NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
CHAPTER II.
GENERAL INDICATIONS OF ILL-HEALTH.
After what has been said about the elephant in health, it will
be as well before discussing individual diseases to enumerate some
of the major indications of indisposition commonly displayed :—
(1) Dulness.—This
is probably the first indication likely to
attract notice and is shown by the cessation of the usual restless
movements of the trunk, ears, limbs and body so characteristic of
health, and should at once be detected by any observant attendant.
This symptom is evinced in most constitutional disturbances espe-
cially the acute diseases. It is also manifested in many local
conditions, unless of a trivial character, the detection of which
should call for an immediate investigation concerning the tempera-
ture, pulse, respirations and excretions.
(2) Fever.—Experience
has taught me that most of those
concerned in the care of elephants have not grasped the vast impor-
tance of taking the body temperature. Owners should insist on
this being done. Too much stress cannot be laid on this important
matter and much loss ensues owing to neglect of this precaution.
A special heat-regulating apparatus maintains the body temperature
with slight variation at a definite elevation.
The production in
and loss of heat from the body is to all intents and purposes about
equal. If the temperature rises, and this rise is maintained for
any time, it shows that this special heat-regulating apparatus
is disturbed by some disease ; therefore as an aid to diagnosis its
significance as a symptom is of considerable moment. In an out-
break of contagious disease the regular use of the thermometer
will more than repay those who take the trouble to avail themselves
of this great aid; as one of the very first symptoms is a rise
in temperature, the cases can be treated as suspicious, taken in
hand at once and what is still more important early segregation can
be enforced thereby, in all probability saving other animals and
stamping the disease out. It is desirable whenever possible to
take the temperature regularly at the same hour and to record it
twice daily, 7 A.M. and 5 P.M. or 8 A.M. and 6 P.M. As a general
rule the temperature is slightly lower in the morning than in the
evening. Variations of a few tenths of a degree may normally occur
in a single day. The temperature of the elephant is normally about
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A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
97.4° F. to about 98° F. or 36-6° C. Anything above this con-
stitutes fever and a temperature of 100° F. indicates considerable
fever; a rise of four or five degrees a grave condition. Very high
temperatures may on rare occasions be met with in heat-stroke, lock
jaw and in some contagious diseases. Subnormal temperatures are
also uncommon ; they are generally met with in cases of severe
haemorrhage and before death.
Fever and high temperature are usually considered synonymous
terms, but the latter is only one of the many symptoms connected
with the complex condition known as fever. It must be distinctly
understood that fever is not a disease in itself: merely a symptom
which may arise from manifold conditions. It accompanies almost
all acute constitutional ailments resulting from whatever cause,
such as anthrax, hæmorrhagic septicaemia and kindred ailments,
heat-stroke, chills, all forms of blocd poisoning, etc., but may also
attend conditions which are purely local, such as an abscess beneath
the skin, inflammations, wounds and other injuries. The degree of
fever in elephants is measured by the insertion of a thermometer
into the rectum ; but this is as may be imagined sometimes by no
means the easy operation it is in other animals owing to the extreme
suspicion and nervousness displayed, in fact it is quite impossible in
the case of some animals. The method recommended is as follows:
A large number of elephants are not averse from having some of the
contents of the rectum evacuated artificially, that is by the oosi or
mahout inserting his arm previously anointed with some lubricant.
A good mahout can generally accomplish this and after having
removed some dung can introduce the thermometer without trouble.
Another method is to divert suspicion by going through the operation
of harnessing or loading, and at the same time offer sweetmeats,
sugarcane, etc. As the anus or fundament is surrounded by much
loose hanging skin, care must be observed to see that the hand
carrying the thermometer is inserted well into the rectum where it
should remain for at least a minute. If the animal be worried and
excited, the temperature may temporarily be slightly raised. No
special thermometer is required : an ordinary clinical thermometer
suffices. Hauptner's * " Reform " thermometers are well suited for
working with elephants. They are excellent and cheap, are 4"
long, with glass scale encased in tube ; a cord can be attached.
Care should be taken to shake down the mercurial column to 95 0 F.,
or if a centigrade thermometer be used, to 35°C. before introducing
it. It is necessary to wash a thermometer thoroughly, preferably
* Messrs. Hauptner & Co., Surgical Instrument Makers, N. W. Luisent-
Strasse, 53, Berlin.
GENERAL INDICATIONS OF ILL-HEALTH.
167
in a disinfecting solution after use, to obviate the risk of infecting
sound animals. Nowadays the centigrade thermometer is coming
into general use.
[To convert Fahrenheit into Centigrade, subtract 32, multiply by 5, and divide
by 9 ; and to convert Centigrade into Fahrenheit, multiply by 9 and divide by 5
and add 32.]
Should no thermometer be at hand, there are other indications
which after long practice may lead one to a correct conclusion as to
the presence of fever ; these are—(a) shivering or chill often passed
unnoticed is frequently a precursor of fever; (b) uneven surface
temperature of the body, i.e., either the trunk, ears or extremities
may be cold whilst the body is hot, or may be alternately hot and
cold, and the skin of the trunk contracted and shrivelled ; (c) loss of
appetite ; (d) dryness of mouth and evident thirst ; (e) constipation ;
(f) scanty and deep-coloured muddy urine ; (g) unusual redness of
the membranes of the mouth and palate ; (h) watery and red-
dened eyes; (i) acceleration of the pulse, which normally beats from
46 to 50 per minute ; (k) change of colour of skin which becomes
lighter, any white spots about trunk becoming paler ; (/) general
depression.
Treatment.—It
has been already pointed out that fever is a
symptom and not a disease, and this being borne in mind, the first
indication in regard to treatment is to ascertain if possible its cause,
and when this is found to remove it. Until the cause has been
discovered, one's energies must be directed towards reducing the
temperature to normal limits, and this may be effected in the follow-
ing ways: First as a matter of routine, a brisk purgative should be
given and the bowels must be kept open throughout the attack, i.e.,
there should be some action of the bowels daily (see Formulae 23
to 38).
It must however be understood that after a strong purgative
reaction, frequently occurs, during which no dung is passed for
several hours ; should this extend over a day or two, a repeti-
tion of the dose may be given, but in a much milder form or
better still enemas may be employed to bring about action of the
bowels.
In addition to the instructions laid down for general treatment
of sick elephants, the following prescriptions may be tried :—
Nitrate of Potash
Chlorate of Potash
Rum
Tamarind or jaggery
... } ½ oz. of each.
... 6 ozs.
... A sufficiency.
Made into a bolus or given in water twice a day.
168
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Nitrate of Potash
Common Salt ...
Aniseed
Tamarind or jaggery
... ½ oz.
...
2
ozs.
... ½ oz.
... A sufficiency.
Give twice a day in bolus.
Salammoniac ...
Cardamoms
Ginger
...½ oz. of each.
Give twice daily.
Aconite leaves, powdered
Calomel
Jaggery
... 3 drs.
... 6 drs.
... 8 ozs.
Divide into eight pills ; give one every night.
Also see " Diuretics " and " Mussauls."
Any stimulant may be given every few hours.
(3) Pain.—This
may be suspected when the animal groans
frequently without any evident reason. Its locality is sometimes
revealed by the behaviour as for instance when pain is in a limb
that member is favoured, evidenced by being lifted with caution or
carried stiffly during progression; if in the abdomen, manifest
uneasiness is shown by frequently lying down and getting up, biting
the trunk or keeping the tip in the mouth for some time, or by other
unusual behaviour sometimes taking up extraordinary positions, etc.
Treatment.—May
be local or general. The former is best
practised by the application of heat to the part, and hot water is
usually the handiest and best agent to use ; also see Part III, Formula
76, and for general treatment see Formulæ 1 to 6.
(4) Appetite.—May be partially or completely lost, or may be
depraved as shown by eating earth, which symptom must be care-
fully distinguished from a custom amongst many wild animals which
visit "salt-licks" and eat earth to obtain salt.
(5) Debility—Like
fever is a symptom indicative of disease
rather than a disease per se, and may be brought about by a multi-
plicity of causes which may be of a very variable nature, and may
be summed up as follows :—
Causes.—(a) Condition of life.—From
liberty to captivity,
necessitating as it does an artificial in lieu of a natural existence.
(b) Diet.—Food
may be insufficient in quantity, lacking in
quality or variety. Salt, a most necessary ingredient, may not be
allowed or if allowed may be insufficient, often being appropriated
by the attendants (a very frequent fault).
(c) Overwork.—Either
as regards overtaxing of strength, or to
GENERAL INDICATIONS OF ILL-HEALTH.
169
mild work carried on for many hours at a stretch and therefore
curtailing the time for feeding, sleep and rest.
(d) Insanitary conditions.—Want
of cleanliness in standings,
sheds and surroundings.
(e) Worms.—That is internal parasites, by depriving the animal
of nutriment, or actually robbing him of his blood.
(f) Abuse of drugs.—-Gilchrist states that this condition may
be induced by the excessive use of mercurial preparations which
some mahouts undoubtedly are fond of employing.
(g) Suppurating wounds.—When these are extensive or chronic,
the constant discharges issuing therefrom cause a drain on the
system.
Debility in some degree must of necessity accompany all consti-
tutional ailments and is the outcome of profound changes in the
constitution of the blood. Every one must have heard the adage
"blood is life "; it necessarily follows that the vitality and nutrition
of every structure and organ of the body must depend on the
quality and quantity of this fluid supplied to them. When this is
lacking in quality or quantity, the organs and vital processes from
poverty of nutriment are unable to perform their functions as
satisfactorily as in health.
Debility is directly therefore the
outcome of depravity of the blood and is shown in very many ways.
Symptoms : Weakness.—Which
may vary from mere listless-
ness, restlessness at night and unwillingness to work, to prostration
or utter helplessness.
2. Anætnia (bloodlessness).—Which may vary from slight pallor
of the mucous membranes to extreme blanching.
3. Emaciation.—Which
may only be so slight that the natural
depressions and projections of the surface are accentuated, or so
pronounced that the beast becomes a skeleton.
4. The heart.—Owing to the inferior quality of blood supplied
for its own nutrition, becomes weakened and unable to perform its
functions satisfactorily, hence those parts furthest removed, especi-
ally the tail, and those with paucity of circulation, the ears, may
suffer ulceration or actual destruction (mortification). The pulse
becomes weak ; respiration is hurried, the animal pants on the least
exertion, and if pressed may drop dead (heart failure) ; dropsical
swellings, thut (ogdS), frequently occur owing to the watery condi-
tion of the blood "permitting a leakage or sweating of this fluid
through the walls of the vessels into the tissues surrounding them.
The fluid then by force of gravity occupies the most dependent
parts. In the case of cavities such as the abdomen, it may collect
in large quantities constituting what is known as dropsy. Gilchrist
and Forsyth have noted that sores and extensive sloughing of the
170
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
external genital organs sometimes occur as a result of this dropsical
effusion into the tissues.
The impoverished state of the blood and feeble circulation may
sometimes produce sloughing or mortification of a portion of the
ears and end of tail.
5. The digestive apparatus in like manner suffers, and in
consequence we may find loss of appetite or depraved appetite,
fœtid breath, and not infrequently diarrhoea of a foetid character.
6. The urinary organs from the same cause fail in their
functions and the characters of the urine may become altered. It
may be excessive and clear, or scanty, white, muddy and syrupy.
7. The skin too partakes in this general alteration. We
find it rough, harsh, scurfy and unduly wrinkled ; the hair is readily
removed, especially that on the tail, or may fall out ; sores may
break out on its surface and swellings occur beneath it such as an
eruption of boils, particularly on the belly and knee joints, in the
condition known to Indians as sukka zahirbad (i.e., where dropsy
is not a pronounced symptom). The boils may or may not burst.
Burmans anxiously watch for the boils to come to a head and burst;
if they disappear without bursting they give the animal up.
Debility as seen in its most aggravated form exhibits a train of
symptoms almost exactly coinciding with those recorded by many
Indian authors under the name of zahirbad.
Whether this is a specific disease or not as some would have
us believe is a matter of doubt, but the very symptoms noted to
characterize that disease are met with in cases of debility pure and
simple.
In many ailments of the elephant there is a marked tendency to
glandular enlargements and swellings, and in my experience I have
come into contact with cases of debility pure and simple which
have advanced so rapidly that it has led me to think, as it may have
done others, that there was some specific cause. When a number
are attacked simultaneously, such suspicions are no doubt justified,
but at the same time it must not be lost sight of that the defective
conditions in general management, feeding, shelter, may have been
shared by ail and therefore all may suffer alike.
Owners might help in clearing up much of the present obscurity
by recording symptoms and collecting for examination specimens of
the blood in fatal cases, the instructions concerning which have
been fully laid down in Part V, page 283.
Preventive treatment.—It follows from the remarks made with
regard to possible causes, that enquiries must be made into every
detail concerning recent general treatment and anything at fault
corrected. Early recognition is of the first importance, and any
GENERAL INDICATIONS OF ILL-HEALTH.
171
animal found the least out of condition should be given a rest by
sending him away into the jungle.
Curative : {a) General.—Rest from work, gentle walking exer-
cise morning and evening according to strength. The body must
be washed daily and kept thoroughly clean. The state of the
bowels must be watched and any tendency to constipation corrected
by administration of laxatives (see Formulæ—Laxatives or aperients,
23 to 28, or Enemas, 77 to 80).
Thirst should be relieved by always keeping a tub of fresh
water near the standing. A liberal allowance of good food, which
must occasionally be varied, and also an allowance of salt is neces-
sary, in addition to which tempting diet such as sugarcane, fruit,
may be given with advantage as also wheaten cakes or chupatties or
bread, 5 or 6 lbs., morning and evening. Diuretics (see Formulae
16 to 22) may be tried, and if the appetite is bad, Cordials (see
Formulae 11 to 15) and stimulants such as rum or whisky in
8-ounce doses twice or thrice daily should be given. In most diseases
of elephants the use of stimulants is to be advocated, as being
an animal of a lymphatic nature the exhibition of medicines of this
class do not seem to have an ill-effect at any time. During
convalescence a course of tonics is indicated, especially the pre-
parations of arsenic, iron or copper mixed with vegetable bitters
or aromatics—see Formulae 39 to 46. Also dilute nitric acid in
doses of one to three drachms in a bucket of water, or dilute
sulphuric acid in similar doses once daily, or iodide of iron in
2-drachm doses once a day.
If worms are the cause, for treatment see Part III, Formulae 47
to 53.
(b) Local.—When the dropsy under the skin of the belly tends
to become tense and the area is extensive, the skin may be stabbed
in several places to allow the fluid to drain away. This is best
done by protecting a knife by winding round the blade, tow, cloth,
or string so as to leave only half to three-quarters of an inch of the
blade exposed, so that when stabbing the part it cannot go deep
enough to cause injury. The stabs should be four or five inches apart.
This done, the parts should be fomented and afterwards dressed
with anti-fly preparations—see Formulae 122, 123, and 128 to 130.
A trocar and canula may also be employed for tapping the fluid.
Blood-letting.—This
consists in the abstraction of blood from the
system locally or generally. It is not recommended in elephants.
The objects are—
{a) to reduce the action of the heart and so the force of
the circulation ;
(b) to reduce the quantity of blood in the system.
172
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
Blood when abstracted is taken from the vessel behind the ear
or from the large vein on the inside of the thigh in cases such as
apoplexy, heatstroke. The animal having been carefully fettered,
the part is washed and a string is tightly tied round the limb above
where it is intended to open the vessel; this raises the vein. An
incision must be made through the skin and the vein opened.
Elephants cannot afford to stand a large abstraction of blood ; the
state of the animal and condition of the pulse should denote when
enough has been taken.
Failure of the heart and collapse, and anaemia from excessive
loss of blood, are the more imminent dangers likely to result from
injudicious blood-letting.
CHAPTER III.
STOMATITIS. DISORDERS OF THE TEETH. CONGESTION AND
INFLAMMATION OF THE TEMPORAL GLANDS.
STOMATITIS OR INLAMMATION OF THE MOUTH.
Causes.—A result of impaired nutrition due to enfeebled diges-
tive power, local irritation, contact with acrid plants, etc.
Symptoms.—Loss
of appetite which may be actual or only
apparent owing to the soreness of the mouth, an investigation of
which reveals in the early stages increased redness but later on
actual sores. The condition is generally attended by constipation.
Treatment: Local.— If the animal will permit, wash the mouth
out with permanganate of potash, 2 grains to the pint, or alum
1 drachm to the pint, or borax 10 grains to the ounce, or chlorate of
potash 10 grains to the ounce; failing this the same remedies
reduced to half the above strength must be brought into contact with
the inflamed surfaces through the drinking water. The addition of
a little sugar may entice the animal to take it. Borax and chlorate
of potash in equal parts mixed with sugar or honey is perhaps the
most tasteless and may be rubbed in the mouth every hour.
General.—Plenty
of fresh gruel and soft food ; keep the bowels
regular, and give tonics (Part III, Formulae 39 to 46).
DISORDERS AND IRREGULARITIES OF THE TEETH.
Causes.—A frequent cause of trouble is the formation of tumours
which are simply due to an abnormal and excessive development of
parts of the teeth. They may assume considerable dimensions.
Owing to their interference with the process of mastication, great
loss of condition may ensue. It is one of the causes of indigestion,
colic and debility.
Symptoms.—Difficulty in mastication ; very often half masticated
food is dropped from the mouth; general unthriftiness.
Treatment.—The
only method of any avail is removal by opera-
tion. The animal to be operated on must be made to assume the
recumbent position, be properly secured ; a gag having been applied,
the mouth should be carefully inspected. The growths may be
174
A
TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
removed with a fret or other fine saw ; the working of the saw is
greatly facilitated by dripping water on it from a sponge or cloth.
Small growths may be removed with a cold chisel. The diet of
course should be as soft and nutritious as is procurable.
Occasionally a tooth may be displaced from its normal position
owing to the presence of some morbid growth about the root or
fang, and thus interfere with mastication by its irregularity; or from
the animal lacerating the mucous membrane during mastication ;
loss of condition follows. The offending portion when possible
should be removed with a saw.
Owing to the peculiar manner in which the teeth are replaced,
the front ones loosen and are shed. This is termed koochlie by
the Indian mahouts. It is a natural process.
Carious teeth.—Caries of the fang of a tooth does occasionally
occur. In the case of a wild elephant I shot, observing a tumour
on the lower jaw, I examined it and found that it proceeded
from the fang of a molar tooth which was in a very diseased condi-
tion. This elephant was given to roaming about alone and was
not in very good condition. The tusk on the same side was also
extensively diseased.
While on the subject of teeth it will be convenient to consider
the tusks.
It is sometimes necessary to cut off a portion of one or both of
the tusks; for instance when they are badly split, or cross one
another. The operation is simple an ordinary saw being used ; the
saw is kept constantly wet with a stream of water. Hawkes gives the
following directions for finding the proper place to cut the tusks :—
" Measure with a bit of twine the distance from the eye to the inser-
tion of the tusk in the lip: this length measured from the latter point
along the tusk will give the spot where it should be cut. Some-
times, however, especially in young animals, this site is too near
the root, as the pulp of the tusk may reach beyond the point
thus fixed, in which case it bleeds after the operation and fre-
quently causes the tusk to split and decay." The advice given by
Colonel Hawkes is very sound ; the tendency with Indian mahouts
is to suggest cutting off the tusk a bit too close. Care should
therefore be taken to cut off too little rather than too much.
Should the whole tusk split up to the root as sometimes happens,
the Indian mahouts recommend that it should be completely cut off
at the point where it touches the gum and this has been done with
great relief to the animal.—(Hawkes.)
If a tusk shows any tendency to split, it should be capped with
brass or iron, or an iron band applied; this can be put on hot and
shrunk on as a tyre is applied, but of course the temperature should