NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
146
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
ber of the parasites may be expelled. It is a matter of common
remark amongst mahouts that, when elephants are troubled with
parasites, they resort to eating earth for the purpose of inducing
purgation, in order to rid themselves of these unwelcome guests.
The eating of earth may go on for a couple of days, the amount eaten
being from 2 to 4 pounds at a time, until free purgation is pro
duced, after which no more earth is eaten. Steel, however, proved
that this eating of earth is not the whole and sole cause of purga
tion. This habit of eating earth does not always denote the presence
of parasites. It frequently points to the fact that an animal is not
receiving salt, or, if a ration of salt is allowed, that it is insufficient.
Wild animals, that is, deer, bison, sine, and elephants make frequent
and regular visits to "licks" and eat quantities of earth, and, though
in the jungles one frequently sees the droppings of wild animals, it
is not often that one finds parasites. This parasitical diarrhoea often
proves fatal, especially in young animals and in adults when in a low
state of health.
(4) Fasciola Jacksoni (liver flukes).—The term "fluke" has
been applied owing to its flatness, being likened to the fish known
as the fluke or flounder. It has a somewhat rounded outline and
when examined under a glass it will be seen that the body is
covered with minute spines. By a peculiar arrangement in the
structure of the sucker, these creatures are enabled to adhere to the
mucous membrane of the bile ducts with such tenacity as to resist
the contraction of the bile ducts to expel them with the bile into the
intestinal canal. The colour varies a great deal, depending to a
great extent on the amount of bile they contain ; if their digestive
system be full of bile, the colour is a dark brown or greenish black;
if empty, a dark yellowish brown.
Cobbold gives the length, when unrolled, from ½ to ⅝ inch
and the breadth from ⅓ to ½ inch. The habitat of flukes is in
the bile ducts of the liver, which they invade from the opening
through which the bile flows into the gut, situated a short way
from the stomach, and it is to their presence that the disease
known as "rot" owes its existence. In Burma flukes may occa
sionally be met with in mules and ponies, but more frequently
in oxen, buffaloes, and elephants. Hawkes, a careful observer, who
knew much about the diseases of elephants, constantly found after
death these parasites in the bile ducts. This has frequently been
my experience. While he was stationed at Secunderabad a high
mortality occurred amongst the elephants under his charge. He
attended the post-mortem examinations, and flukes were found in
greater or less numbers in every case ; he also observed that other
parasites were met with. A long account of an outbreak of "rot"
INTERNAL PARASITES.
147
which occurred in 1867 amongst the Commissariat elephants station-
ed at Rangoon is given in a letter to the Rangoon Times, dated
the 16th July 1867, and signed R. B. It appears that in the short
space of 15 days seven elephants died, and it was noticed that
the mortality commenced as the severity of the south-west monsoon
increased. The outbreak was such a remarkable one that I give
some extracts from the letter—
"6. The first sign I noticed of the disease was the number of
elephants which resorted to eating mud, the natural remedy pro-
vided by the animal's own instinct for the expulsion of intestinal
worms. Perhaps the animal resorts to mud not only as a remedy
for worms, but also when any excess of irritation in the bowels or
stomach is felt; however, be that as it may, in all the cases which
came under my notice, I am confident the cause of death was from
the presence of cystic and larval forms of the entozoa, which
were found in abundance in the liver, lungs, and intestines of the
animal.
" 7. In the lower bowels or alimentary canal the common worms
were found in great numbers, termed " chotee " or " mussodee "
in Dr. Gilchrist's Treatise (a species of ascarides ?), and it was not
until the liver and lungs had incisions made in them that the other
kind was discovered.
" 8. The inside of the liver and cavities of the lungs were, I may
say without exaggeration, positively alive with this species of
distoma for I believe it to be such, at least as far as I am able
to judge in comparing its diagnosis with those mentioned in Davaine
Traite des entozoaines, of which at pages 49 and 322 a very
accurate description is given, with the exception of some slight
variations, which only determine this to be a different species.
" 9. The form of the one (a specimen is herewith sent) now
spoken of is somewhat more round, which I think may be likened
in shape to the old-fashioned lady's reticule, and of about the size
of the nail of the forefinger. The body is compressed, soft, with two
distinct orifices—one marginal, forming as it were a small pointed
distention on its margin, the other between the middle and anterior
sixth of the body. Just above the ventral orifice there is a kind of
elongated appendage or sucker, in length about the same as the
body, but when pulled out by the forceps extends beyond the mar-
gin ; it appears slightly elastic with the end distended. Under the
microscope the external covering or epidermis appears pitted and,
when subjected to the action of dilute nitric acid and mounted on
a slide in Canada balsam, the intestinal ducts are plainly visible con-
taining dark coloured granules, being free near the orifices, but
thickly reticulated towards the margins with clavate terminations.
There are, as far as I could discover, no hooklets in mouths, as
148
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
stated to be in echinococcus or larva of tœniœ. From the absence
of these characteristics, I have been led to conclude it to be a
species of distoma.
" 11. Davaine mentions that animals such as the ox and horse
frequenting marshy, swampy places are subject to the distoma. It
is most probably the truth, but I think during very prolonged hot
weather, when the water is reduced to its lowest stagnant state and
mixed with the lower organisms of animal life, the elephant then im-
bibes them with the water in their embryonic form. In this opinion,
I believe, I am in a great sense supported, for from inquiry I find
the virulent diseases which have attacked cattle in Burma have been
during a heavy monsoon, after a continued hot season.
" 14. The disease is not one which develops its symptoms by
different stages, but carries the elephant off in a few hours and
might, I am sure, be taken for apoplexy, or inflammation of lungs,
for the symptoms correspond in character with those described by
Dr. Gilchrist. The elephant exhibits difficulty in breathing ; it keeps
its mouth open, is restless in most cases, and refuses food ; there is
a puffiness about the head and shoulders.
" 15. Besides the Commissariat Department, others have suffer-
ed in the loss of elephants. The Forest department lost their ele-
phants, and reports have reached me that wild elephants have died.
This may be, for the wild elephants in a droughty season are neces-
sarily subject to the same influences as the trained ones. I would
particularly mention that those elephants of this department which
were during the hot weather kept in the cattle lines, partially in
sheds and well cared for, have up to this time escaped.
" 16. The sufferers have been those sent from the scarcity of
forage to the jungles to graze."
With reference to this outbreak the symptoms appear to have
developed suddenly, and the disease to have run a very rapid
course. Though the writer in paragraph 8 mentions that " the in-
side of the liver and cavities of the lungs" were alive with
distoma (another name for the fluke), I venture to think that
in spite of his being unable to discover no " hooklets, " paragraph 9,
that the cystic forms alluded to as met with in the liver and lungs
were most probably hydatid cysts ; for these cysts are occasionally
met with in the liver, lungs, and other organs. In paragraphs 15
and 16 it will be observed that the elephants that were kept in the
lines escaped, while those only that were sent out to graze contract-
ed the malady. There is no doubt that flukes and amphistomes
were present in these cases.
The natural history of the Fasciola or Distoma hepaticum of
the sheep has been carefully worked out, and to those interested in
the life history of this wonderful parasite I would recommend a
INTERNAL PARASITES.
149
small book by J.B. Simonds on "The Rot in Sheep," also Cobbold's
works on parasites. It will be sufficient to state here that the pro
gressive changes and transformation through which this parasite
passes from the egg to the mature fluke take place outside the
body of the creature they ultimately inhabit. They enter the body
in their penultimate form and are parasitic only in their mature
state. They do not multiply in the body. It is a well established
fact that the "fluke" disease or "rot" is essentially a disease of
lowlying, inundated tracts, and wet seasons. There is little doubt
that many of the cases, called "thut" by the Burmans and Zahirbad
by the Indians, are true "rot."
As is the case in most ailments due to parasites, the early symp
toms of "rot" are ill defined, and may not even lead to a suspicion
of the cause.
In these diseases the symptoms depend on the number of para
sites and inconvenience caused by their presence, and also to the
importance in the animal economy of the particular organ invaded.
A few flukes in the bile ducts may give rise to but slight irrita
tion and impairment of function; whereas, when they invade the
ducts in large numbers, the pressure and persistent irritation caused
may lead to such rapid and extensive structural alterations as to
speedily cause death. Under certain conditions the progress of
"rot" may be very rapid, such as in animals that are hard worked,
ill fed, exposed to all weather ; also in cases where animals already in
a debilitated state are attacked. Young animals are sometimes
invaded by such large numbers of flukes that they impair the func
tion of the liver to such an extent as to rapidly destroy life.
As a general rule the progress of "rot" is slow; one constant
symptom is progressive wasting away, due to anaemia. This is not
surprising when we know that an organ of such importance as the
liver is the seat of disease. The secretion of the liver, namely, the
bile, has a most important office to perform. When the ducts are
crowded by these creatures, the pressure, irritation, &c, must lead
to impaired secretion and consequent alteration in the quality and
quantity of the bile. The gland gradually ceases to perform its
office in an efficient manner, thus the blood becomes affected and
impure in quality. The flukes as they become mature travel up
from the main channel into its numerous ramifications in the liver,
for the purpose of depositing their eggs. The result of this persis
tent irritation is increased vascular action, which leads to the coats
of the ducts being considerably thickened and their calibre decreas
ed.
(5) Dochmius sangeri.—As far as I am aware, not found in
Burma. Males measure ⅝", females ¾"—(Cobbold).
150
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Symptoms of the presence of parasites.
(1) The Gastrophilus elephantis.—Wanting ; presence known
by occasionally observing them in the dung.
Treatment—Dose of physic.
(2) Ascaris lonchoptera.—Symptoms trifling, or more often ab-
sent ; presence known by inspection of dung.
Treatment—Dose of physic and enemas (Appendix 85 and 86).
(3) Amphistoma Hawkesii.
(4) Fasciola Jacksoni.
May be taken together.
(5) Dochmius Sangeri.
}
Symptoms are dullness, lassitude, frequent yawning, general
unthriftiness shown by a dry scurfy skin; the appetite fastidious,
one day the patient eats well and on the following day is "off feed"
possibly only eating earth; thirst is frequent, the membranes are
pale or yellowish in colour, the mouth clammy; there may be
puffiness about the head and shoulders; frequent attacks of severe,
and often persistent fœtid and dark coloured, diarrhœa, which usually
contains specimens of the offending parasite ; this symptom is parti-
cularly pronounced in the case of amphistomes; there is gradually
or rapidly progressing debility and rapid loss of flesh; later on
dropsical swellings, finally extreme exhaustion, ending in death.
Treatment: Preventive.—Consists in following out what has
already been laid down with regard to the management of the ele-
phant in health with especial reference to food, which must not be
procured from wet or marshy tracts (wet being essential to the de-
velopment of these parasites), good water, and an ample allowance of
salt. When flukes are discovered, the animals must be removed to
high ground.
If mahouts carefully inspect the dung daily as they should do,
their presence would often be discovered at an early stage before
the elephant becomes debilitated, and successful treatment and
early restoration to health would probably ensue. Inspection must
be close and careful, for these dangerous parasites are very small
and their presence very easily overlooked.
The dung of any animals found suffering from worms must be
collected and mixed with carbolic powder or chloride of lime or de-
stroyed by fire.
Diarrhoea need not be checked unless very severe or the animal
very weak. Stimulants such as brandy, rum, &c., are at such a time
of service.
Curative.—See Vermifuges, Appendix 47 to 53, Tonics, 39 to 46,
also 85 and 86.
Tonics, especially arsenic, sulphate of iron, copper and nux-vomica,
most useful during convalescence.
CHAPTER XII.
THE LIVER-JAUNDICE-HEPATITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER-HYDATIDS.
The liver.
THE liver is the largest gland and one of the most important of the
digestive organs. Its chief function is that of secreting bile which
finds its way through ducts into the intestine and assists in the di-
gestive process. There is no gall bladder and the organ weighs 50
to 55 pounds. Bile is a natural laxative, prevents putrefaction in the
intestine, and is the colouring agent of the dung. An over secretion
of bile tends therefore to create diarrhoea with deep coloured motions.
Insufficient secretion on the other hand may produce light coloured
and foul smelling dung, with constipation. Characters of the dung
therefore give much information regarding the liver.
Jaundice is a condition manifested by yellowness of the mem-
branes, deep coloured greenish urine, and often light coloured dung,
and is due to an absorption of bile into the blood. It is an indica-
tion of liver disease, but is rarely seen in elephants.
Treatment.—The bowels must be kept regular by means of
laxatives such as Epsom salts. Grain should be discontinued and
the amount of fodder reduced till the attack passes off.
Hepatitis, or inflammation of the liver.
The liver like other organs is liable to undergo inflammation, but
disease is rare; the symptoms are often obscure, so that the condi-
tion may be only recognized after death. There may be, however,
certain symptoms pointing to this affection which may be either
acute or chronic.
Causes.—Exposure, chill.
Symptoms : Acute.—Fever with its attendant signs, muddy or
yellowish coloured membranes, dry clammy mouth with tainted
breath, irregularity of bowels', sometimes dark coloured diarrhoea,
high coloured greenish thick urine, and abdominal pain.
This may run on to abscess, several cases of which have been
recorded.
Treatment.—As for fever, and in addition enemas and purga-
tives such as—
Aloes ... ... ... ...
Calomel ... ... ... ...
6 drachms.
1 drachm.
See Appendix—Laxtives, Nos. 23 to 28,
152
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Chloride of ammonia is most useful in doses from ½ to 1 ounce
twice a day, or bicarbonate of soda in ½ ounce doses, or Epsom
salts in 6-ounce doses twice a day.
Pain should be combated as laid down under that heading.
Cause of chronic hepatitis.—It may result from an acute attack,
or it may be brought about by continued excess of food, especially
grain and inactivity; both conditions rarely enjoyed by working
elephants ; hence possible reason of rarity of the disease.
Symptoms.—Drowsiness, sluggishness, poor appetite, dry mouth,
thirst, irregularity of the bowels, constipation intermitting with
diarrhoea, often pale or dark coloured offensive dung, and frequent
passage of wind.
Treatment.—As only likely to be met with in pampered highly
fed animals, the diet must be reduced as regards quantity ; all grain
should be stopped and regular walking exercise daily, the bowels
kept regular by administration of laxatives (Appendix 23 to 28).
Chloride of ammonia in ½-ounce doses twice or thrice daily will do
good.
Hydatids.
This is a cystic or bladder-like condition met with in various
organs and tissues, but more usually in the liver, and represents the
immature stage of a tape-worm, which in its mature condition in-
habits the bowels of dogs, wolves, and jackals. Its cycle of exis-
tence is as follows.
To begin with the egg. This is passed in the fœces of one of
the above animals and may gain entrance to the alimentary canal
of an elephant by its eating pasturage, &c., contaminated with their
droppings. The egg, having once gained entrance to the stomach
of the elephant, hatches and liberates an embryo, which displays a
desire to migrate, passing through the walls of the stomach, by the
aid of six hooklets with which it is provided, to some suitable spot,
most frequently the liver. Having found a suitable resting place
it casts these hooklets and becomes invested with a fibrous cap-
sule or wall. At this stage it is known as a hydatid cyst.
The hydatid cyst when fully developed consists of a wall with
fluid contents, and within it other smaller cysts or bladders are
developed, and within these again others may form to a third and
fourth generation. These so-called daughter and grand-daughter
cysts contain fluid and embryo tape-worms, which are called at
this stage "scolices." The scolices consist of a head identical
HYDATIDS.
153
with the adult tape-worm, a constriction separating it from the body,
and a pedicle or foot which is attached at some stage to the wall
of the cyst, but which frequently gives way setting the "scolex"
free.
The scolex cannot further develop in the elephant. The hyda-
tid cyst thus affords a haven for the propagation of the species
which can only develop to the stage of "scolices." In doing this
it increases in size often to an enormous degree. In order to com-
plete the cycle of the creature's existence the "scolices" must find
their way into the stomach of a dog or kindred animal, which it
usually does by this animal eating the organs or flesh of a creature
infested with hydatids, the sheep perhaps being the most frequent
source.
The scolex having reached the canine stomach becomes endow-
ed with renewed vitality and develops into a mature tape-worm.
The mature worm consists of a head furnished with four suckers
and two rows of hooklets, and three body segments, the last of which
is provided with reproductory organs.
This worm is commonly seen voided with the excreta of dogs
and measures about ¾ inch in length. The adult worm produces
numerous eggs, which are also voided with the dog's excreta.
It will be seen from the above that, if the ova of the tape-worm
gains access to the canine stomach, no tape-worm can result, since
it must of a necessity pass through the system of a sheep or kind-
red animal and pass through the stage of hydatid cyst.
In the same way should a scolex find its way into the stomach
of an elephant, no hydatid cyst will result, since the scolex must of
necessity pass through the system of a canine animal before again
arriving at this stage.
Elephants therefore cannot directly communicate the parasite
to one another but only indirectly through the media of dogs,
wolves, and jackals.
The dangers of hydatid cyst are—
(a) it may increase and rupture;
(b) it may suppurate and become an abscess;
(c) on the other hand it may rarely be absorbed and disap-
pear.
Treatment: Preventive.—It follows from the above that ma-
houts should not be allowed to keep dogs about elephant standings
and, should dogs' droppings about the standings be discovered, they
should be collected, disinfected with carbolic powder, and burnt.
When diseased liver and lungs are discovered after death they
should be treated with carbolic powder and burnt,
20
CHAPTER XIII.
THE EYE-OPHTHALMIA-INFLAMMATION OF THE CORNEA-ULCERATION OF
THE CORNEA-OPACITY OF THE CORNEA-STAPHYLOMA—CATARACT.
The eye.
IT is a matter of common remark amongst those who have much
to do with elephants that a large percentage of them have blemished
eyes. Major Hawkes notes, of a batch of 27 elephants examined,
that one was totally blind, two nearly so, two blind in one eye, one
had cataract in both eyes, and three had partial opacity of cornea
in both eyes. I think, if we give the subject a little consideration
the cause of this high percentage will be readily apparent.
The eye of the elephant is as delicate and sensitive as our own,
and the preservation of sight is a blessing to the animal and an ad-
vantage to the owner ; yet mahouts are allowed (through ignorance
of owners or those in charge) to inflict intense suffering on these
creatures, by blowing powdered glass, powders containing ingredi-
ents such as lunar caustic, blue-stone, camphor, &c, into their
eyes, to remove so-called films, or to treat the eyes with mixtures (ap-
plied unsparingly) containing other irritating ingredients in uncertain
quantities, such as chillies, ginger, quicklime, preparations of mer-
cury. When such delicate organs are subjected to treatment such
as described, it is not surprising that we find so many elephants
whose vision is permanently impaired, or totally lost.
It should be made clear to all elephant attendants that any treat-
ment of the eyes carried out by them will result in their immediate
dismissal. Captain Forsyth, a careful observer and sympathetic
master, remarks: "The eyes of the elephant are extremely delicate
" and appear to possess, in an unusual degree, a sympathetic connec-
" tion with the digestive organs. Nearly every indisposition of the
" animal is accompanied by a clouding or suffusion of the eyes. Few
" elephants that have been long caught, especially if in the hands of
" natives, have perfect eyes." Note the remark "especially if in the
hands of natives." Mahouts are everlastingly tinkering with their
elephants ; if not treating their eyes, they are treating them for some
other supposed ailment. This amateur doctoring by them is a
curse in elephant establishments. If more attention was given to