NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
CHAPTER XIV.
DISEASES OF THE EYE.
THE EYE.
It is a matter of common remark amongst those who have
much to do with elephants that a large percentage of them have
blemished eyes. Major Hawkes notes, of a batch of 27 elephants
examined, that one was totally blind, two nearly so, two blind in
one eye, one had cataract in both eyes, and three had partial
opacity of the cornea in both eyes. I think if we give the subject a
little consideration the cause of this high percentage will be readily
apparent.
The eye of the elephant is as delicate and sensitive as our own,
and the preservation of sight is a blessing to the animal and an
advantage to the owner ; yet mahouts are allowed (through ignorance
of owners or those in charge) to inflict intense suffering on these
creatures by blowing powdered glass, powders containing ingre-
dients such as lunar caustic, blue-stone, camphor, etc., into their
eyes to remove so-called films, or to treat the eyes with mixtures
(applied unsparingly) containing other irritating ingredients in
uncertain quantities, such as chillies, ginger, quicklime, preparations
of mercury. When such delicate organs are subjected to treatment
such as described, it is not surprising that we find so many elephants
whose vision is permanently impaired or totally lost.
It should be made clear to elephant attendants that any treat-
ment of the eyes carried out by them will result in their immediate
dismissal. Captain Forsyth, a careful observer and sympathetic
master, remarks : " The eyes of the elephant are extremely delicate
and appear to possess in an unusual degree a sympathetic con-
nection with the digestive organs. Nearly every indisposition of
the animal is accompanied by a clouding or suffusion of the eyes.
Few elephants that have been long caught, especially if in the hands
of natives, have perfect eyes." Note the remark " especially if in
the hands of natives." Mahouts are everlastingly tinkering with
their elephants ; if not treating their eyes, they are treating them
for some other supposed ailment. This amateur doctoring by them
is a curse in elephant establishments. If more attention was given
to seeing that these men take their animals to good grazing grounds,
262
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
that they give them their salt, flour or grain ration, that they are
washed and groomed, and not tethered in the sun or overworked,
the elephants would keep in better health.
In the human subject, the eyes are often affected in general bad
health. In fact Nettleship remarks that " Ulcers of the cornea are
so often a sign of bad health that we ought never to neglect such
means as may be called for to improve the general condition."—
(" Diseases of the Eye," page 82.) There are many ailments also
in which changes of the eye occur as part of a general disease.
From what has been said it will be admitted that the treatment
of eye diseases should not at any rate be entrusted to mahouts.
What I particularly desire to impress on those who have charge
of elephants is the importance of not leaving the treatment of the
animals in the hands of the attendants. Remember that affec-
tions of the eye often depend on more than local causes ; endeavour
to ascertain them and if found to be not purely local attention
must be paid not only to treating the eyes, but to the general state
of the health. So important is this subject, that Macnamara, writing
of ulceration of the cornea in the human subject, says : " In most
cases, instances of ulceration (excepting traumatic cases, or those
depending on conjunctivitis), the patient's general health will be
found at" fault ; in no affection of the eye is it more necessary to
attack the disease by improving the assimilative and nutritive func-
tions of the body, and as a general rule a tonic and supporting plan
of treatment is demanded. Iron and quinine, good food, cleanliness
and fresh air are the fundamental requisites for the cure of almost
all instances of ulceration of the cornea, whether they be of the
sthenic or asthenic type. One frequently sees cases of ulceration of
the cornea which resist all treatment, but which rapidly improve if
the patient is sent to the sea-side, or, still better, for a voyage
to sea."—(" Diseases of the Eye," page 209.) I have quoted
this at length, as it has such a practical bearing" with regard to
elephants, except perhaps the change to the sea-side, or a voyage ;
but a change to their jungles and a free life for a time will
prove as beneficial to them as a change to the sea-side for a human
being.
Certain precautions are necessary in the treatment of diseases of
the eye. Nitrate of silver (lunar caustic) and sulphate of copper
(blue-stone) should never be employed in the solid form, as irrepar-
able damage may result from the application of such strong caustics.
If it is desired to employ them, very weak solutions only should be
used. Absolute cleanliness is imperative : attendants dressing eyes
with filthy hands and with rags still more filthy should not be
tolerated. For the purpose of wiping the eye, there is nothing
OPHTHALMIA.
263
better than old soft linen, or lint, which should be cut into small
pieces and used as required. After use, the soiled pieces should be
buried or burned in order that flies should not rest on them and
thus, if an affection be contagious, carry it to other animals.
In fact it is a sound rule never to use pieces of lint, cloth or
sponges a second time. Natives have no idea of the importance
of cleanliness in these diseases, and will wipe the eyes with filthy
rags, will even drop them on the ground, and use them immediately
after.
Elephants are often unusually nervous when their eyes are sore.
When it is desired to examine the eyes, the keeper should always be
present, and the animal's attention diverted as much as possible by
feeding him with some favourite food.. The medicine must be made
up and the mahout given careful instructions how to use it ; a
responsible person should be present to see the eye dressed.
Elephants with impaired vision or those whose sight is lost should
be approached with great caution ; they should be spoken to and
given the wind, otherwise, if approached quietly and the wind be
not in their favour, even a quiet creature might through sudden fear
cause serious damage. It is almost useless for a stranger to try and
dress an elephant's eyes ; the keeper alone is generally the only
person who can do this.
Elephants will not as a rule permit much handling of their eyes,
as on the least interference they bring the nictitating membrane into
play. The best thing is to get as good a view as possible without
touching. When examining an eye the attention may be attracted
by some one on the opposite side.
Considerable experience has proved that with patience and
care excellent results can be obtained by judicious treatment.
During the hot season, if elephants are tethered in the glare of
the sun, it is a good plan to cover the forehead and eyes with a
cloth frequently wetted, or a shade.
OPHTHALMIA OR SORE-EYES.
Causes.—Undue exposure to the glare of the sun, irritation from
cold winds, smoke, dust, grass seeds, etc., and injury from bites of
insects, blows or abrasions, eating to excess the leaves and boughs
of the peepul (Ficus religiosa, nyaungbin), contagion from another
animal.
The condition may affect one or both eyes.
Symptoms.—When lids are separated, excessive redness, swollen
eyelids, frequent blinking and a tendency to keep the eyes closed,
264
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
increased secretion (at first watery, later turbid), obvious pain and
discomfort.
Treatment:
Local.—Protect
the animals as much as possible
from strong light ; put a shade on to exclude dust and flies ; these
can be made with a dark cloth, Chinese matting painted green,
plantain leaves. I have never found an elephant object to such
shades.
For the relief of pain hot fomentations frequently applied, to
which may be added extract of belladonna 1 to 1½ drachms to a
pint of water (Formula 94), or the extract alone rubbed down in
glycerine (Formula 95), may be smeared round the eye. As the
discharges run over the cheek they may produce soreness, and to
prevent this the parts below the eye should be smeared with sweet
oil or vaseline.—("Eye-washes," Formulae 89 to 93.)
General.—Consists of plenty of good food and tonics (Formulae
39 to 46).
INFLAMMATION OF THE CORNEA.
The cornea is the transparent disc like a watch-glass in front of
the eye, through which the colour of the eye and pupil can be seen.
In health it is perfectly transparent and its surface smooth and
glistening, so that it reflects objects like a mirror.
Causes.—A low state of health as in advanced debility, blows,
injuries, or wounds of the cornea caused by the entrance of foreign
bodies, or abrasions, such as might occur when moving through
jungle.
Symptoms.—The
same as in ophthalmia, with the addition of
dimness, loss of polish and transparency ; the cornea may appear
like ground glass or be quite milky ; this cloudiness is due to infiltra-
tion and exudation into the substance of the cornea and is not due
to the growth of a film over it as is frequently supposed ; hence the
futility and cruelty of blowing in such materials as powdered glass,
lunar caustic, etc., for its removal.
Treatment.—Same
as in ophthalmia.
ULCERATION OF THE CORNEA.
Ulcers may occur in this structure as in other parts, and by a
careful scrutiny will be recognised by the presence of a pit or lack
of substance on the surface which may be pin point, but are usually
larger ; at the particular spot the reflection of objects is found to be
CATARACT.
265
lost. Under proper treatment this should resolve and the cornea in
course of time regain its original transparency but it often happens
that a scar persists, shown by an opacity which may be permanent.
The symptoms leading to a suspicion of the presence of ulcera-
tion are similar to those manifested in ophthalmia and the treat-
ment identical. When the ulcer has healed and an opacity is left,
calomel on a camel's hair brush should be flicked into the eye once
daily to hasten absorption (Formula 97) ; or a small portion (about
size of a split pea or hemp seed) of yellow oxide of mercury ointment
(Formula 96) inserted under the lid once daily may prove beneficial.
Opacity of the cornea is sometimes seen in old age ; it is gene-
rally observed around the margin of the cornea, appearing as a faint
milky ring.
Treatment.—Nil.
STAPHYLOMA, THE " MOTHEA BEENJ" OF NATIVES OF INDIA,
Is applied to a bulging resembling a small blister on the surface
of the cornea.
Causes.—Ulceration.
Occasionally an ulcer eats its way deeply
into the substance of the cornea which may become so thinned that
the pressure of fluid within the eye bulges the floor of the ulcer
forwards.
Symptoms.—In addition to the bulging, which is a sequel to an
ulcer, there is impaired vision ; owing to movements of the lids this
blister may rupture and fluid from the eye escape, but this is never-
theless a remediable condition and the eye with proper care may
regain its usual appearance and function.
Treatment.—As
already laid down in ophthalmia. It is
desirable whether pain be present or absent to smear extract of
belladonna around the eye.
CATARACT.
This term is applied to an opacity of the lens (which is a trans-
parent body situated behind the pupil) and not, as is often supposed,
to opacity of the cornea, the condition last referred to.
Causes.—Blows on the eye and changes consequent upon old
age.
Symptoms.—There is partial or complete blindness, attraction to
which is drawn by peculiar behaviour of the animal. If the eye is
carefully inspected in these cases, the only change likely to be seen
266
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
is an opalescence or haziness of the pupil replacing the jet black
normal appearance. They generally develop slowly (months or even
years) but when due to severe blows or injuries of the eye may
appear in a few days. They tend to culminate in complete
blindness. As a rule the cornea is quite clear, but should there be
opacity, it is independent of the cataract.
Treatment.—Nil.
CHAPTER XV.
INTERNAL PARASITES :— SYMPTOMS OF THE PRESENCE
OF PARASITES.
PARASITES IN THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.
This is a subject of the greatest importance, and is deserving of
the careful and earnest attention of all those persons who may be
placed in charge of these valuable animals. Though Gilchrist, in
his work on elephants published in 1841, and others since then have
mentioned the subject, we owe the greater part of the knowledge
we now possess to the late Dr. Cobbold the eminent Helminthologist,
and Colonel Hawkes late of the Commissariat Department.
It may be accepted as a fact that elephants in Burma are
much troubled with parasites. It is exceptional after death not to
find them in the intestines, or livers of tame and even wild
elephants. Elephants in India seem also to be much troubled with
them. Forsyth writes : " Elephants are very liable to intestinal
worms. They generally cure themselves when they get very
troublesome by swallowing from 10 to 20 pounds of earth. They
always select a red-coloured earth for the purpose. In about twelve
hours purging commences and the worms come away."
Cobbold, writing on the important part played by internal para-
sites in the production of endemics and epizooty, remarks :
" Depend upon it, many a death, hitherto reported as resulting from
inflammation of the intestines, colic, splenic apoplexy, sunstroke, or
to some other obscure cause, has been primarily due to entozoa,
the presence of which may not even have been suspected during
life." A parasite is a plant or animal which, living in or on another
plant or animal, obtains its sustenance from its host to the detriment
of the latter. In most of the larger mammals, however, there are
generally to be found certain species of worms which, so far as is
known, are not hurtful to their host. In the following lines an
endeavour will be" made to distinguish between those parasites
harmful to the animal economy and those that are not.
The internal parasites most frequently met with in the elephant
are :—
(1)
(2)
Bots.
Round worms.
(3)
(4)
Flukes.
Bladder worms (rare).
268
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
(1) Bots (Cobboldia elephantis)—Are
the larval forms of
various "gad-flies" (Family (Estridæ).
The most common gad-
fly of the elephant is about the size of an ordinary bee, of a dark
greyish colour, is very soft and easily killed. They are abundant
during the early rains and grassy places swarm with them. They
are a veritable pest, hence at these times elephants, bison,
sambur, etc., keep as much as possible to heavy cover. In the hills
during continued wet weather these flies are also very troublesome.
Gad-flies attach their eggs to hairs in various parts of the body : in
elephants usually the hairs about the mouth, or to the tusk by the
gums, etc. These are swallowed and the eggs hatch out in the
stomach, pharynx, etc. Bots adhere by means of cephalic or head
hooks which they insert into the mucous membrane. After arriving
at a certain period in their growth they voluntarily release their hold
and are usually carried down the intestinal canal until they eventually
escape with the dung. In appearance they resemble whitish red
grubs, about ¾ to an inch in length ; the body is divided into
segments and the hooks by which they adhere are visible without the
aid of a lens. During the passage down the intestinal canal they
may re-attach themselves.
It is by no means uncommon to find post-mortem a patch of
bots often up to one hundred in number in the gut. On escaping
from the bowels they bury themselves in the ground, where their
skin shrinks and hardens into a case within which the pupal stage is
assumed. In the course of a fortnight or six weeks they emerge as
full-blown gad-flies.
Bots may also be found in situations other than the stomach and
intestines, e.g., in the gullet, occasionally in quite large numbers,
also in the pharynx, frontal cavities, etc.
Steel records that a bot (Pharyngobolus Africanus) has been
found in the pharynx of the African species. That bots find lodg-
ment in the pharynx of the elephant in Burma is certain. It is
not a rare occurrence for an elephant to suddenly commence a sort
of coughing or sneezing and blow bots out of the trunk.
Symptoms.—Usually
none, but there is little doubt that when
present in large numbers they cause some mechanical irritation. It
is however impossible to diagnose the condition unless bots are
found in the excreta. If treatment is considered desirable a dose of
physic and a liberal allowance of salt may prove of some service.
(2) Round worms.—As far as is known the round worms are
all small, whitish or yellowish in colour, about the thickness of
ordinary twine. Some kinds may be found in immense numbers in
the bowels and often in the dung. All round worms are known
to Indian mahouts as " soorti " or " chotee."
PARASITES.
269
(a) Ascaris lonchoptera may be met with in common with
other round worms, they are from 1½ to 2½ inches in length.
Symptoms.—Generally
absent ; presence known by observing
them in the dung.
(b) Two species of Uncinaria (Anchylostomes or Dochmius)
have been described :—
(i) Dochmius Sangari (Cobbold), so called after Sangar
of Circus fame, who lost all his performing herd of
elephants through this worm. The male measures
⅝ inch and the female ¾ inch.
Symptoms.—Severe diarrhoea which resisted all treatment.
(ii) Uncinaria os papiliatum
(Ostertag), which is stated
to occur only in Indian elephants.
In the Report of the Imperial Bacteriologist for 1902-03,
paragraph 69, Dr. Lingard mentions having examined specimens of
elephants' blood which indicated death from
Uncinaria os
papiliatum,
lately described by Professor Ostertag as occurring
solely in Indian elephants.
The following is a translation from the " Berliner Tierärztliche
Wochenschrift," which appeared in the " Veterinary Record," dated
18th April 1903 :—
"WORMS
IN
ELEPHANTS—BY
PROFESSOR
SCHMALTZ.
" Busch's Circus in Berlin had at the pantomime a herd of
elephants freshly imported from India by Hagenbeck, of Hamburg.
Two of these elephants died a short time after each other, and
through the kind offices of Veterinary Surgeon Klingner, who
holds the position of Veterinary Surgeon to the Circus, they were
presented to the Anatomical Institute of the Veterinary University
to be placed in the museum. Naturally the cause of death was
examined.
"Post-mortem
gave an interesting and similar state of things
in each subject in many points. Both carcases were blood warm and
hydræmic. The subcutaneous tissue was so soaked and saturated
that on cutting through it yellow watery fluid collected.
" In some cases under the skin were flabby swellings. The
whole of the muscular tissue was extremely pallid, and its colour a
clear brick red. In the abdominal cavity large quantities of clear
fluid.
" The internal organs up to the small intestine were generally
healthy. This was reddened externally; its contents were tinged
270
A TREATISE ON ELEPHANTS.
with blood. With the exception of from 1 to 2 mm. in length
at the beginning and end, the mucous membrane of the small
intestine was very much swollen and covered with a greasy layer.
It was studded with punctiform hæmorrhages and large petechiæ,
and contained many flat depressions with reddened bases. In these
depressions and along the whole mucous membrane, forming thick
convolutions, numerous small round worms clung. These parasites
were undoubtedly the cause of death. By their presence they had
occasioned severe changes in the intestinal mucous membrane, and
established the state known as worm cachexia. It was also evident
from the state of the body that they had occasioned considerable
and continued loss of blood.
" The worm was examined by Professor Dr. Ostertag, who
pronounced it to be Uncinaria os papiliatum, a worm which only
occurs in Indian elephants.
"The remaining elephants were treated with santonin, which
effected the removal of a great quantity of the worms. The state of
health of the survivors has since been satisfactory. A prophylactic
taenicide in freshly imported young elephants has not hitherto been
noted."
Uncinaria are found in elephants in Burma. A parasite which
appears to belong to this species is not infrequently found in the
ducts of the liver where it sets up much irritation. On several
occasions post-mortem examination has demonstrated some of the
ducts to be choked with these parasites and local changes to have
occurred in the organ to such an extent as to warrant even death
being attributable to their presence. Observation, however, on the
effects of extensive infestation by round worms in elephants is
very desirable. Uncinaria, though insignificant in size, are often
by their numbers and blood-sucking propensities the cause of debility,
diarrhoea and loss of life. In making post-mortem examinations
therefore trouble should be taken to examine the mucous membrane
of the small intestines thoroughly for small hæmorrhages and to see
if there are any small parasites adhering thereto.
(c) Cobbold mentions that certain round worms are found in
small tumours in the coats of the stomach. If such tumours are met
with they should be incised, and if parasites are present they should
be carefully preserved and labelled.
Treatment for round worms.—A course of treatment of such
drugs as sulphate of iron, arsenic, santonin, and thymol in doses
of ½ to 2 drachms (see also Formulæ 47—53 and 39—46) is to be
recommended. At intervals during this treatment the bowel should
be opened by a mild purgative, and enemas {see Formulae 85 and
86) should also be at times administered.
[Facing page 371.
Amphistoma Hawkesii (after Cobbold).
Jackson liver fluke (after Cobbold).
Bots about natural size.
Ascaris lonchoptera, about natural size.