NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
B. N. SONI 283
valleys of Kashmir and Kulu. A point of considerable interest that has
emerged in the course of these surveys is the occurrence of warble tumours
in goats during a continuous period of nearly seven months (as against four
months in the case of H. lineatum in cattle), and this, it would appear, is due
to the fact that, in the case of H. crossii, the whole of the larval development
is accomplished in the subcutaneous tissues of the host without the occurrence
of a stage of migration between any of the successive instars.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It is my pleasant duty to express my grateful thanks to Mr J. R. Haddow'
Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar, for the keen interest
with which he has watched the progress of this investigation. Mr S. K. Sen,
Entomologist, h s greatly obliged the author with his constant guidance.
The illustrations were prepared with the assistance of Mr S. Sen Roy, Artist,
and for this thanks are due to him.
REFERENCES
Austen, E. (1931). Bull. Entom. Res. 22, 426-429
Chadda, S. R. and Soni, B. N. (1939). Ind. J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb. 9, 101-103
Davenport, C. (1930). Trans. Soci. Trop. Med. & Hyg. 23, 425-426
Patton, W. S. (1922-23). Ind. J. Med. Res. 10, 573-578
—(1923-24).
Ind. J. Med. Res. 11, 961-962.
Soni, B. N. (1939). Ind. J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb. 9, 367-369
—(1939).
Ind. J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb. 9, 431-435
WITHANIA COAGULANS AS A VEGETABLE RENNET.
BY
ZAL R. KOTHAVALLA, B.AG. ANI. HUS. (BOM.), B.Sc. AGRI. (EDIN.),
N. D. D. (SCOT.)
AND
PRITO G. KHUBCHANDANI, B.Sc.
Imperial Dairy Institute, Bangalore
(Received for publication on 15 April 1940)
INTRODUCTION
D URING the past few years cheddar cheese and soft cheeses have grown
in popularity in India. Cheese is steadily gaining favour with non-
vegetarians. One reason for the slow growth of the cheese industry in India
is that cheese is made with the help of animal rennet and therefore vegetarians
do not eat it. If a rennet of vegetable origin could be used in the manufac-
ture of cheese, the difficulty could be overcome.
To extract vegetable rennet from the berries of Withania coagulans and
study its use was the work done by the present writers. Withania coagulans
is a common plant found in the North-West Frontier Province, the Punjab
and Sind. It belongs to the natural order Solanacea. Lea [1883] working
on this rennet suggests that the extract could be used in the manufacture of
cheese. In the present work a preliminary study has been made of the use
of the berries (supplied by the Director of Agriculture, North-West Frontier
Province) in the manufacture of cheddar cheese and soft (surati) cheese.
EXPERIMENTAL
The extract was made from the fruit by means of glycerine, common salt
solution and water. The extraction was made by grinding ten grams of berries
and allowing them to remain in 100 c.c. of the solution for 24 hours. Solu-
tions of strength from 5 to 30 per cent were tried. It was found that five per
cent salt solution extract gave the best results. Hence further work was
done with five per cent salt solution only.
The milk coagulating property of the extract was destroyed by boiling it;
filtering through filter paper also reduced its coagulating power consider-
ably.
To study the use of this vegetable rennet for the manufacture of cheddar
cheese and soft cheeses, it was thought best first to find the optimum tempera-
ture for its action and also its action at different acidities. Ten grams of berries
were ground and allowed to remain in 50 c.c. of five per cent salt solution for
24 hours. The extract was filtered through double muslin cloth. Five c.c.
of this was used for coagulating 100 c.c. of milk at different temperatures. It
was found that the optimum temperature for the action of the rennet was
between 155°F and 160°F. Table I gives the time taken at different tem-
peratures for acidity 0.2 per cent lactic acid.
( 284 )
ZAL R. KOTHAVALLA AND PRITO G. KHUBCHANDANI 285
TABLE I
The variation of time of coagulation with temperature
Temperature
110°F
110°F
125°F
130°F
135°F
140°F
Time
10 minutes.
5
„
90 seconds.
75 „
65 „
60 „
Temperature
145°F
150°F
155°F
160°F
165°F
170°F
Time
35 seconds
30 „
27 „
27 „
31
„
36 „
To find the variation of time of coagulation with the acidity, 5 lb. of milk
was inoculated with 10 c.c. of starter. One hundred c.c. of this was taken
each time at different acidities and the time of coagulation noted in each case
at the constant temperature of 110°F. As anticipated it was found that the
time of coagulation decreased uniformly with increasing acidity.
SOFT (SURATI) CHEESE
The experiments were first started on soft cheese as this requires no cook-
ing and is prepared by following the first steps in the manufacture of cheddar
cheese. Thirty grams of berries were ground and the enzyme extracted with
200 c.c. of 5 per cent salt solution. Two c.c. of this was found to coagulate
a pound of milk with an acidity of 0.2 per cent and temperature 110°F in
75 minutes giving a smooth curd. On basketing this yielded cheese which
compared favourably with the one prepared with animal rennet. A larger
quantity of the extract produced an unpleasant flavour in the cheese charac-
teristic of the berries and a low temperature increased the time of coagulation.
To reduce the latter a larger quantity of rennet was required but it affected
the flavour. At a higher temperature the curd was unsuitable for the cheese.
286
Withania Coagulans as a Vegetable Rennet.
CURD FOR CHEDDAR CHEESE
Before starting the work on cheddar cheese it was necessary to select a
suitable temperature for adding the rennet. Milk was coagulated and cut.
The curd was cooked on a waterbath. It was found that at a temperature
of 100°F the curd obtained was soft and when cut it resulted in a heavy loss
of fat in whey and also took more time to attain the texture required for
cheddar cheese. Temperatures higher than 110° F caused more fat to rise
to the top during the time of coagulation and also caused a partial coagulation
of the albumin. A temperature of 105°F gave a curd which compared favour-
ably with the one obtained with animal rennet at 86°F.
CHEDDAR CHEESE MAKING
Thirty grams of berries were ground and the rennet extracted with 200
c.c. of 5 per cent common salt solution. The whole quantity of the extract
coagulated 50 lb. of milk with acidity 0.2 per cent lactic acid and temperature
105°F, giving a suitable curd in 50 minutes. Cheddar cheese was made by
the usual process except with one modification. Since the cooking tempera-
ture for cheese is 104° to 106°F, the curd was cooled before cutting to 90°F
by passing chilled water through the vat. It was then cut and cooked as usual.
Table II gives a full description of the cheese made. After pressing and band-
aging the samples were cured at 55°F, the bandages were removed after six
weeks and all the samples were paraffined on the same day. No extra moulds
or growths were observed at this stage.
The samples of cheese were examined after three months. The cheese
was found normal except that all the samples had a little open texture. Sam
ple 5 had developed excess acidity. Sample 1 was the best of the lot. No
appreciable difference was found in the flavour of the final product as compared
with the cheese prepared with animal rennet.
ZAL R. KOTHAVALLA AND PRITO G. KHUBCHANDANI 287
TABLE II
Details of manufacture of cheese
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Time
started
A.M.
7.00
6.55
6.30
7.30
7.00
7.15
Acidity
of
mixed
milk
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
Colour
added
...
...
...
...
5 c.c.
5 c.c.
Quantity
of
starter
½ lb.
½ lb.
½ lb.
¼ lb.
¼ lb.
¼ lb.
Acidity
of
starter
0.80
0.75
0.75
0.80
0.80
0.75
Time
starter
added
A.M.
7.25
7.00
6.50
7.40
7.30
7.30
Acidity
at the
time of
adding
rennet
0.22
0.22
0.22
0.22
0.20
0.20
Time
when
rennet
was
added
A.M.
7.45
7.25
7.10
8.50
7.50
7.55
Time
of
coagu-
lation
Min.
50
50
50
50
50
50
Time
cooled
Min.
20
20
20
15
15
15
Time
cut
A.M.
8.55
8.35
8.20
9.10
8.55
9.00
Acidity
after
cutting
0.14
0.14
0.15
0.14
0.14
0.16
Tempe-
rature
of
cooking
105°F
105°F
105°F
105°F
105°F
105°F
Time at
drawing
of
whey
A.M.
11.00
11.15
11.00
11.45
11.00
11.15
Acidity
at
drawing
of
whey
0.26
0.28
0.26
0.26
0.27
0.28
Time
milled
P.M.
12.30
12.30
12.15
12.50
12.15
12.15
Acidity
at
milling
0.80
0.70
0.70
0.80
0.60
0.60
D
288
Withania Coagulans as a Vegetable Rennet
The cheese samples were analysed for moisture and fat. The figures for
the six samples are given in Table III. It will be seen that the cheese contain-
ed less fat than the average sample prepared with animal rennet. This could
be easily ccounted for because the fat rose and formed a layer on the surface
of the milk.
TABLE III
Moisture and fat content of the six samples
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Fat
per cent
24.2
21.5
23.2
22.5
20.9
22.1
Moisture
per cent
29.2
27.3
28.1
26.1
29.0
27.3
GENERAL REMARKS
A higher temperature of 105°F used in this experiment resulted in a
partial rise of the fat layer in the milk, which mixed itself with the whey.
The whey when tested for fat contained 0.3 to 0.5 per cent fat. The average
figure for ordinary cheese is 0.2 per cent fat in whey.
The curd is ordinarily examined for perfect coagulation by pressing with
the fingers and noting that nothing sticks to the fingers on withdrawing. But
the fat layer did not permit this. Hence the curd was examined by cutting
a small portion of it in one corner of the vat by a spoon or a knife and examin-
ing its hardness.
The curd took more time during cooking to attain the requisite texture,
hence it had to be kept stirred vigorously to prevent quick rise in acidity.
SUMMARY
1. Use of the extract of the berries of Withania coagulans as a vegetable
rennet for soft (surati) cheese and cheddar cheese making has been studied.
The rennet is promising for the manufacture of cheddar cheese and soft
cheese.
2. Some modification of the ordinary method of manufacture has been
suggested.
REFERENCE
Lea, S. (1883). Proc. Roy. Soc. 36, 55-8
A CHEAP METHOD OF OXYGENATION IN FISH CULTURE
BY
H. K. MOOKERJEE, D.Sc. (LOND.), D.I.C, F.N.I.
University Professor and Head of the Department of Zoology, Calcutta University
(Received for publication on 26 February 1940)
T HE need for oxygenation or aeration of fishes at all stages from fry to the
adult is a universally accepted fact. The cause of mortality may vary
superficially but all such causes ultimately lead to the want of oxygen,
such as, asphyxia, low pH or bacterial infection etc. The mortality at differ-
ent stages and at the time of transport is colossal and the net result is a tremen-
dous amount of financial loss. In the province of Bengal alone the loss may
be estimated to be several lakhs of rupees every year. The total amount of
fish population (fry and adult) in our country is more than enough to satisfy
our need but the pity is that it is unevenly distributed. An even distribution
of fishes is practically impossible for want of a proper method of oxygenation
during transport to distant places in their living state.
Now the question is how to render this oxygen or air available in required
quantity, at a very low cost, at all stages and in rural areas and also during
transport to remote distances ? This problem attracted the attention of many
scientists and persons interested in pisciculture and they have suggested
either some expensive contrivances, such as, electric-air-pump which can be
available only in cities, or inexpensive agents such as, putting aquatic
plants in tanks (big or small), as these plants liberate oxygen during
their photosynthesis. American scientists have suggested a method for the
transport of fishes in double walled chambers with a little space in between.
In this device inner chamber has numerous perforations and due to jerks during
transport, water splashes through these perforations, thus causing the
atmospheric air to rush inside the water in the form of bubbles. Another
method is the usual splashing of water by means of hand paddling done by our
fishermen when they generally carry fries in earthen ' hundies '. None of
the above suggestions can be of universal use and satisfy all conditions, such
as, simplicity, cost, efficiency and durability.
This problem also attracted my attention during my study of fresh water
fish culture in connection with a scheme financed by the Imperial Council of
Agricultural Research, which is being worked under my supervision, and re-
cently I have found out a solution which will satisfy all the above needs at
all times and at all places. The solution is very simple but none suggested or
recorded it uptil now. The contrivance is simple, universally obtainable
and the cost is very low.
We all know that at the present moment the whole of India has motor
transport facility and this facility is increasing every day. This means an
increase of out-put of worn-out tyres and tubes in great numbers. The old
second-hand used rubber inner tube having patches on it could be had in all
places at a low price, In Calcutta the price varies from 4 to 10 annas each.
( 289 )
D 2
290
Oxygenation in Fish Culture
These inner rubber tubes can serve the purpose of the so called 'oxygen
cylinder' for fishes.
The actual procedure is pretty simple. The valve of the inner tube of a
motor tyre (or of a cycle tube for less quantity of air) is removed and air is
pumped in the tube by means of a hand pump. The cost of a second-hand
pump is about Re. 1-4. Now the connection of the hand pump with the
nozzle of the tube is quickly removed and with the nozzle is fixed one end of a
piece of thin rubber tubing having a pinch-cock tightly fitted before-hand at a
little distance from the other end. By manipulating the pinch-cock and
immersing the free end of the rubber tubing inside water continuous
bubbling of air can be obtained.
The filling up of air in a balloon rubber tube takes two or three minutes
and a continuous aeration will last for more than 6 hours. The capital
expenditure amounts to about Rs. 2 or utmost Rs. 2-8 and if there are a
number of such rubber tubes operating in big tanks the cost will be propor-
tionately less.
This method of aeration can be used in tanks and aquaria to satisfy the
hobby of amateurs and by businessmen for transport in trains, motor, bullock-
carts, boats, or by fishermen using earthen ' hundies ' and finally in markets
to keep alive the fishes specially the ' Jeol fishes '. There is another
advantage to those who have no space exposed to sun. to keep their so called
aquaria with aquatic plants. This sort of aeration is the only salvation to
them.
The detailed estimation of loss and gain, time and duration and other
statistical data will be published at a later stage.
Ind. J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb., Vol. X, Part III
PLATE
XX
FIG. 1.
Hypoderma lineatum. Cephalo-
pharyngeal skeleton of young
larvae.
FIG. 2.
Hypoderma bovis. Cephalo-
pharyngeal skeleton of
young larvae.
FIG. 3.
Hypoderma crossii. Cephalo-
pharyngeal
skeleton of
young larvae.
FIG. 4.
Second stage larva of H. crossii. Cephalo-
pharyngeal skeleton of second-stage larvae.
FIG. 5.
Full-grown larva of H. crossii. Cephalopharyngeal skeleton
of full-grown larva.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE MOUTH-PARTS OF YOUNG
LARVAL FORMS OF HYPODERMA CROSSII
PATTON*
BY
B. N. SONI, B.Sc. (PB.), B.Sc. AGRI. (EDIN.)
Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar-Kumaun
(Received for publication on 25 March 1940)
(With Plate XX)
P ATTON [1922-23] published a brief description of the adult fly and the
full-grown larva of Hypoderma crossii. During the following year he
[Patton, 1923-24] described what he believed to be the second-stage larvae of the
same species. In 1939 the present writer published a fuller account of the
morphological characters of H. crossii larvae. Unfortunately, in none of these
accounts was any attention given to the larval mouth-parts. Subsequent
studies carried out by the writer have shown them to be of considerable
value for differentiating the young forms of larval H. crossii from those of
H. lineatum and H. bovis. The specimens on which the present description
of the larval mouth-parts is based, were collected by the writer from the sub-
cutaneous fascia of the back of goats at Jhelum (Punjab). From a perusal
of the available literature on the subject it was recognised that these were
the youngest forms of H. crossii larvae obtained so far. Their size varies
from 5 to 7 mm. in length by 0.5 to 0.7 mm. in the greatest breadth, the
average length of the second-stage larvae collected by Patton (1. c.) being
7.59 mm. They were glossy and semi-transparent, cylindrical in form and
tapered slightly at both ends. To the naked eye these larvae looked very
similar to the young oesophageal forms of H. lineatum. In these larvae, the
mouth-hooks are plainly visible in the uncleaned specimens under a medium
power of the microscope. As is well known, the anterior end of the mouth
hook in H. bovis is forked and the rear end blunt. This feature enables the
species to be readily differentiated from H. lineatum in which the anterior end of
the mouth hook is sharply pointed with a well formed notch at some distance
below, while the rear end is also slightly pointed (Plate XX, figs. 1 and 2).
In the case of H. crossii, on the other hand, the hook is plain and blunt at
both ends and is devoid of either a fork or a notch (Plate XX, fig. 3). The
posterior end of the hook in this species is more thickly set than the anterior
end and the median spear is smaller than in the first two species. Two in-
verted comma-shaped structures placed parallel and lying close to the median
spear constitute an additional differentiating character in the cephalo-
pharyngeal skeleton of H. crossii.
A study of the cephalo-pharyngeal skeleton and mouth hooks of the
later larval stages of H. lineatum and H. crossii has shown that as the larvae
develop, the mouth-parts undergo a progressive degeneration until in the
fullgrown larvae, they appear as a mass of chitinous, signet-shaped structure,
* Presented at the Indian Science Congress, held at Madras in January 1940
( 291 )
292 Mouth-Parts of Young Larval Forms of Hypoderma crossii
which to all appearance is non-functioning as a cutting and piercing organ.
These changes are represented in Plate XX, figs. 4 and 5.
SUMMARY
The mouth-hooks of young larval forms of H. crossii can be differentiated
from those of H. bovis and H. lineatum by the absence of a fork and a notch
respectively. The two ends of the hook in H. crossii are blunt, the posterior
end being more so than the anterior end, while the presence of a double comma-
shaped structure at the top of the median spear is an additional differentiating
feature. As the larvae develop, the mouth-parts undergo progressive degenera-
tion until, in the full-grown larvae they appear as a mass of non-functioning,
signet-shaped, chitinous structure.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer expresses his thanks to Mr J. R. Haddow, Imperial Veteri-
nary Research Institute, for his keen interest during the progress of this in-
vestigation. Microscopic preparations were examined and the observations
confirmed by Mr S. K. Sen, Entomologist, to whom the writer is highly
grateful. The assistance rendered by Mr S. Sen Roy, artist of the Institute
is acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Patton, S. W. (1922-23). Ind. J. Med. Res. 10, 573-578
(1923-24). Ind. J. Med. Res. 11, 962-963
Soni, B. N. (1939). Ind. J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb. 9, 367-369
INFECTION OF ADULT FOWLS WITH SYNGAMUS
TRACHEALIS
BY
M. CRAWFORD, M.R.C.V.S.
Government Veterinary Surgeon, Ceylon
(Received for publication on 7 February 1940)
I N many text books on helminthology and on diseases of poultry it is stated
that the susceptibility of fowls to infection with Syngamus trachealis is
definitely limited to the first few months of their life.
The exact period is given variously as from 8 to 13 weeks. Fowls over
that age are stated to develop an absolute immunity and re-infection is stated
to be impossible.
This theory has again been put forward by Srivastava [1939] in the follow-
ing words 'However, chickens invariably develop a very definite immunity
against this parasite when 8 or 9 weeks' old, and, once this age immunity has
developed, any worms which may be present die or are expelled and a re-
infection is impossible'.
The importance of this theory lies in the bearing it has on the measures
to be adopted to control the disease.
If the theory be accepted as true, then the adult fowl can be ignored as a
source of infection. The poultry breeder is informed in the text books that the
adult turkey is capable of acting as a carrier of infection, but that the adult
fowl cannot do so and he is advised not to keep turkeys on the same ground
as he keeps chickens.
The object of this short note is to record that so far as Ceylon at least is
concerned the theory is not correct.
' Gapes ' in poultry is a very common and widespread disease in Ceylon.
The parasite responsible appears to be identical with Syngamus trachealis.
It is of course possible that it may be of a different type or strain than Syngamus
trachealis as it occurs in Europe and America; morphologically, however, it
appears to be identical.
In Ceylon in the course of routine post-mortem examinations of fowls at
the Veterinary Laboratory of the Department of Agriculture we have for
many years and on very many occasions found Syngamus trachealis in the
trachea of fowls of all ages even in three year old hens. The number of pairs
of worms found in the trachea of adult fowls is generally small, as a rule not
more than two or three pairs, but not infrequently adult hens have been seen on
poultry farms exhibiting typical clinical symptoms, namely a short cough or
sneeze and gaping for breath. These symptoms ceased on removal of the
gapeworms from the trachea by means of a feather. We know of several
poultry farms on which one would have no difficulty at any time in finding a
number of adult fowls infected with Syngamus trachealis. This is indeed so
common in Ceylon that we consider the adult fowl to be a most important
factor in maintaining and spreading infection.
( 293 )
294
Infection of Adult Fowls with Syngamus trachealis
The theory that an absolute age immunity develops in fowls at about three
months of age is certainly not true in Ceylon. Possibly this is so in other
countries as well. Our experience in Ceylon is supported by a statement attri-
buted to Lerche in the latest edition of Hutyra and Marek's standard text-
book, namely that ' In poultry farms the principal carriers are young brood
hens of 13½ months of 'age.'
REFERENCES
Cameron, T. W. M. (1934). Internal Parasites of Domestic Animals, 91
Hutyra and Marek (1938). Special Pathology and Therapeutics of the Diseases of
Domestic Animals, 533
Leiper, R. T. (1930). Proc. 4th World Poultry Congress, 473
Monnig, H. O. (1934). Veterinary Helminthology and Entomology, 175
Srivastava, H. D. (1939). Ind. J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb. 9, 405
SEX-DIMORPHISM IN MACRONES GULIO (HAM. BUCH)
BY
H. K. MOOKERJEE, D.Sc. (LOND.), D.I.C., F.N.I.,
S. R. MAZUMDAR, M.Sc.
AND
B. DAS GUPTA, M.Sc.
Department of Zoology, Calcutta University
(Received for publication on 11 March 1940)
(With two text-figures)
I N course of our observation on sex-dimorphism of fresh water fishes of
Bengal we have observed certain peculiar structures behind the anal
opening of Macrones gulio (Ham. Buch).
We found that behind the anal opening there is a protuberance with a
free tapering end lying further back to the body. This so-called ' penis ' can
only be found in case of male specimens. In case of Macrones gulio the so-
called ' penis ' is situated far behind the anal opening (Fig. 1).
FIG. 1 (Male)
FIG. 2 (Female)
Ventral view of Macrones gulio (Ham. Buch) showing the anal and generative
apertures. Fig.—1 Male, Fig. 2—Female, a.—anus ; a. f.—anal fin ; p.—so-called.
' penis ' with male generative opening ; pv. f.—pelvic fin ; v.—' vagina' with female
generative opening.
( 295 )