NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
TICK INFESTATION IN COASTAL TRACT OF NORTH CANARA
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axillæ, groin, perineum, mammary or scrotal region. The lesions are more pro-
nounced and persistent if ticks are removed forcibly leaving the hypostome in the
wound. Human beings are often bitten and the lesion is much more marked
among them: a pea-sized tumour with a small wound is found on the part bitten
by the tick ; the wound persists discharging the purulent matter until hypostome
is completely disintegrated and thrown off and then heals leaving a hard tumour
which subsequently takes about four to six months for complete absorption. It is
also seen that following the rupture of the hypostome the wound sometimes heals
up readily imprisoning the ruptured hypostome : a small abscess develops later
accompanied with much pain. When the contained matter is squeezed out or the
abscess, the wound heals leaving a tumour to be absorbed after a long time. These
are not readily seen on cattle on account of the thickness of the skin. The wounds
caused by adult ticks notably those belonging to the Longirostrata become very
commonly fly-blown, especially when such wounds occur on the softer parts of the
body surface. The tick disengages itself after engorgement from the wound and
falls off leaving the wound to bleed in small droplets which attract flies and thus
maggots are formed. Such wounds are very frequently seen on the udder, scrotum
and flanks and in the case of milking animals, this may lead to a considerable re-
duction in the yield of milk or the yield may even completely cease.
As for bacterial invasion it is conceivable that the sites where bites are inflicted
by ticks may be invaded by various pathogenic organisms through the agency of
dust, dirt and mud.
The writer has observed cows and buffaloes developing mammitis due to the
Amblyomma tick biting the udder.
EXTRACTION OF BLOOD.
It is known that the tick after being engorged with blood weighs ten times its
weight of the body. The extraction debilitates the host to the extreme and makes
it useless for any kind of work ; milking animals cease partially or completely to
yield milk. Repeated invasion by large numbers of ticks would seem calculated
to shorten the life of an animal and the animal dies at the slightest constitutional
derangements influenced by feed or atmospheric conditions.
TRANSMISSION OF PROTOZOON DISEASES.
The existence of P. bigeminum and T. mutants, the causative organisms of
Piroplasma bovis and Theileriasis respectively has been established by microscopic
examination in this district. But the true extent of the prevalence of these could
not be ascertained for want of facilities. However, it has been computed that
314 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, IV
whilst mortality due to Rinderpest in the whole of India is 35 per cent. it is 56 per
cent. in the Kanara districts, and this is suggestive of the possibility that com-
plication with Piroplasmosis is one of the causes for the increased mortality.
TICK TOXAEMIA.
In the course of an extended investigation conducted in this intensely tick-in-
fested area, the writer has observed what appeared to be a form of toxæmia affect-
ing a fair population of the infested animals. Many observers in the past have
recorded the presence of toxins or poisonous saliva excreted by ticks, but have not
defined any disease caused by these toxins.
It is a well known fact that a tick, before beginning to feed, injects its pharyn-
geal contents into the puncture made by it in order to retard the coagulation of
blood. The composition of this excretion is as yet unknown ; at any rate, it is
foreign matter secreted by the tissues of tick. It should undoubtedly contain
some antigens with a certain degree of toxicity represented by the protein of the
anatomical elements and the byproducts of their autolysis. The toxicity of these
antigens may further be considered from the point of view of cytolysis produced
which might exert a highly injurious action on the elements of the organism. The
clinical symptoms and the results of Post-mortem examination indicate that a series
of structural deterioration and relative enfeeblement of all the functions of the
organism occur, this being evidently brought about as a result of the action of
these toxins, by hindering the formation of blood corpuscles in the embryonal tracts
due to the functional disturbance of the bone marrow and by disturbing the forma-
tion of secretions that regulate assimilation.
The ox at first gets one or more attacks of intense tick infestation. If it is
not freed from these parasites immediately, it gradually begins to lose its condition
although it may maintain a good appetite. The mucous membrane assumes a
pale pink colour. The urine and fæces, however, have their normal appearance.
The hairs lose their glossiness. The skin cannot be easily pinched. The body
temperature ranges from 100.0° F. to 98.4° F. Gradually the ribs, joints and bones
become prominent; the legs become slender ; the peritoneal cavity shows effusion
of a small quantity of fluid and the animal becomes extremely thin and emaciated.
A few days later, cold and painless swellings appear on the submaxillary space and
dewlap and these are larger in size in the morning than in the evening. Sometimes
these swellings disappear as soon as treatment is resorted to but reappear after a
few days with their size increased. The prescapular and precrural glands are
slightly enlarged and œdematous and the latter is easily felt in the flap of the flank
unlike in healthy animals. Fæces become hard in consistency, the œstrum is no
TICK INFESTATION IN COASTAL TRACT OF NORTH CANARA
315
longer seen, and the yield of milk ceases entirely. The animal now becomes un-
able to get up independently and if lifted up it walks with a staggering gait. Even
in this condition the appetite is maintained but usually grains which are hard to
masticate are refused. In the last stage swellings appear all over the body and
the animal is bedridden. The body temperature goes below 98. 0° F. and the ex-
tremities become cold. Diarrhœa now sets in with a concurrent loss of appetite.
Respiration becomes accelerated and the animal dies in a comatose state. Some
cases may die without showing swellings over the body or before diarrhoea sets in.
The course of the disease may be an acute one so that the animal dies from
a few days to some weeks or the disease may run a chronic course extending over
several months depending upon the severity of the tick infestation and care taken
by the owner, wetting in the rains being favourable for the aggravation of the
disease. For the manifestation of the symptoms, massive injection of the toxin
would seem necessary, since the disease has not been seen to occur in animals har-
bouring only a small number of ticks. Massive invasion of ticks may result in the
death of the host within some hours as is witnessed by the fact that the village
officer of Gersappa in Honavar taluka reported having lost a good pregnant cow
within 36 hours : the cow had strayed into a cattle shed which had been deserted
on account of intense tick infestation and the next morning was found succumbing
evidently to massive infestation by the enormous members of castor seed-like ticks
which it was seen to harbour on its body. The disease runs a more rapid course
among young cattle than among adults. All cattle irrespective of their age are
affected. Ticks in any stage of their development can produce the disease.
On Post-mortem examination, the blood appears normal in colour but is thin and
watery. There is infiltration of serous fluid in the subcutaneous tissues where the
swellings had appeared. The lungs are normal in appearance. The heart and
kidney show degeneration and emaciation and the epicardium often contains puncti-
form hæmorrhages. Effusion of fluid is seen in the pericardium and pleural and
peritoneal cavities. The abomasum and intestines present a flabby condition and
often extravasated mucous membranes. The spleen is enlarged and its pulp is soft.
The lymphatic glands are all enlarged and œdematous.
We may now discuss whether the toxæmia is really caused by the tick infesta-
tion.
Dr. A. Theiler [1910] states, " Apart from their (of the ticks) rôle as carriers of
disease, they do an enormous amount of damage by the withdrawal of blood from
the stock and by the irritation they cause, which is generally known as "Tick
worry ". Indeed, the ticks can kill an animal without even transmitting a disease.
This we have seen in an experiment of ours, in which a horse was infested with
316 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, IV
blue ticks and which died as a result of this infestation, from acute anæmia, owing
to the withdrawal of blood. Within three days 14 lbs. weight of blue ticks were
collected which had dropped off this horse, and this amount only represented about
half of the ticks which engorged themselves on it ".
According to Hutyra and Marek, " The chief effects of the ticks as ectopara-
sites are exerted as blood suckers. Their number increases to many thousands,
each one gorging itself with blood day after day (a female Ixodes recines takes 0. 4.
c. c. of blood). As a result of the destruction of red blood cells (some 7 to 10 per
cent. of the total amount) follows the history of the ticks, while at the same time
a poisonous saliva is excreted by them. After absorption of the toxins the symp-
toms of generalised affection, uneasiness and emaciation ( " Tick worry " ) appear,
which grow worse in hot weather".
From the above two quotations it would appear that the chief injurious effects
of the ticks as ectoparasites are believed to be caused by the abstraction of blood
by the ticks. A mere abstraction of blood can hardly be regarded as a factor of
any importance in accounting for the disease. The writer has noted that larvæ
of intermittent feeders, which do not suck appreciable amounts of blood can also
produce the disease, and the observation finds confirmation in the statement made
by Hutyra and Marek [ 926], namely, guinea-pigs that are bitten by larval ticks
die within three days. Again, Marrillat [1916] states, " it is well known that the
abstraction of a limited amount of blood or even a large amount has no harmful
effects upon a healthy animal. Instead it improves the general health by exciting
vital forces to renewed activity to réplenish the loss". Smith [1912] says " Perci¬
vall tells us that in the horse he occasionally drew 3 gallons of blood, which may
be taken as half the amount in the body, apparently without fatal consequences "
and he further states, " Regeneration of the fluid portion of the blood is extremely
rapid, experiments showing that after slight hæmorrhage the normal volume is
regained within a few hours. This is supported by clinical observation; in the days
of severe bleedings venesection to the extent of producing syncope was frequent,
yet in a short time the volume was restored ". The following familiar fact is one
more example to the point. The so-called rinderpest serum producers are bled at
the progressive rates of 4 c. c. and then 6 c. c, 7 c. c. and 8 c. c. per pound body
weight 15 times at intervals of three days and are subsequently utilised for the pro-
duction of other sera or are sold. The amount of blood drawn out from the body of
a serum producer, whose weight is 600 lbs., in these 15 bleedings amounts to 115 lbs.
or 19 per cent. of the body weight during a period of 43 days. Nevertheless, the
animal does not succumb to such heavy bleedings except for rare cases of death by
shock. From the extensive observations made by him, the writer has found that
TICK INFESTATION IN COASTAL TRACT OF NORTH CANARA.
317
the amount of blood abstracted as a result of one or more infestations of ticks in
any degree of intensity is never reaching to 115 lbs. in an animal of 600 lbs. body
weight.
According to Hutyra and Marek [1926]. " The acute anæmia which develops
after great losses of blood terminates with suitable nutrition of the animal almost
without exception in a relatively short time in recovery.
.....
If the animal has lost at least half of the normal quantity of its blood within a
short time, there exists no longer any hope for its improvement (Joss)". "In
primary anæmia with normal digestion, a purely dietetic treatment alone frequently
produces an improvement progressing from day to day and even complete recovery
may result in a relatively short time " [ Hutyra and Marek, 1926]. However, in
animals in which anæmia and hydremia are produced by tick infestation medical
and dietetic treatment is of little avail—a fact which shows that the abstraction of
blood is not the causative factor.
As to the oligoeythæmia of the blood (some 7 to 10 per cent. of the total amount
of red cells) referred to by Hutyra and Marek, it is not only present in severe anæmia
resulting from a profuse loss of blood but is also found in Hæmoglobinuria,
Progressive Pernicious anæmia, Leukemia, Hæmophilia and other diseases of blood
and blood producing organs, and this indicates that it may either be due to the loss
of very large number of red cells by protozoa and other parasites of the blood,
conditions frequently successfully treated or due to the presence of poisonous
substances in the blood, in which case the condition is not amenable to treatment.
In the case of tick infested animals, oligocythæmia appears to be mainly due to the
toxins excreted by ticks.
The fact that tick toxins produce paralysis in domestic animals has been re-
ferred to by numerous workers [Hadwen and Nuttall, 1913]. In human beings tick
paralysis has been noticed in British Columbia (Temple, 1912) a single tick on the
spine or cervical region being found sufficient to produce the disease, thus proving
the dangerous nature of the toxin.
MORTALITY OF ANIMALS DUE TO TICKS.
Special care was taken to obtain accurate information upon this subject
through the Mamlatdars (Tahsildars) who rendered excellent help in getting reports
of tick infestation and mortality in the villages through their village officers.
The writer also enquired into this matter at all important centres during his tours.
From a careful analysis of the records thus collected, the average rate of mortality
due to tick infection in the village was estimated at about 5 per cent.; the mor-
tality in the villages close to and surrounded by forests was the greatest and in
318 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, IV
certain instances extended to 8 per cent., while in the extreme coast it was about
3 per cent.
The cattle population of this tract according to recent census [Statistical Atlas,
1925] is 124,285. If we take the rate of mortality due to ticks to be 5 per cent.
on an average, the total number of deaths comes to 6,114 every year. Assuming
that the cost of the average animal is Rs. 20, the total loss to this tract on account
of tick infestation comes to Rs. 1,22,280 annually.
A point of interest in respect of death rate of cattle in these tracts is that the
death rate is much higher in the tick infested area than in those which are rela-
tively free from this pest.*
The number of adult cattle imported in these tracts per year is not less than
3,000, their aggregate cost being Rs. 1,20,000, if the price of each head of cattle
is taken as Rs. 40, which price has been rendered necessary by the heavy death
rate in these localities.
The number of milking cattle in these tracts is about one-third of the total
number of cattle, namely, 41,428, supposing that about 40 per cent. of them give
birth to calves, the yearly addition to the cattle population will be 16,571. The
average mortality of the cattle population in India is said to be 5 per cent. as
against 3 per cent. in the western countries. Still we may suppose that the
average mortality in these tracts is 6 per cent. which means a loss of 7,457
animals annually. So, the increase every year after deducting the number of
mortality would be, under natural course, 9,114 and the quinquennial increase
would be 45,570. But there is practically no increase in the cattle population,
which could be seen from the following table :—
Taluka
(Tahsil)
Karwar
Aukola .
....
Kumta
Honavar
}
Bhatkal Petha
Total
1915-16.
21,285
23,085
27,665
51,394 {
123,345
Cattle census
1919-20.
22,511
23,654
28,576
32,574
18,787
126,102
1925-26.
22,658
23,337
28,889
31,382
18,019
124.285
* In the United States of America it has been calculated that in tick infested areas the death rate is
three times greater than in tick free areas.
TICK INFESTATION IN COASTAL TRACT OF NORTH CANARA
319
When considering these figures it may be borne in mind that not a single
animal is exported from these tracts, and not more than 100 cattle are used for
food, while about 3,000 cattle or more annually imported. In the face of these
figures it will be meet and right to say that the tick infestation is the main cause
for this state of cattle population.
REMEDIES AGAINST TICKS.
Cattle owners in these tracts take resort to a number of native remedies, the
more important of which are as follows :—
1. Undi oil.
2. Undi oil (Calophillum inophillum) and salt.
3. Decoction of surgi bark.
4. Decoction of betelnut leaf.
5. Decoction of tobacco.
6. Exposing infested animals to dewfall.
7. Satisfying devils and serpent god or witchcraft.
All the above excepting the last one have been thoroughly tried by the writer
and found of little use. A certain amount of beneficial result, although very
transient in character, follows the application of these remedies and thus the
people, absolutely ignorant of the bionomics of ticks, have considerable faith in
the efficacy of these empirical methods of treatment. A bitter viscid oil or one of
the decoctions mentioned above blocks the stigmata of the ticks and the
application of these drugs causes them to drop off their host but only eventually to
find some other host. When the larvæ or nymphæ of intermittent feeders drop
down naturally after engorgement for undergoing metamorphosis, the phenomenon
is ascribed by the stock-owner to the remedies used or to the witchcraft
practised.
Of the very large number of native remedies experimented upon by the writer,
the following has been found by him very efficacious when applied two or three
times:—
Undi oil (Calophillum inophillum) or Karanja oil (Pangamia
glabra)
5 parts.
Kerosene oil
1 part.
Sublimed sulphur
¼
part.
Kymac sheep dip, a proprietary preparation, which was made available by the
Superintendent, Civil Veterinary Department, Bombay Presidency, was given a
320 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, IV
thorough trial and an 1 in 60 solution of it was found very useful in destroying
ticks when sprayed or mopped at least twice.
CONTROL MEASURES.
Grazing areas are the most prolific centres for the dissemination of tick infes-
tation. Unfortunately the individual stockowner barely possesses any grazing area
of his own and for this purpose he utilises the reserved and minor forests which
are under the control of the Forest Department; so that it is incumbent on the
Government authorities to apply such control measures as have been found by
scientific experimentation to be the best for combating ticks.
As the majority of cattle sheds in these tracts are infested with ticks, the ideal
course would be to discard preferably many old sheds and to disinfect the remain-
ing as follows:—
Clean them from all litter, debris and other loose things lying on the
floor and walls; remove a foot or more of earth from the floor and burn it
along with grass and litter, preferably in and open area; leave the shed
unused for at least 45 days, during which period flame the inside and outside
surface of the walls and pillars with a small torch or with a blow lamp. The
application of the fire should be repeated every three days up to the 45th day
within which period all the ticks undergoing metamorphosis in the crevices will
gradually come out and be burnt in the fire.
The shed should generally have a hard rammed or cement floor or floor
covered with stone slabs. The pillars and walls should be plastered smoothly with
lime and mud. Manure should no longer be prepared under the feet of cattle and
cleanliness of the shed and cattle should be scrupulously attended to. The head,
the neck and under surface of the body of all cattle should receive a thin applica-
tion of any bitter viscid oil containing kerosene and sulphur before they are sent
out for grazing, especially during the month of June to October.
The present mode of preparing manure in the shed should be stopped and
the manure pit itself should be used for this purpose. People are under the
erroneous impression that a good manure cannot be prepared without allowing the
dry and green leaves to rot under the feet of cattle. A manure of very good
quality can be prepared by spreading alternately layers of dry or green leaves
and layers of cow dung and urine collected from cattle sheds, sprinkling a few
gallons of water on them and covering the stuff with straw or cudgeons in order to
prevent evaporation and exposure to sun and rains. When the pit becomes filled
up it may be covered as above along with earth in order to keep the contents of the
pit airtight. By this process not only does the manure improve considerably in
quality but it also causes any tick lurking in the material to perish.
TICK INFESTATION IN COASTAL TRACT OF NORTH CANARA
321
The most efficient curative and preventive remedy against these parasites, as
found out recently by extensive experimentation is the arsenic dip. A number of
dipping mixtures with arsenic as the principal ingredient have been devised and
the following are well known :—
1. Queensland Mixture.
Re
White arsenic
Caustic soda
Stockholm tar
Tallow
8 lbs.
4½lbs.
2½ lbs.
8 lbs.
Boil in 400 gallons of water.
2. The standard Arsenical formula of the United States of America.
Re
White arsenic
Sodium carbonate
Pure Tar
Water
8 lbs.
24 lbs.
1 gallon.
ad. 500 gallons.
Directions.—Arsenic and sodium carbonate are dissolved by boiling in 25 to
30 gallons of water, after which the fire is drawn and the solution allowed to cool a
little. The tar is then added and finally the mixture added to sufficient water to
make 500 gallons of dip.
3. Watkins—Pitchford Laboratory fluid.
Re.
Arsenite of soda
Soft soap
Paraffin
Hot water
8½ lbs.
5½ gallons.
2 gallons.
400 gallons.
Extensive trials in America, Africa and Australia have shown that periodic
dippings in these fluids not only rid animals of ticks but also constitute a very
efficient check against the spread of infection from one locality to another and also
frees the country gradually from the infestation.
The District Boards, Veterinary Departments and Co-operative societies may
perhaps introduce these dips at important centres or in an itinerating basis, which,
if seriously undertaken, can be run on self-supporting lines after a certain period of
advertisement.
REFERENCES.
Cooper, H (1926). Tick-borne diseases with some remarks on the disease of cattle caused by
Protozoa. Agri: Jour. Ind., Vol. XXI, Part II, March 1926, pp. 95—100.
Cooper, H (1926). Piroplasmosis in cattle in India. Agri. Jour. Ind., Vol. XXI, Part IV, July
1926, pp. 313—317.