogs, which the law
assumes not to be of a dangerous nature, and a person who keeps an animal of this
class is not liable for any damage it may do, when not trespassing, unless he knew
that it was in fact dangerous. The other class consists of animals which have not
been shown by experience to be harmless by nature; and one who keeps animals of
this class must prevent them from doing injury under any circumstances, unless
the person to whom it is done brings it on himself."
In the English case on which these remarks are based, namely,
Filburn v. People's Palace Company (2), it was held that an elephant
" did not belong to a class which, according to the experience of
mankind, is not dangerous to man, and therefore the owner kept such
an animal at his own risk, and his liability for damage done by it
was not affected by his ignorance of its dangerous character."
I understand the remarks of my learned predecessor in Maung
Gyi v. Po To (1) above cited to go no further than to suggest that
a man should be liable for injury caused by his animal, whether tame
or wild, if it is proved that the injury was due to the owner's negli-
gence. In that view, it would not be necessary to draw a distinction
between wild and domestic animals. The point for decision would
be whether the owner was guilty of negligence or whether he used
such care as in the circumstances of the case was reasonable and
ordinarily sufficient. The amount of care required would vary
according to the class of the animal and according to its known
disposition. It could not, I think, be laid down in this country that
a man is liable for any damage done by his elephant without any
proof of negligence, or that he knew it to be of a vicious disposition.
In view of the manner in, and extent to, which elephants are
employed in this country, such a proposition would be manifestly
unjust.
In the present case, therefore, I think it was for the plaintiff
to prove that the damage done to his elephant was caused, or
rendered possible, by the defendant's negligence. In considering the
question of negligence, the defendant's knowledge or want of know-
ledge that the elephant was of a vicious disposition would be an
important point. In a suit of this kind, where an animal like an
elephant is concerned, I think the burden of proving negligence is
328
APPENDICES.
in the first place on the plaintiff who avers it. It might be other-
wise if injury by a tiger or bear were concerned.
I agree with the Lower Courts in thinking that it is not proved
that the defendant knew that the elephant " Kya Gyi " was of a
vicious disposition. It was not therefore incumbent on her to take
more than ordinary precautions with him. It does not seem to be
shown that ordinary precautions were neglected. It is alleged that
" Kya Gyi " twice gored the deceased elephant " Do," and the mahout
called by the plaintiff declares that he had neither bell nor fetters.
On the other hand, as pointed out in the judgment of the Court of
First Instance, the plaintiff himself admitted that " Kya Gyi " had a
bell and fetter on the second occasion. It is admitted that all the
other elephants of the defendant had bells and fetters ; there is direct
evidence, at least as good as that for the plaintiff, that " Kya Gyi "
was properly provided with them. In my opinion it has not been
proved that there was any negligence on the part of the defendant and
any prima facie case made out by the plaintiff has been rebutted. I
therefore hold that the Lower Courts have rightly decided that the
defendants are not liable ; and I dismiss this appeal with costs. (See
Part I, page 51.)
APPENDIX
B.—OPERATIONS.
In performing an operation such as opening an abscess on the
back or treating a sore back in a troublesome elephant, it is a com-
mon practice, to obviate the necessity for securing him, to take the
animal into deep water where he is obliged to swim. Once off his
legs he is kept busy swimming and cannot hurt anyone on his back.
Taking an animal up to his girth in mud, slush or swamp answers
equally well. It is desirable to have neck, girth and side ropes
in order to retain one's seat in case the animal should try to shake
the rider off before or on entering the water.
(See Part I,
page 54.)
APPENDIX
C.—AGE.
To form an approximate estimate of the age of an elephant
constant association and practice are requisite.
As already stated there cannot be much doubt about the age of
young animals, the general appearance, muscular development,
smooth well-formed nails, height, size of ivory, if any, state of the
ears that is straight edged and freedom from tears, etc.
APPENDICES.
329
With regard to the amount of turnover of the ear as an indica-
tion of age it must be remembered that exceptions occur ; occasion-
ally one may meet with an elephant of five or six years with a
turnover of an inch, but no one would be likely to take such a
beast to be thirty or even ten years.
Again, a youngster may be seen with the edge of one ear
turned while the other is perfectly straight. In judging the approxi-
mate age all such like exceptions must be taken into account. (See
Part I, page 4.)
APPENDIX D.—GROWTH INCREMENT.
Growth Increment in Sixteen Elephants during two years.
Number.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
MARCH
1907.
Estimated
age.
11
12
15
16
18
18
18 to 20
20
20
25
25
27
27
30
30
35
Height.
6' 7½"
6' 4"
6' 10 "
7' ½"
7' 2 ½"
7' 2½"
7' 1 "
7' 7 "
7' 7"
7' 4½"
7' 5"
7' 3"
7' 1¾"
8' 1½"
7' 7"
7' 6½"
MARCH
1909.
Height.
7' ½"
6' 6 ''
7' 0 "
7' 1½"
1 2½"
7' 4½"
7' 1"
7' 7½"
7' 7½"
7' 4½"
7' 5½"
7' 3½"
7' 2 "
8' 2 "
7' 7½"
7' 7½"
Increase
for
two years.
5 "
2 "
2 "
1 ''
0 ''
2 "
0 ''
½"
½"
0"
½"
2
½''
¼"
½"
½"
1"
(See Part I, page 5.)
330
APPENDICES.
APPENDIX E.—LIST OF FODDER PLANTS, GRASSESS, ETC.
List of some Trees, Creepers, Grasses, etc., eaten by Elephants.
Burmese Name.
Panng
Kaing
Kyan-sa-nwai
Naya
...
Taw-hnget-pyaw
(Wild plantain)
Padaw
Ohnlet
Pyaung-yo (Millet) ...
Mitibavr
Wetla
Kyan (Sugarcane) ...
Kyu-nabin-pake, Kyu
Sin-dôn-ma-nwai
Ta-ma-zaing
Myin-wa
Wa-pyu
Wa-bo
Kya-lo-wa
Kyakat-wa
Kya-thaung
...
Thaik-wa
Tin-wa
Salu
Yingan
Vernacular.
......
Scientific.
Saccharum procerum?
Saccharum
sponta-
neum ?
Toddalia acnleata
Musa rubra and varie-
ties
Cocos nucifera
Andropogan sorghum
Caryota urens
...
Cyperus
compressus
and varieties
Saccharum officinarum
Arundo sp.
Tinospora nudiflora ...
Panicum acariferum ...
Dendrocalamus strictus
Dendrocalamus mem-
branaccns
Dendrocalamus Bran-
disii
Bambusa Brandisii ...
Bambusa arundinaria
Bambusa polymorpha
Bambusa tulda, Bam-
busa offinis
Cephalostachyum per-
gracile
Licuala peltata
Zalacca Wallichiana ...
Remarks.
Eaten readily but not very
nourishing
One of the most valuable of
fodders
Considered to be one of the best
fodders and very fattening
Fattening and eaten readily
Fattening and supposed to be
sought after as a thirst quen-
A useful grass, considered very
nourishing
Strengthening and fattening
A very excellent fodder
Considered fattening. Leaves
eaten and stem split to obtain
the pith which they are very
fond of
An inferior fodder: eaten but
not nourishing
Very fattening
Fattening and readily eaten
Much sought after. Bitter in
taste and considered to have an
excellent tonic effect, especially
in debility
A nourishing grass eaten freely
Are considered the best
Are thought by Burmans to
cause slight congestion of the
Kidneys
Much liked
Fruit much sought after
APPENDICES.
331
List of Trees, Creepers, etc., on which Elephants browse and which
are supposed by Burmans to possess sundry medicinal
properties.
Burmese Name.
Nyaung (Banyan) ...
Tha-pan
...
or
Ye-tha-pan
Sin-tha-pan
Okhne
Than-that
Ka-aung-gyi
Pauk-nwai
Kyn-bin
Pai-kwai
Doh-nwai
Shn-bnuk-nwai
Su-bôk
Vernacular.
Scientific.
Ficus indica
Ficus glomerata
Ficus lanceolata
Ficus Roxburghii
Streblns aspera
Albizzia lucida
Clerodendron
infortu-
natum
Butea parviflora
Spatholobus Roxburghii
Terminalia citrina
...
......
Butea superba
Acacia concinna rugata
Remarks.
Most of the species of " ficus "
are eaten by elephants and
are considered to have a cons¬
tipating effect
Leaves readily eaten. Considered
constipating
Said to be useful in flatulence
Considered to
be
active
diuretics
Eagerly sought after by ele-
phants, but it is stated that if
the sap gets into an ele¬
phant's eyes it causes opacity
Stated to cause congestion of the
liver
(See Part I, page 20.)
APPENDIX
F.—BREEDING.
Mr. Dalgliesh of the Borneo Company, Chieng-Mai, kindly sent
me some interesting notes on this subject: —
(a) A male transport elephant, Pu-Tat, tried to mount Me-
Oong while on the march, but was prevented from doing so. After
the load was removed from Me-Oong however, he promptly crossed
her, the congress lasting some two minutes. On moving away
from her another bull, Pu-Ek, tried to jump her but failed. He
thereupon chased Pu-Tat but fell down before reaching him. He
got up, returned to Me-Oong and crossed her successfully, the
congress lasting some three minutes.
The female remained
perfectly quiet the whole time and made no attempt to move away
from either of the bulls ; she did not appear to be on heat nor did
she utter anv sound, and as far as could be seen did not court their
attentions in any way. Pu-Ek was musth at the time, but Pu-Tat
332
APPENDICES.
was not. This all occurred in an open paddy field and only a few
yards from where Mr. Dalgliesh was standing. He has now
witnessed this act on five occasions and not on any one did the
congress last more than three minutes. In all cases the animals
except for a slight movement of the tail remained motionless.
(b) No. 218, Ne-Nooan, belonging to the Borneo Company,
Limited, dropped a still-born calf (sex not reported) in December
1907 ; the same elephant dropped a male calf in October 1909;
that is well within two years. This case proves that cow elephants
will permit of intercourse with a bull shortly after calving. The
explanation in this instance may be that the first calf was still-born.
(See Part II, pages 93—95.)
APPENDIX G.—CASE OF IMPACTION AND RUPTURE
OF (ESOPHAGUS.
Mr. Hepburn in a letter describes a case of impaction and
rupture of the gullet which he recently met with in an elephant.
The animal in question was gored by a wild tusker in the
middle third of the neck. The wound was deep and extended
inwards and upwards. It was enlarged and washed out twice daily
and it gradually healed. The animal was not put to work. A
short time afterwards he was reported not to have touched food for
two days. Mr. Hepburn saw him late in the evening. He found
the animal not exactly vomiting, but his mouth was kept open and
large quantities of a clear watery fluid were discharged. He had
not partaken of any food and the breath was noticed to have a very
offensive smell. He died the next day.
On post-mortem the original wound was found closed but a
channel was met with running downwards along the gullet and
windpipe into a cavity full of pus and food. A rupture about one
inch long was found on the upper surface of the gullet which was
impacted with food for some distance above.
Mr. Hepburn is of opinion that the impaction and rupture
resulted from the pressure of the abscess on the gullet. (See Part
IV, page 252.)
APPENDIX
H.—SURRA.
Mr. Hepburn kindly gave me a few notes on an outbreak of
surra which occurred amongst some of the elephants in his charge.
The principal symptoms noted by him were dulness, a heavy sleepy
look about the eyes, paleness of mucous membranes and considerable
fever, together with œdematous swellings in various parts of the
body. In one case there was a slight mucoid discharge from the
eyes. There was not much loss of condition.
The treatment
APPENDICES.
333
adopted was the administration of arsenic in gradually increasing
doses until symptoms of poisoning set in ; out of five animals
attacked three recovered and two died. Mr. Hepburn had no
opportunity of making a post-mortem examination.
With regard to the above method of treatment I may remark
that I have doubts about the ordinary preparations of arsenic in the
doses given effecting a cure within a reasonable time. My grounds
for this statement are that I have had several elephants under
arsenical treatment for many months. Blood smears were taken
daily from the affected animals and examined. It was observed that
the period of time which elapsed from the disappearance of the
parasites from the peripheral circulation and their reappearance
therein extended in more than one case to over three months.
Unless therefore careful daily examinations of the blood are made
for a lengthened period after apparent cure wrong conclusions may
be arrived at. In cases which are observed early, i.e., when the
animals appear healthy and in good condition, provided they are
rested or at most put only to light work the exhibition of arsenic
undoubtedly keeps them in a more or less stationary condition as
regards general appearance and bodily health. (See Part V, page 310.)
APPENDIX I.—NOTE ON INFECTIVE DISEASES WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO ANTHRAX.
Note I.—In order to enable the non-professional reader to realise
how infectious disease is spread I have thought it advisable to add
a short summary of the causes of infective diseases.
Infective diseases are caused by minute organisms known popu-
larly as microbes.
A microbe is a unicellular vegetable organism
belonging to the class schizomycetes or fission fungi. Under the
microscope these organisms are seen to adopt certain definite forms
and appear as small spherical bodies, short thick rods or long thin
filaments. In size they are exceedingly minute, many being not more
than 1/25000 of an inch in length. Some like the anthrax organism
are only capable of existing and growing in the presence of oxygen ;
others die if exposed to the air. These organisms multiply by
simple fission, that is to say the organism if placed in favourable
surroundings so far as nutrition and growth are concerned simply
divides into two. Thus in a very short time a single organism may
produce a horde. Outside the animal body some microbes produce
what are known as spores. A spore is not a multiplication form but
simply a resting stage of the organism adopted when its surroundings
are unfavourable to its growth and nutrition. When these spores
gain entrance to the animal body they again take on the form of the