NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
224 Serum Protein Fractions of Normal & Deficiency Diet Cattle
convenience over the previously known ' salting out', ' refractometric' and
colorimetric' methods. By this technique, euglobulin is precipitated by
15 per cent, pseudoglobulin 1 by 18 per cent, and total globulin and pseudo-
globulin 11 by 21 per cent aqueous solution of anhydrous sodium sulphite.
The mixture of serum and sodium sulphite is allowed to stand in a water
bath at 37° C. for ten minutes. Duplicate observations have, however,
been found to agree very satisfactorily if the serum and sodium sulphite
solutions are thoroughly well shaken together and left at room temperature
for about 15 minutes, and then filtered through a double layer of Whatman
filter paper No. 42. This process economizes a considerable amount of time
as compared with Howe's [1921, 1923] method where precipitation and filtra-
tion are carried out in an oven at 37° C. The first few ml. of the filtrate are
refiltered. The nitrogen estimation of the filtrates is made by the Kjeldhal¬
Gunning method and the results calculated by difference.
It may be pointed out that none of the previous methods involving
separation of proteins by salting out techniques and determination of the
nitrogen content of the precipitate, takes account of the fact that nitrogen
containing lipids are carried down in the precipitate. This is, of course,
eliminated when proteins are estimated from the filtrates.
The animals for control observations were drawn from the Institute
dairy herd, and were apparently in normal health. These animals were kept
on an adequate and well-balanced ration. The vitamin A deficient animals
were kept on a carotene poor ration to deplete their vitamin A body reserves.
One of these experimental animals was a cow which was kept on this ration
since 18 October 1936 and the other a calf born on 23 June 1935 to a cow
which was maintained on such a ration since 1 March 1931. This calf was
congenitally blind and had been kept on carotene poor ration since birth.
The other two batches of two each were maintained at a lower level of intake
of calcium and phosphorus for a period of about four years.
Blood was obtained by puncturing the jugular vein before giving any
feed to the animals. The serum was separated from the cells by centrifuga¬
lization, and only those sera which did not show any trace of hemolysis were
utilized. All estimations were made in duplicate.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table I shows the results of the estimation of the protein fractions of
normal cows and Tables II, III and IV of animals kept on a vitamin A,
calcium and phosphorus deficient rations respectively. These tables, giving
results of the protein fractions of animals on different deficiency diets, show
several points of interest when compared with those of the control animals.
It will be observed from Table V, which compares average value of various
protein fractions of the normal and the deficiency diet animals, that the total
protein, euglobulin and total globulin contents of the serum of vitamin A,
calcium and phosphorus deficient animals are considerably decreased as
compared with the normal. The amount of pseudoglobulin I is also
N. D. KEHAR 225
TABLE I
Serum protein fractions of normal cows. (The values are given in gm.
per cent)
Protein fractions
Total protein .
Non-protein nitrogen
Euglobulin . .
Pseudoglobulin I .
Pseudoglobulin II .
Total globulin .
Albumin . .
Albumin/globulin .
No. of the dairy cows
210
9.4
0.7
2.23
2.34
0.74
5.31
4.09
0.81
214
9.34
0.875
2.69
1.68
0.70
5.07
4.27
0.84
230
9.6
0.82
2.67
1.63
0.93
5.23
4.37
0.83
74
9.3
0.79
2.45
1.73
0.87
5.20
4.21
0.80
187
9.23
0.73
2.31
1.95
0.79
5.18
4.21
0.81
246
9.38
0.81
2.51
1.89
0.72
5.23
4.30
0.82
Average
9.34
0.79
2.47
1.87
0.79
5.22
4.31
0.82
TABLE II
Serum protein fractions of Vitamin A deficient animals. (The values are
given in gm. per cent)
Protein fractions
Total protein .
.
.
.
.
Non-protein nitrogen . . .
Euglobulin
.
.
.
.
.
Pseudoglobulin I . . . .
Pseudoglobulin II . . . .
Total globulin .
.
.
.
.
Albumin
.
.
.
.
.
Albumin/globulin
.
.
.
.
Calf No. 13
7.48
1.13
0.48
1.40
0.46
2.34
5.14
2.20
Cow No. 205
8.09
0.70
0.67
1.32
1.22
3.22
4.87
1.50
Average
7.79
0.91
0.58
1.36
0.84
2.78
5.00
1.88
226 Serum Protein Fractions of Normal & Deficiency Diet Cattle
TABLE III
Serum protein fractions of animals on a low calcium diet. (The values
are given in gm. per cent)
Protein fractions
Total protein
.
.
.
.
.
Non-protein nitrogen . . .
Euglobulin
. . . . .
Pseudoglobulin I . . . .
Pseudoglobulin II
.
.
.
.
Total globulin
.
.
.
.
.
Albumin
.
.
.
.
.
Albumin/globulin
.
.
.
.
Cow No. 207
7.87
. .
0.94
1.26
0.42
2.62
5.25
2.00
Cow No. 117
8.53
. .
0.66
1.85
0.42
2.93
5.60
1.98
Average
8.20
. .
0.80
1.55
0.42
2.72
5.42
1.99
TABLE IV
Serum protein fractions of animals on a low phosphorus diet. (The values
are given in gm. per cent)
Protein fractions
Total proteins .
.
.
.
.
Non-protein nitrogen . . .
Euglobulin
.
.
.
.
.
Pseudoglobulin I
. . . .
Pseudoglobulin II . . . .
Total globulin .
.
.
.
.
Albumin
.
.
.
.
.
Albumin/globulin
.
.
.
.
Cow No. 232
8.35
0.735
1.00
1.75
0.70
3.45
4.90
1.10
Cow No. 203
8.79
0.789
1.20
1.99
0.63
3.82
4.97
1.20
Average
8.52
0.761
1.10
1.87
0.66
3.63
4.93
1.15
comparatively less in the vitamin A and calcium deficient animals than in
the controls, though the phosphorus deficient animals show this constituent
of the same magnitude.
N. D. KEHAR 227
TABLE V
Average results of serum protein fractions of the normal and vitamin A,
calcium and phosphorus deficient animals. (The values are given in gm.
per cent)
Normal cows . . .
Vitamin A deficient cow and
calf.
Calcium deficient cows .
Phosphorus deficient cows .
Total protein
9.34
7.79
8.20
8.52
Non-protein
nitrogen
0.79
0.91
..
0.761
Euglobulin.
2.47
0.58
0.80
1.10
Pseudo¬
globulin I
1.87
1.36
1.55
1.81
Pseudo¬
globulin II
0.79
0.84
0.42
0.66
Total globulin
5.22
2.78
2.72
3.63
Albumin
4.31
5.00
5.42
4.93
Albumin/
globulin
0.82
1.88
1.99
1.15
Von Hosselen [1919] pointed out that the malnourished animals can use
to advantage only a limited quantity of protein. Any increment above the
minimum nitrogen equilibrium is less economically utilized. Bruckman,
D'Esopo and Peters [1930] found that malnourished patients indicated low
serum proteins. Rowe [1917] observed that excessive protein feeding does
not seem to increase the protein content of the serum of malnourished animals.
Prolonged under-nutrition can, however, produce a protein deficit in the blood
plasma.
Although the number of animals tried by us in this investigation is too
small to warrant any authentic statement, observations made at different
occasions, however, indicate that the malnourished animals show a signi-
ficant decrease in total proteins especially in total globulins in spite of the
ration being adequate with regard to protein sufficiency. Since globulin
fractions are associated with the antibody forming capacity of the animal,
it may be that the significant decrease in the amount of euglobulin and
pseudoglobulin I in the case of vitamin A deficient animals is probably res-
ponsible for making them more susceptible to infections.
Tables III, IV and V show that the total protein, euglobulin and total
globulin contents of the serum proteins of calcium and phosphorus
deficient animals is considerably less than the control animals, indicating
that a deficiency of calcium and phosphorus also leads to reduced nitrogen
equilibrium. It has been shown by McCance [1936, 1 and 2] that in man
salt deficiency leads to a disordered nitrogen balance. Peters and Van
Slyke [1931] summarize the views of various workers to indicate that other
††
factors remaining the same, serum Ca and P bear a reciprocal relation to one
another. Peters and Eiserson [1929] found that variations in the calcium,
protein and phosphorus contents of serum are interrelated to one another and
that deficiency of one of these constituents will seriously interfere with the
O
228 Serum Protein Fractions of Normal & Deficiency Diet Cattle
absorption and assimilation of the other constituents. As has been pointed
out in the case of vitamin A deficient animals that decreased amount of
immunologically active protein fractions lead to increased susceptibility of
the host to infections, the deficiency of calcium and phosphorus in a ration
over prolonged periods also appears to exercise a similar influence on the
globulin fractions and consequently on the body resistance of the host.
SUMMARY
In this investigation, total protein, total non-protein nitrogen, euglobulin,
pseudoglobulin I, pseudoglobulin II, total globulin and albumin of the sera
of normal cattle and also of those kept on vitamin A, calcium and phosphorus
deficient rations were estimated and it was found that the total protein,
euglobulin and total globulin fractions of serum of vitamin A, calcium and
phosphorus deficient animals are considerably decreased as compared to the
normal. Since the globulin fractions are associated with the antibody forming
capacity of the organism, it may be that the significant decrease in the amount
of euglobulin and pseudoglobulin I in the case of vitamin A deficient animals
is probably responsible for making them more susceptible to infections. A
similar condition, but to a lesser degree, was observed in the case of animals
maintained on calcium and phosphorus deficient rations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to express his gratitude to Mr J. R. Haddow, and
Mr R. L. Kaura, for their keen interest and valuable suggestions in the
development of this problem.
The technical assistance rendered by Mr Govind Rao, is highly
appreciated.
REFERENCES
Bruckman, F. S., D'Esopo, L. M. and Peters, J. P. (1930). J. Clin. Invest. 8, 577
Campbell, W. R. and Hanna, M. I. (1937). J. Biol. Chem. 119, 15
Cramer, W. (1930). Lancet, 1153-4
—and Kingsberry, A. N. (1924). Brit. J. Exptl. Path. 5, 300
Howe, P. E. (1921). J. Biol. Chem. 49, 93, 115
—(1923).
J. Biol. Chem. 57, 241
McCance, R. A. (1936). Proc. Roy. Soc. B. 119, 245
—(1936).
Lancet, 643, 704, 765, 823
McCollum E. V. (1917). J. A.M. Assoc. 68, 1379
—and
Simmonds, N. (1929). The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition, 352.
Macmillan & Co., New York
Peters, J. P. and Eiserson, L. (1929). J. Biol. Chem. 84, 155
—and
Van Slyke, D. D. (1931). Quantitative Clinical Chem. 812, Pt. I
and II. Bailliere, Tindall & Cox. London
Rowe, A. H. (1917). Arch. Int. Med. 19, 499
Turner, R. G. (1928). Proc. Soc. Expl. Biol. Med. 26, 233
—
(1929). J. Infec. Diseases 45, 208
—,
Anderson, D. E. and Loew, E. R. (1930). J. Infec. Diseases 46, 328
Von Hosselen, H. (1919). Arch. of Hyg. 88, 147. (Abst. Quantitative Clinical Chemistry.
Peters and Van Slyke 1931, 284)
SELECTED ARTICLE
THE CONCEPT OF INSTINCT
BY
Dr. J.A.LOESER
(Formerly Professor of Psychology, University of Berlin)
(Reprinted from the Nature, Vol. 143, 27 May 1939)
WHEN a hen has laid eggs for the first time in her life she immediately
sits on them. She does not know why she does this for she does not
consciously know what an egg is, nor what incubation is, nor can she take any
interest in the hatching of the future brood. Hitherto science has called
this a typical example of animal instinct. Without any consciousness of the
biological purpose, it is said the animal finds the right thing to do because
it was born with a mysterious instinct, which is inherited from the experience
gained by its ancestors in primeval times.
THE CONCEPT OF INSTINCT
What is the real truth of the matter ? Careful investigation has proved
that the animal certainly has personal motives for sitting, but they are not
biological ones. Shortly before the beginning of hatching time the animal's
breast shows the so-called hatching spot. Here the feathers fall out and there
is a bald spot which feels hot, as if from inflammation (probably caused by
hormones). This evidently causes the animal pain, for it seeks cooling sub-
stances, which must necessarily have a curved shape to be effective. After
the eggs have been laid, these offer what is required. But we may just as
well give the hen stones or billiard balls to sit upon; she will hatch them in
exactly the same way, because all she wants is to soothe the discomfort of
her body. It is also possible to soothe the' hatching irritation' in an entirely
different way, that is, by holding the animal's breast in cold water. These
are experiments which even the peasant knows and often makes for practical
reasons. Only a bird which has these ' spots ' sits on the eggs, and with many
species frequently it is the cock. Similarly, the bird takes no more interest
in its own eggs than in those of another bird, if these are put into its nest soon
enough to become familiar. There is, therefore, no such thing as purposeful
hatching. The hen only sits on her eggs while the irritation from the ' hatch-
ing spot' lasts. When the eggs have been hatched, others may be substituted,
and she will continue to sit on them. But when the irritation has ceased,
the hen does not continue to sit but forsakes the eggs, which decay.
Usually, however, this subjective conduct on the part of the bird serves
a purpose, for the consequence generally is that the eggs are hatched. The
hen turns the eggs so that she may sit on the cool parts, and without meaning
to do so she thus causes all parts of the egg to be equally warmed.
This example shows animal behaviour in an entirely new light. The
conclusions to be drawn from it are the following:—
(1) Every animal acts only in accordance with personal or subjective
impulses ; it only satisfies its personal needs. The hen merely
wishes to soothe the pain of the ' hatching spot '.
( 229 )
230
The Concept of Instinct
(2) The means to do this may vary a great deal; they are fundamentally
variable. It is a matter of indifference to the hen whether she
sits on eggs or on other subjects, or whether cold water is used
for satisfying her needs.
(3) Biological purposes are not aimed at, either consciously or un-
consciously, that is, instinctively. The ' personally ' motivated
behaviour is often biologically useless or harmful. The hen
is indifferent to the fate of the eggs. Frequently, however,
subjective (psychological) aims and objective (biological) pur-
poses coincide.
The theory of the psychological autonomy of action in all living creatures,
which I evolved on these lines a few years ago, cast doubt on all mechanistic
conceptions of human and animal behaviour and therefore to the ancient
conception of instinct, which had persisted for more than two thousand years.
This conception had completely dominated the theory of organic behaviour.
All actions were traced to fundamental instincts, even the actions of the
apparently free will, for at long last the motives for these too were believed
to consist in vital impulses.
In opposition to this conception, the new theory postulates the funda-
mental ' uniformity of all organic action' from the simplest reaction of the
Protozoa to the voluntary action of man. The prototype of all reaction,
indeed, is this voluntary action. Its principle is variability in the choice of
the means to obtain its ends.
The aim of voluntary action is always a personal motive, a psychological
experience, which represents the subjective reason for the reaction. The
motives themselves may be of an inferior or of a superior nature, that is at
present theoretically unimportant. Every organic action, therefore, is
merely the satisfaction of an impulse, without regard to the question as to
how far self-preservation and race-preservation, the two impulses generally
recognized in biology as the only influential ones, are guaranteed.
These two great unconscious motives in the theory of instinct and all
biological psychology must be eliminated ; they do not exist; they are neither
conscious nor unconscious impulses of organic behaviour. If then there is
no instinct as the imaginary basis of action, neither is there instinctive action
or reaction, in short no unconsciously suitable action (that is, no action for
the purpose of self-preservation or race-preservation); there is no pre-formed
reaction which intervenes, as an inherited factor, between the sensation and
its expression.
Only in a certain percentage of cases do self-preservation and race-
preservation occur in nature as the consequence of purely individual action.
VOLUNTARY AND REFLECTIVE ACTION
The first and fundamental question here is the transition of ideas in the
line which leads from true voluntary action (or action of the free will) by way
of rigid instinct, occasionally modifiable, it is true, yet essentially and funda-
mentally invariable, to true reflex action. If this continuous line cannot be
sharply divided, the result will always be : instinct is in the end a reflex¬
chain and the action of the will is only a relaxed action of the instinct; this
234
The Concept of Instinct.
For it is those individuals who have been most favourably predisposed from
the beginning which automatically survive through the process of selection.
There can scarcely be any question of a real stuggle). The theory which I
have propounded, that of the risk of organic life, is something fundamentally
different. For every organism, from the lowest to the highest, acts in con-
formity with it, according to the same principle of adaptation to circum-
stances under the aegis of subjective impulses and experiences. Thus we
have genuine reflection and genuine risk. We also have error as a necessary
ingredient of life, not as the abnormal breaking down of an automatic machine.
A real risk, and in consequence a real struggle worthy of the name, are only
possible where there is that which in its highest sense is called free will. It
always rests on the same principle—the possibility of selection among various
reactions. What we term psyche or consciousness is needful, that is real
psychological experience, the recollection and estimation of which leads to the
corresponding action.
What becomes of organic purposiveness ? The only thing we must
state as an indisputable fact in Nature is the presence of a certain preformed
harmony. Every living creature is born with an organism which enables it
to exist within certain limits. Part of this constitution is a disposition to
experience certain stimuli. The fact that sugar has a sweet taste and there-
fore a pleasant one rests on constitutional factors. But the behaviour which
satisfies such pleasurable impulses and wards off painful ones is by no means,
and cannot be, pre-formed, for the everchanging circumstances of life necessi-
tate a constantly renewed adaptation to them.
I must once more state emphatically that the instinct hypothesis is in
direct contradiction to every result of the modern theory of heredity. It
has been proved again and again that only a certain disposition to receive
impressions on one hand, and to general emotional attitude and bent of mind
on the other is inherited ; for example, a profoundly emotional nature or a
generally intelligent disposition. We have never known, especially in practical
life, anything like an inborn impulse to action or hereditary knowledge. We
may inherit a talent for languages, but not a knowledge of French. Neither
can knowledge that an object is there for a special purpose be inherited; for
example, the hen has not inherited the knowledge that sitting on an egg will
hatch it. We see that man's knowledge and actions emanate from his mental
and emotional disposition and as their result, but nothing more. There is no
' born murderer ' as such, except in so far as a man is predisposed to murder
by his general mental and emotional life. Instinct has been defined as
' inherited experience '. Science has proved that such a thing does not exist.
240
ABSTRACTS
only two of five vaccinated cows aborted against nine abortion among ten controls.
With the 100-fold dosage as many as four of five vaccinated animals aborted against
seven abortions among nine controls. The author concludes : ' It is apparent that
vaccination had altered the reactivity of the animals showing an increased resistance
to the smaller infective dose. The resistance of the vaccinated cattle was, however,
insufficient to differentiate them from control animals when the size of the infective dose
was increased one hundred fold. The experiment provides evidence showing that cattle
inoculated with living cultures of a non-virulent strain of Br. abortus that causes no
infection, possess an increased resistance to infection that can be demonstrated by test-
ing with an infective dose that is not too severe '. [ V. R. R.]
REVIEWS
Anatomy of the Sheep's Brain--A Laboratory Atlas for students
of Zoology, BY E. A. BRIGGS, D.Sc., Assistant Professor of Zoology in the
University of Sydney, 1939. With four text-figures and eight plates. Pp. 43
(ANGUS AND ROBERTSON, LIMITED, SYDNEY). Price 6s.
T HE descriptions of the various structures of the sheep's brain contained
in this book, though very concise, are well arranged and just sufficient for
zoology students preparing for examinations. As the various structures in
the sheep's brain are frequently compared with the corresponding ones in
the human brain, the information furnished in this book will be particularly
helpful to the medical students who wish to begin the study of the human
brain with a background of comparative anatomy. Further the student of
comparative anatomy may also use this book with advantage, as it will then
enable him to make use of the excellent text-books of human anatomy. The
text-figures and plates are few but along with these the dissection guides
furnished at various stages, offer enough help to students in the dissection
and study of the sheep's brain.
The author merely refers to the recent discovery of a thirteenth pair of
cranial nerve—NERVI TERMINALIS and leaves it at that with a casual
remark that the dissector will not probably find any trace of them on the
brain. It would have been useful both to the students and other workers
in this field if he had gone a little further and given some more details in
regard to (1) the structures of the brain it is derived from, (2) its definite
position, (3) course, (4) distribution and (5) function. Incorporation of avail-
able references on this subject would have been a valuable addition.
[H. N. C]
The Indian Journal of Entomology, VOL. L PARTS 1 & 2, PP. 137
June 1939. Published by the Entomological Society of India.
T HE publication in India of a Journal designed to deal exclusively with
Entomology not only constitutes an interesting commentary on the
extent to which specialization has occurred in this branch of Zoology,
but also provides indirectly a measure of the potentialities for wholesome
disintegration inherent in descriptive sciences. Signs of such disintegration
are noticeable even within the ambit of Entomology itself, as is evidenced by
the coming into being of at least three discrete branches of this science dealing
respectively with agriculture, forestry and human and veterinary medicine.
While the progressive separation into self-contained units must be the in-
evitable consequence of specialization in a virile and inclusive science like Ento-
mology, one can hardly overestimate the need of endeavours directed to
maintaining the essential solidarity between them, particularly in spheres
concerned with the basic problems of ecology, bionomics and morphology
of the members of the Insect kingdom as a whole. It is, therefore, gratifying
to find references in this (first) number of the Journal to the possibility of
(241 )
ERRATA
[ INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANI
VOL. X, PT. I ]
P. 14 line 22 from bottom for 'kdtuka ' read ' katuka '
P. 46 Table 11. Remarks column, 3rd line for ' psiotive read ' positive '
P. 73 Heading of Table VII for ' Dil cakes read ' Oil cakes '