NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
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A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
(4) March the animals at night through country known to be
infested with flies.
(5) Isolate sick animals and protect them from the bites of
flies.
(6) A course of arsenic in any form at the beginning of the
rains may be tried.
NOTE.—Surra has been described at some length. Further information on
this disease is solicited. As much light can be thrown on the subject I appeal to
those gentlemen in charge of large numbers of elephants in the districts to keep
a sharp look-out on all cases of fever, especially if accompanied by debility,
swellings, or both. Careful daily observation of the temperature will prove of
assistance in suspicious cases, and I shall be pleased to receive early information
of any outbreak of intermittent or remittent fever amongst elephants (see
Appendix H).
[Facing page 311.
PLATE XV.
1.
PIROPLASMA (CATTLE), LARGE FORMS.
2.
PIROPLASMA (CATTLE), SMALL FORMS.
CHAPTER VI.
PIROPLASMOSIS―TICK FEVER.
Piroplasma are small parasites of varying shape which invade
the red blood cells. In some animals they are often pear-shaped,
hence the generic term applied. The disease is conveyed by the
bites of infected ticks. As far as elephants are concerned, there is
practically nothing known.
In cattle in the acute form the symptoms are high fever, urine
tinged with blood in most cases, also jaundiced membranes, anæmia,
staggering gait, nervous symptoms, or even paralysis. In some cases
we meet with constipation followed by diarrhoea in which there is a
considerable admixture of blood. In the benign form there is an
absence of bloody urine and jaundice, but there is often marked
anaemia.
I am indebted to Mr. Hepburn for notes on the following case,
which is of interest.
The animal in question was a young tusker resting during the
hot months.
For some days previous to the 5th June, he had been noticed to
be unwell, gradually becoming worse.
On this date the bowels were constipated, and the urine very
dark in colour.
On the 6th, Mr. Hepburn saw him and he suspected surra.
The
animal was dull, greatly run down, he could hardly stand. Pulse 56,
temperature 98.8° F., mucous membranes of eyes very deep yellow.
The bowels were constipated and urine of a dark red colour. The
animal refused food.
Moderate doses of epsom salts were ordered and blood smears
taken for examination.
June 7th.—Examination of blood smears proved negative. The
animal appeared a trifle brighter and was inclined to take a
little food. Condition of mucous membranes was the same.
Pulse 50, temperature 98 0 F. Dung was reported to have been
passed, also urine which was said to be lighter in colour. Steps
were taken to attend to the state of the bowels.
June 8th.—Feeding is little better, bowels regular, membranes a
trifle clearer, temperature normal.
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A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
June 9th.
June 10th.
June 11th.
Absent from camp.
June 12th.—Taking a little food, but dull, membranes dark yellow,
temperature 98.4° F., pulse rate raised. Blood smears taken.
Piroplasma found, but very few. Treatment—quinine and
arsenic.
June 16th.—Under above treatment, the temperature went down
gradually, though a few piroplasms were observed daily.
June 17th.—Temperature 98.2 c F., slight constipation, urine very
turbid.
June 23rd.—A few piroplasms have been seen daily in blood
smears ; the animal, however, appears stronger and is feeding
better, but is very far from well.
On this date Mr. Hepburn had to leave camp, but in writing on
the 16th July he states, " I have not seen the elephant since the 23rd,
but understand he is progressing favourably."
The intermediary host of the piroplasm, a tick, has not been
identified. Unless careful search is made about the inside of the
thighs, etc., small ticks are very easily overlooked.
CHAPTER
VII.
APHTHÆ EPIZOOTICÆ—FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE.
ELEPHANT-POX.
FOOT-AND-MOUTH
DISEASE.
The disease, as far as I can find out, was described first by
Gilchrist* of the Hoonsoor Cattle Depôt. During the Afghan cam-
paign Inspecting Veterinary-Surgeon Oliphant† experienced a severe
outbreak among the elephants under his charge; he describes it as a
severe disease, one animal died from irritative fever, and in several
it led to shedding of the hoof-slipper.
Causes.—Always due to contagion from cattle or other infected
animals. The virulent material is carried by saliva and all secretions
and excretions. The causal agent has not yet been discovered
microscopically.
Period of incubation.—Thirty-six
hours to three or four days.
Duration.—In
simple uncomplicated cases ten to twenty days ;
in severe cases two or three months, or longer.
Prognosis.—Good, except in very young animals.
Symptoms.—The first symptom usually attracting attention is
that the animal, according to the soreness of the mouth and degree
of fever present, is partially or wholly " off feed." In some cases
limping may be the first symptom noticed. Fever with its attendant
signs is present. If the mouth is examined there will be found blebs
or bladders, technically called vesicles, varying in size from an eight-
anna piece to a rupee or even larger, and containing a limpid
yellowish-coloured fluid which later may become turbid. As the
vesicles form the fever declines. They may appear simultaneously on
the tongue, palate, cheeks, and mucous membrane of the trunk ; if
the trunk is seriously involved there is a sero-mucoid discharge. In
young animals, as Gilchrist and Steel point out, the eruption may
invade the mucous membrane of the bowels, giving rise to severe
diarrhoea, exhaustion and death. In from eighteen to thirty-six
* " History and Treatment of Diseases of the Elephant," by W. Gilchrist, 1841
and 1848.
†" Quarterly Journal of Veterinary Science in India," Vol. I, 1882-83.
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A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
hours these blebs burst, leaving red, raw, angry-looking surfaces which
may heal rapidly or become ulcerated. Owing to the soreness of the
mouth and inability to eat, loss of condition may rapidly ensue.
When the feet are attacked they become so tender that the slightest
movement causes the animal to limp, and the pain may be so severe
as to necessitate his lying down. On examination, the parts above
the nails around the margin of the hoof-slipper will be found hot,
swollen and tender. A discharge may be apparent ; if not pressure
on the parts may reveal some oozing. In the elephant, owing to the
great weight to be sustained and the severe pain, fever may run high.
The great danger is that the discharge may burrow, underrun the
sole and thus lead to irritative fever, septicaemia (blood poisoning)
in some form, and casting of the hoof-slipper.
Diagnosis.—This is distinguished from elephant-pox by the seat
and nature of the eruption.
Treatment.—Careful
nursing, feeding and attention to cleanli-
ness are essential. When the mouth is very sore, allow plenty of
good, well-boiled, freshly-made gruel ; if the animal can take grass
it should be cut, and care taken to see that it is clean and soft. A
tub of fresh water should be kept near the standing. The mouth
may be washed out three or four times daily with some mild astrin-
gent lotion, if very sore, e.g., alum two drachms to the pint, or Condy's
fluid one ounce to a pint, or permanganate of potash two to four
grains to the pint of water (see Formulæ 109, 110, 113, 117,
118, 119).
When the feet are involved great care must be taken to see that
they are kept clean and dry and regularly washed with some antiseptic
astringent lotion, such as carbolic lotion (1—60), corrosive sublimate
(1—1,000), etc. (see Formulae no to 113, 115).
The feet should then be dressed with any of the following :—Cam-
phorated oil No. 122, carbolic oil No. 121, ointment of eucalyptus
No. 128, or iodoform powder No. 64. Failing these, common tar
and earth oil or kerosine oil in equal parts makes a good dressing.
The feet should be covered with antiseptic or clean tow and
bandaged, and over all a clean dry gunny bag should be tied or boots
provided. Steel* notes that should a hoof-slipper be cast the case
is not to be given up as hopeless. The horny investment of the
foot is so simple that it can well be reproduced in the course of
time.
With care and watchfulness the ulcers of the feet and trunk may
be prevented from becoming the seat of maggots. The disease is not
a fatal one as a rule, but if care be not taken neglected cases prove
* " A Manual of the Diseases of the Elephant"—J. H. Steel, 1885.
ELEPHANT-POX.
315
serious and tedious. The bowels should be kept regular with mild
laxatives (see Formulae 23 to 28).
During convalescence tonics should be given, such as—
Common salt
...
Ginger
...
...
Chirreta
Aniseed
...
1½ oz.
1
oz.
½ oz.
2 drs.
Twice daily.
Also 8 ounces of country spirit twice a day.
(For tonics see Formulae 39 to 46.)
NOTE.—As this disease is more or less prevalent amongst the cattle in Burma
the symptoms are given for ready reference. The disease attacks cattle, sheep,
goats, pigs, etc., and man may contract it by drinking the milk of affected animals.
The vernacular names for the disease are
(sha-na, kwa-na).
Symptoms.—Shivering fit, fever, smacking of the lips, discharge of ropy saliva,
vesicular eruption in the mouth, tongue, palate, gums, cheeks, sometimes also on
the udder and where the skin is thinnest; stamping of the feet, lameness ; the
eruption occurs in the form of vesicles around the coronet and between the claws.
It sometimes happens that only the mouth is affected, at others only the feet, but
usually both are involved. In sheep, goats and pigs the feet are more often
affected than the mouth.
Differential diagnosis—May in cattle be mistaken for rinderpest, but in foot-
and-mouth disease there is an absence of dysenteric symptoms, which are invariably
present in rinderpest. In foot-and-mouth disease the feet are nearly always
attacked, but never so in rinderpest. Both diseases may co-exist in the same
animal although this is rare.
ELEPHANT-POX.
This is a specific fever characterised by eruptions somewhat
similar to small-pox in man, but there is no evidence to prove that
it is communicated from man or vice versa.
The eruptions begin
as pimples, then become blebs or blisters, with clear fluid contents.
Later the contents consist of matter. Finally they burst, leaving
sores which tend to scab.
Prognosis.—Good, especially in adults.
Symptoms.—Fever with its attendant signs as mentioned under
that condition and the eruptions above alluded to. I have seen only
one case, namely, at Pakôkku. This animal came in from the direc-
tion of Gangaw. He was reported sick immediately on arrival.
The mahout stated that the elephant had been out of sorts for some
days, when suddenly this " heat " eruption appeared ; also that the
animal was weak and listless. The elephant was in good condition,
316
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
"but his forehead, trunk, mouth, chest and shoulders, and a few places
on the rump were covered with an eruption which had then arrived
at the pustular stage.
Treatment : Preventive.—As
laid down under anthrax, i.e.,
segregation, etc.
Curative : General.—As laid clown for fever.
Local.—Cleanliness, washing with weak disinfectants, such as
carbolic acid, or phenyle (1—60) and afterwards dressing with
carbolized oil (see Formula 121 and camphorated oil 122). All
soiled dressings must be treated as in cases of anthrax, namely, be
burned.
CHAPTER VIII.
RABIES. TETANUS. TUBERCULOSIS.
RABIES.
Rabies is a specific disease caused by the introduction into the
system of a specific poison, through the bite of an animal, generally
that of a clog, but jackals and wolves may also communicate it. It
is a rare affection amongst elephants. The following case was com-
municated to Dr. Gilchrist by a mahout personally acquainted with
the facts :—" A mad dog, about five years ago, appeared in the
elephant lines at Hyderabad. It attempted to bite several elephants,
but was by each driven away. During the night it attacked an
elephant when asleep and bit it on the trunk. The bite marks having
been distinctly observed next day, a little oil was applied, but nothing
more was done and nothing particular occurred till a month after the
infliction of the bite, when decided symptoms of delirium, as
described under the head ' Ahren Bhao,' suddenly supervened.
During the first three days the animal took fodder, ratib and water,
but afterwards took nothing. It did not appear to be afraid of water,
as it drew it into its trunk and squirted it about, but did not drink
any. It continued furious for two days, not allowing even the
mahout to approach, after which it fell down and died suddenly.
On the same occasion another elephant died fifteen days after the
one above alluded to, with the same symptoms, but it was not clearly
known whether the animal had been bitten by the dog, though it was
one of those it attempted to bite. The above cases occurred about
the month of October. A man and bullock had been bitten by the
same dog, and both died mad."
Quite recently a most interesting case came under the observa-
tion of Mr. H. F. Bowden, Bombay Burma Trading Corporation, to
whom I am indebted for notes on the case.
On the 8th of June 1909, while a young trained calf was being
bathed in a creek, a stray dog, said to be mad, was being chased
by the villagers of Thabya-bin village. The dog ran towards the
calf ; on seeing the animal approaching she got up and, as the dog
was passing, made a charge. The dog sprang at the elephant inflict-
ing a severe bite under the left eye and made off. As the dog
was reported to have bitten three villagers and some cattle, precau-
tionary measures were taken, i.e., the animal was removed to the
318
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
jungle, well fettered and watched. The wound was as soon as
possible bathed with strong phenyle and water, regularly dressed and
healed in the usual manner. Nothing unusual beyond that the
attendant considered the animal had got a little thin was observed
till the 4th July, on which date the animal became exceedingly rest-
less, refusing to eat or drink anything. On the 5th she frequently
screamed and gave utterance to most unusual noises, also lying down
at intervals. The seat of the bite was noticed to be swollen. No
one could approach, as she was more or less unmanageable. A watery
discharge dripped continuously from the trunk.
On the 6th, the animal was very violent and made four desperate
efforts to break away. She was continuously butting and kicking at
imaginary objects, which from her circular motion were apparently
following her from behind. Her condition was such that Mr. Bowden
intended to shoot the animal. During the afternoon, however, her
strength seemed to be flagging, and on approaching" cautiously the
mouth and tongue were noticed to be bluish in colour and a large
quantity of sticky saliva was being discharged from the mouth. The
end of the trunk was noticed to be raw.
On the 7th, the animal appeared to regain strength, but about
10 A.M. she went down, and started grovelling on the ground and
(as narrated) snapping at the air. She rapidly became exhausted and
died at 1 P.M.
An account of a case is also contributed to the " Oriental
Sporting Magazine " by Captain F. H. Hood, B.S.C., Volume III.
Treatment.—Should
an elephant chance to be bitten by a dog,
the wound should be thoroughly cauterized without delay with pure
carbolic acid and dressed with carbolic lotion 1 in 40, or a very
strong solution of lunar caustic, or the wound may be cauterized with
a hot iron. Liquid caustics are preferable to solid. (Also see
Formulae 57 to 60.) Soiled dressings should be burned.
The elephant should be removed to a distance from habitations,
well secured, and kept under constant observation.
The early symptoms are excessive restlessness, trembling, convul-
sive twitchings ; a desire to break away ; later on, inability to swallow.
On the manifestation of any extraordinary behaviour, extra shackles
should be applied and the animal destroyed without delay.
TETANUS OR LOCK-JOW.
Definition.—An
infective disease due to the entrance into the
blood of a poison generated by a germ, the tetanus bacillus. This
disease is rare in these creatures.
TUBERCULOSIS.
319
Incubation—Varies from a few hours to several days.
Prognosis.—Unfavourable
; usually fatal.
Causes.—Absorption
of the germ through an abraded surface,
wounds, sores and particularly punctured wounds about the feet.
This germ remains local and does not enter the blood.
Symptoms.—Dulness,
stiffness of the muscles about the jaws,
stiffness in movement, sunken eyeballs, timidity, hypersensitiveness
to sounds, with repeated attacks of violent spasms of the muscles
of the body and often irregular fever. The most characteristic
symptom after spasms is the partial or complete locked condition of
the jaw.
Gilchrist states there is full power of moving the trunk, but the
movements of the ears are not so free as in health.
Treatment : Preventive : Segregation.—Though
it is a less con-
tagious disease, infection has been known to attach itself to certain
stables for years.
Curative : (a) Local.—Careful inspection for abrasions, sores,
and if found careful cleansing with carbolic lotion (1 to 40),
cauterization with pure carbolic acid and careful dressing. Search
should be made for thorns, splinters, and if found removed, and
wounds treated as above.
(b) General.—Isolate, preferably in a quiet dark shady place.
Quietude as perfect as can be arranged for is one of the most essential
points in furthering a favourable issue. Clean water, freshly-made
gruel and some tempting fresh fodder should be placed within easy
reach. When possible a brisk purgative should be given by the
mouth ; if not possible by this means, remove the dung from the
rectum and give an enema, a pint and half of castor-oil (Formulae
77 to 80). Powdered henbane leaves or seeds in 2-dr. closes may
prove beneficial. Take of extract of belladonna 4 drachms and
glycerine 1 ounce, water 2 drachms and rub the mixture into the
muscles of jaws. Unnecessary interference in these cases is to be
deprecated.
All dressings when removed must be placed in a proper recep-
tacle (never on the ground or floor) and subsequently burned under
supervision, and the receptacle cleansed with carbolic solution (1 in
40).
TUBERCULOSIS.
Tubercular disease is so far as I am aware extremely rare in the
elephant probably owing to his mode of life. However, that it may
occur is proved by an interesting case which was reported by
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A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Dammann and Stedefer* of one of two elephants which were sent to
the surgical clinique of the Hanover Veterinary School in July 1908
for the treatment of wounds about the feet. It is stated that the
larger of these two elephants died in August 1908 as a result of
blood poison (septicæmia) arising possibly from the wounds. The
post-mortem examination revealed tuberculosis of the lungs and of
the bodies of several vertabræ.
The result of the bacteriological examination, according to Dam-
mann and Stedefer, seemed to show that the disease was of human
origin, which is not surprising, seeing how fond people are of feeding
animals in captivity. It does not require much demonstration to
show that the consumption of food offered by tuberculous persons may
lead to the animal being infected. From the report quoted it does
not appear that the elephant in question showed any symptom of
tubercular disease during life. In any case the disease is not likely
to be diagnosed in the jungle.
* Dammann and Stedefer, Deuts. Tierarztl, Wochens, June 12th, 1909,
page 345.
CHAPTER IX.
EPIDEMIC PNEUMONIA. EPIDEMIC DYSENTERY. RINDERPEST
IN CATTLE.
EPIDEMIC
PNEUMONIA.
This is based on the description of an epidemic in 1839 on the
coast of Tenasserim and recorded by Dr. MacDonald.
Many elephants were attacked simultaneously, and at that time
bullocks were suffering from apparently the same disease. The
mortality was very high ; no symptoms are recorded, but on post-
mortem usually one lung was found extensively diseased, the other
" pretty healthy," which leads one to infer that it was not quite
healthy. The diseased portions of lung were engorged, and in colour
varied from florid red to black. Referring to the works I have had
access to, it is significant that no other author has seen a similar
outbreak. The post-mortem appearances recorded are more or less
compatible with cases of pulmonary anthrax.
EPIDEMIC DYSENTERY OR MURRAIN.
Such a condition has been described, which does not differ in
symptoms or treatment from the above, but as it attacks several
animals simultaneously it may be regarded as infectious, and beasts so
affected must be isolated with the same precautions as laid down
under " Anthrax." The mortality mentioned is 80 per cent.
I have never seen this condition in elephants, but have met with a
similar condition among buffaloes in this province at the end of the
hot season, when after the first few showers the young grass crops
up rapidly. It may be due to the entrance of a micro-organism.
The disease was as fatal as severe cattle-plague.
RINDERPEST—CATTLE PLAGUE.
The following is an extract from the report of the Imperial
Bacteriologist to the Government of India for the year 1906-07 :—
" Insusceptibility of the Indian Elephant to Rinderpest.
" In order to determine whether elephants are susceptible to
21
32 2
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
rinderpest and suffer from the disease during outbreaks amongst
cattle and other animals, a female elephant, in perfect health and
condition, normal temperature ranging between 36 0 and 37.3° C,
was subcutaneously inoculated with 500 c.c. of virulent defi-
brinated blood obtained from a hill bull, the subject of well-marked
rinderpest. A diffused swelling occurred at the seat of inoculation,
which has decreased in extent after a period of twenty-four hours
and only a slight thickening of the skin was perceptible a few clays
later. No rise in temperature was recorded, and the animal never
exhibited any untoward symptom of any kind during the following
twenty-three days."
This experiment on one animal only can hardly be regarded as
conclusive evidence that the elephant does not contract rinderpest,
as this particular animal may have been naturally insusceptible or
have been immunized by a previous attack. There is reason to
believe, however, that elephants are insusceptible. I have never
heard of nor seen a case, and in Burma it would have been impos-
sible for some of the vast number of elephants so frequently exposed
to contagion to escape contracting rinderpest. Nevertheless, it
may not be time wasted to give a summary of the symptoms of this
disease, as foresters generally employ a considerable number of
buffaloes in addition to elephants, and when they get rinderpest
among the former—being unacquainted with the signs and con-
sidering it to be some fatal malady likely to affect their elephants
also—very often throw them out of work and remove them to a safe
distance. In order that they may be able to recognize the disease
and thus save anxiety and expense of keeping their elephants idle,
the following facts with regard to it may be noted :—
NOTE.—
Vernacular names for disease in cattle.
(Kut-na).
(Mo-kya-n
(Ka-ba-na).
(Ka-la-na).
(Thwe-thun-wun-kya-na).
Incubation.—Three to seven days after exposure to contagion.
Duration.—Three to eight or nine days usually, but cases may run on to fifteen
days or so.
Symptoms.—Generally divided into three stages. It should be remembered
all the symptoms enumerated are not invariably present, but if carefully looked
for many will be observed.
First stage.—Considerable rise in bodily temperature, pulse and respiration
accelerated, dulness, drooping ears, rough coat, back arched and feet drawn
together, shivering and twitching of groups of muscles, tenderness over the spine.
The animal is more or less off food, there is no. marked thirst, and chewing the
cud is slow and irregular. The mucous membrane of mouth is congested, the
bowels constipated, urine high-coloured.