NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
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THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [I, I
16. PIROPLASMOSIS.
The " piroplasmoses " are diseases caused by invasion of red blood cells with
numerous minute animal parasites (piroplasms). In natural circumstances they are
transmitted to animals by the bites of ticks, but they can also be transmitted
artificially from an infected animal or a " carrier " of the piroplasms, to a suscepti-
ble healthy animal. In this manner they may be injected inadvertently into the
inoculated cattle with the virulent blood. In many localities all the cattle become
infected naturally while they are young, by the bites of ticks. Young cattle possess
a high degree of resistance and recover readily, but they always harbour small
numbers of the parasites in a dormant state in their systems afterwards throughout
life. During even a mild attack of rinderpest the parasites may be roused again
from their dormant state owing to the depressed condition of the animal's body and
invade the system once more in large numbers. This awakening of the parasites
may take place at any time after inoculation of rinderpest virus and the disease
then seen is not due to any piroplasms that may have been present in the virulent
blood. This so-called " resuscitation " may therefore occur when the goat virus
method is used although that virus has been cleansed of piroplasms. (Chart 11).
There are two main diseases of cattle due to " piroplasms ".
(a) Redwater. The parasites which produce this disease are known as Babesia
bigemina, which are relatively large bodies found within the red cells, often resem-
bling two-pears meeting towards their narrow ends, or else appearing in large round
forms resembling a signet ring. (Plate I, fig. 1). The reaction due to redwater or
ganisms often occurs on the sixth evening (charts 8 and 9). It may, however, occur
until about the tenth day, or sometimes a day or two later. The reaction consists
of a sharp rise in temperature usually much higher than that observed in rinderpest.
The two reactions may be superimposed, thus fever due to rinderpest may be
exhibited from the 3rd, 4th or 5th days and a further rise perhaps to 106 or 107°F.,
due to redwater may be seen on the 6th evening or later (charts 8 and 9). The
complicating disease is frequently associated with the characteristic clinical
symptoms of redwater, namely, the passing of urine coloured red or dark-brown
from the presence of destroyed blood excreted by the kindneys; sometimes,
however, the animal may die suddenly without exhibiting any such symptom.
(Chart 10). The resuscitated disease is similar except that it may occur either
earlier or later than when due to inoculation.
A form of specific treatment is available for this disease, namely, the use of the
drug Trypanblue (Chart 8). Dissolve the powdered drug to form a one per cent.
solution in boiled water, and preferably filter the solution before use. It is highly
advantageous to inject the drug intravenously since its action is then more rapid
PLATE I.
The plate consists of four composite pictures each made from camera lucida drawings taken from several
representative smears. The figures illustrating the "piroplasms" represent the parasites as they are seen under
a high power (1/12th inch oil immersion lens) of the microscope, whereas the coccidia are magnified only about
one-third the size of the "piroplasms", and represent them as seen under a low power (1/6th inch dry lens).
Illustrating a redwater temperature reaction following upon a mild rinderpest reaction in a bull and
ending in recovery under treatment with trypanblue ; Hill-bull No. 3124 (Muktesar) serum and
05s virus injected on 17th January 1925.
Illustrating a " redwater " temperature reaction superimposed upon a severe rinderpest reaction in a
bull and ending in death ; Hill-bull No. 1348 (Muktesar) injected serum and ox virus on 16th
January 1925.
Illustrating sudden death from redwater in a calf without symptoms other than fever, following upon
a mild rinderpest reaction ; Control to serum-simultaneous anti-rinderpest inoculations 7/8 bred
calf No. 524 (Bangalore) ox virus injected on 10th February 1924.
Illustrating a blocked out rinderpest reaction and mild resuscitation of redwater following goat
virus injection in a calf, ending in recovery ; Cross-bred calf No. 177 (Muktesar) injected
with serum and goat virus on 10th June 1929.
Illustrating acute theileriasis In a bull following upon a mild rinderpest reaction, and ending in recovery ; Imported Holstein
bull (Allahabad) serum-simultaneous anti-rinderpest inoculation given on 27th January 1927.
ANTI-RINDERPEST INOCULATION OF CATTLE
11
and occasionally severe swellings may be caused if it is injected subcutaneously.
It is advisable to use not less than 50 c.c. of the solution for calves and up to 150
c.c. or more for large animals.
In carrying out serum-simultaneous inoculations it is strongly recommended
that an ample supply of Trypanblue should be available. It is not necessary to
wait for confirmation of the diagnosis of piroplasmosis by blood smear examina-
tion, but it is advisable to inject the drug without delay when a fever reaction
occurs on the evening of the 6th day or later, or when hyperpyrexia is exhibited.
If the complication is due to B. bigemina, then a rapid drop in the temperature
occurs. If high fever continues, it is probably not due to these parasites, but the
injection of Trypanblue will have done no harm.
(b) Theileriasis. This infection is probably more widespread than that with
B. bigemina. The parasites most commonly responsible for this disease in India
are known as Theileria mutans which are much smaller than B. bigemina ; usually
seen inside the red blood corpuscles as minute rod-shaped organisms or as very
small " rings ". (Plate I, fig. 2). The most usual form of the disease is a very
chronic or " carrier" infection in which ill effects are not recognisable. It is
possible that although the parasites may increase slightly in number during a
rinderpest reaction they seldom cause serious disease due to resuscitation in the
same way as occurs with the Redwater parasite. When, however, inoculated with
rinderpest blood, the organisms may set up an acute and severe disease in suscep-
tible animals, particularly in imported stock and sometimes in cross-breds,
(Chart 12). The reaction consists in very high fever (106°F. or more) occurring
not as suddenly as in Redwater, but it is continued steadily for a number of days.
During this stage of high fever parasites may not be very frequent in the blood
stream. Subsequently the temperature fluctuates and parasites then become very
numerous in the red blood corpuscles. A common symptom is lachrymation and
watery discharge from the nostrils. Treatment with Trypanblue usually has no
appreciable effect. (Chart 12). In animals that succumb, the structures known
as " Blue bodies " identical with those seen in East Coast fever of Africa may be
detected in the spleen and other lymphoid tissue, and these bodies may also be
seen in lymphatic gland puncture smears made during life at the height of the
disease. (Plate I, fig. 3). These bodies may also occasionally be found in blood
smears.
Unfortunately at the present time no specific treatment is known for the acute
severe form of Theileriasis in cattle. The drug " Plasmoquine " is under trial at
the present time, and in some cases it appears to have a beneficial effect in
reducing the fever. It is given by intramuscular injection in doses up to 30 c.c. of
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THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [I, I
a one per cent. solution for the largest type of imported animal, such as a full
grown Holstein bull. The injection is repeated daily up to four or five days.
Very careful attention should be paid to general nursing and hygiene of all affected
animals.
17. COCCIDIOSIS.
This is a disease condition caused by minute egg-shaped protozoan parasites
(known as coccidia) which inhabit, as dormant parasites, the intestine of a consider-
able proportion of all breeds of Indian cattle. It is not possible, of course, for
these organisms to be transmitted with virulent blood used in serum-simultaneous
inoculation, but the parasites already present in the intestine may quite frequently
be resuscitated from their state of dormancy, if the animal harbouring them
develops a rinderpest reaction sufficient to cause diarrhœa. (Charts 13 and 14).
Ordinarily the diarrhœa due to rinderpest lasts only for a few days and in normal
mild attacks it quickly clears up. If the attack is complicated by a resuscitation
of coccidia, on the other hand, the diarrhœa is much prolonged ; the fæces become
very fluid in consistence and fœtid in odour. Then follow the clinical spmptoms
of a true dysentery. A large amount of mucus is passed with at first streaks of
blood; the proportion of blood becomes greater until blood clots can be recognised
mixed with the fæces.
Diagnosis at this stage is readily made by examination of shreds of the mucus
placed between a glass slide and cover slip and examined as a " wet " unstained
preparation with a low power of the microscope. In such preparations the
parasites (the so-called " oocysts ") are seen as round to ovoid nearly transparent
bodies containing a central collected mass of refractile material. (Plate I, fig. 4).
The stage during which the " oocyst " form of the parasite is present in large
numbers in the fæces lasts, however, only for a very few days, but the clinical
symptoms of severe dysentery persists for several days after the parasites have
apparently disappeared. The presence of much mucus and streaks of blood or
actual blood clots in the fæces can be taken to be diagnostic of clinical coccidiosis.
No specific treatment has yet been found to have any direct effect upon
coccidia. The disease, however, usually yields to ordinary medicinal and hygienic
measures. It is essential to keep affected animals well protected from cold and
damp. They should be kept warm by the use of rugs and careful attention must
be paid to diet which should be nutritious and given in small quantities frequently.
The administration of intestinal astringents and antiseptics as well as general
stimulants should supplement the ordinary measures of nursing.
The complications of serum-simultaneous inoculation as described above should
be borne in mind and understood by officers undertaking this form of inoculation,
Illustrating clinical coccidiosis in a bull following upon a severe rinderpest reaction and ending in death ; Hill bull
No. 156 (Muktesar) serum and ox virus injected on 1st May 1924.
Ilustrating clinical coccidiosis in a bull following upon a severe rinderpest reaction and ending in recovery ; Hill bull
No. 123 (Muktesar) ox virus injected on 1st May 1924.
ANTI-RINDERPEST INOCULATION OF CATTLE
13
but it is to be remembered that they occur comparatively infrequently and the loss
due to them is extremely small when it is calculated among the very large number
of cattle inoculated properly by this method. Complicating infections due to
inoculation with the virus cannot be avoided, but by the application of prompt
treatment the possibility of serious consequences can be reduced to a minimum.
Complications due to resuscitation of dormant parasites usually indicates an insuffi-
cient quantity of serum used against a potent virus.
SUMMARY.
1. All cattle and buffaloes may be inoculated except:—
(a) debilitated animals;
(b) cows in very advanced pregnancy.
2. Repeat inoculation of calves after two years.
3. Restrict movement of inoculated animals.
4. Use only special white label serum.
5. Do not inject less than 30 c.c. of serum.
6. Use virus immediately on receipt.
7. Do not use virus or serum that has become grossly contaminated.
8. Use goat virus only if reactions in virus producers are fully satisfactory.
9. Use controls whenever possible. They provide virus for second injections.
10. Give second injections of virus in all cattle that have not reacted to the first
injection.
11. Give second injections of virus within 8 days after the first injection.
12. Make certain that syringes contain the full amount of virus or serum before
injecting a dose.
13. See that each animal receives the dose of serum before virus is injected.
14. If fever occurs on or after the sixth day, inject Trypanblue at once.
REFERENCES.
Edwards (1925). Agric. J. India 20, 429-443.
Edwards (1927). Trans. Seventh Congress Far Eastern Assoc. Trop. Med. 3, 629-705.
Edwards (1928). Agric. J. India 23, 185-189.
Sheather (1923). JI. Comp. Path. & Therap 36, 71-90.
THREE-DAY SICKNESS OF CATTLE.
(A RÉSUMÉ OF THE LITERATURE.)
BY
S. K. SEN, M. Sc., F. E. S.,
Protozoologist, Imperial Institute of Veterinary Research, Muktesar-Kumaun.
CONTENTS
DISTRIBUTION
INCIDENCE AND SEASONAL OCCURRENCE
SYMPTOMS
REPRODUCTION OF THE DISEASE
POST-MORTEM APPEARANCES
ÆTIOLOGY
MORTALITY
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
TREATMENT
REFERENCES
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PAGE
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Leaving aside the numerous vernacular names under which the above disease is
known in localities where it is prevalent, the three common appellations under which
it has been described in veterinary literature are " Ephemeral Fever ", " Three-day
Fever" and " Stiff-sickness ". As has been pointed out by Theiler [1909-10],
however, the term " Stiff-sickness " or " Stijfziekte " (also sometimes called " Lam-
ziekte ") in cattle also applies to another condition that had been known in South
Africa long before the so-called " Three-day Fever " came to be regarded as a
disease of any importance in that country and these two diseases are in no way
connected with each other, for while " Three-day sickness " has all the character of
an epizootic, " Stiff-sickness " proper (now definitely ascribed to the eating of the
species of plant, Crotalaria burkeana) is generally restricted to certain farms where
it occurs in an endemic form. To avoid confusion, some authors [e.g., Bevan,
1923] have advised the avoidance of the term "Stiff-sickness" as a synonym for
"Three-day sickness", although the term is doubtless more expressive of the
condition than " Ephemeral Fever ", for, as will be seen from what is to be stated
later, it is the " stiffness " that constitutes by far the chief characteristic of the
disease. As a matter of fact, to designate the condition as a form of " fever " is
calculated to subordinate its main characteristic to one much less diagnostic, so
( 14 )
THREE-DAY SICKNESS OF CATTLE
15
that the term " Three-Day Sickness " (" Dreitage-Krankheit "), as has been given
to it by Bevan [1907], Hutyra and Marek [1922] and others, would seem to possess
in this respect a greater measure of precision by the very reason of its being clini-
cally less definite. As to the term " Bovine Influenza ", for which some authors
[e.g., Venkatachala Iyer, 1924] have expressed a preference, Rabagliati [1924]
points out that this term also " does not meet the case, as in influenza some of the
most striking features are the resulting debility, prolonged period of convalescence
and the complications; whereas in ' stiff-sickness ', prostration, though often
marked at first, is rarely prolonged, and complications do not appear to follow ".
The disease has also been called by some authors as a form of " dengue ".
DISTRIBUTION.
The earliest reference to what is regarded as being probably identical with
three-day sickness occurs in a book entitled " The Heart of Africa ", written by Dr.
George Schweinfurth and published in 1867, and what would appear to be the same
disease was described by Piot Bey, in Egypt, in 1895, under the name " dengue
fever ". The disease was, however, first actually studied, in South Africa, by Edmonds
[1906] and later by Bevan [1907], Theiler [1907], Freer [1910] and others, the
account published by Bevan, in particular, being based on what would appear to
be a very considerable amount of first-hand observations. Rabagliati [1924], in
Egypt, has also contributed a note which is of especial interest in view of the
discussion it contains illustrating certain points of difference between the Egyptian
and Indian forms of the disease.
The disease does not appear to have been recorded in Europe, America, or
other countries, except India and probably Japan, but in Nederl.-Ind. Blad. v.
Dierengeneesk. en Dierent, J. Merkens [1919] describes what he calls " a disease of
milch cows", and it is stated in an editorial foot-note to his article that the
disease is probably identical with three-day sickness.
Futamura [1922], in Japan, describes a form of " bovine influenza "
characterized by an elevated temperature falling after the third day and other
symptoms strongly suggestive of three-day sickness, but the article has only been
seen in abstract and definite opinion upon the identity of this affection must be
reserved until the original paper has been available for reference.
The earliest mention of the occurrence of the disease in India is made by
Wallis Hoare [1913], whose information in this respect had, however, been derived
from French sources where the word " L ' Inde " might mean either India or the
Indies. The first authentic account of the disease in India is given by Meadows
[1919], who states that three-day sickness occurs in the North-West Frontier
B
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THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [I, I
Province and the North Punjab and probably all over North-West India, and he
regards the disease as being "probably quite common", occurring as it does up
to an altitude of 6,000 feet. In Madras and the adjoining countries, the disease
has been recorded from the Ceded and Northern Districts [Pantulu, 1920];
Negapatam [Parameswaran, 1920]; Coorg [Shastry, 1920]; Kistna District
[Venkatesa Ayyar, 1920]; Kuppam [Ramachandra Ayyar, 1923]; Kamalapuram
[Ramanathan, 1923]; and Gudalur and an adjacent estate [Venkatachala Ayyar,
1924]. The disease has also been described from various localities in the Central
Provinces, by Misra [1927] and Gopal Krishnan [1928], whilst the records at the
Muktesar Institute contain reference to suspected outbreaks in Bettiah Raj (Bihar)
in 1917-18 and at Sitapur (U. P.) in 1927.
INCIDENCE AND SEASONAL OCCURRENCE.
Cattle of all kinds are susceptible to the disease, irrespective of their age,
breed, condition or their having previously suffered from one or more attacks of
the same disease, and as many as four successive attacks have been observed to
occur in the same animal [Freer, 1910], although there is an immunity of at least
six weeks after each recovery. Swaminatha Ayyar [1920], in Madras, found that
suckling calves were " practically immune."
According to Freer [1910] and Edmonds and Walker [1929], calves are more
resistant to the disease than older animals and fat animals suffer more than those
in low condition, but Bevan [1907] states that " experience has proved this idea
to be a fallacy; cattle in poor condition have proved equally susceptible."
Occasional cases of natural infection in sheep have also been observed [Bevan,
1907 ; Edmonds and Walker, 1929].
The disease makes its appearance in a sudden manner and quite a number
of animals may become affected within the first day or two, whilst intervals
of many miles have sometimes been found to occur between the various infected
areas [Bevan, 1907, 1923]. As remarked by Edmonds and Walker [1929], it would
be more appropriate to speak of the disease as having] " jumped " rather than
having " spread."
In regard to the percentage of incidence of the disease, Edmonds and Walker
[1929] roundly place it at about 50 per cent. and Futamura [1922], in Japan, also
gives the same percentage for what he designates " bovine influenza ", whilst,
according to Gray [1915-16], in South Africa 40 to 50 animals in a herd may be
affected. Rabagliati [1924] states that in 1909 there were 389 cases in Egypt,
the affection being eventually carried to the Egyptian Serum Institute, where 54
out of 120 animals became affected. Curiously, between 1909 and 1924, there
THREE-DAY SICKNESS OF CATTLE
17
were only a few isolated outbreaks in Egypt, except for 215 cases in 1915 and
346 in 1919-20.
Very little exact information is obtainable concerning the percentage of
incidence of the disease in India, but Meadows [1919] states that usually only a
small proportion—one-fifth or less—of the animals in a herd are affected, whilst
Parameswaran [1920], working at Negapatam, records 12 (epizootic) cases for
1916-17 and 4 cases for 1919, the return for 1918 being nil. It is of interest that
Venkatesa Ayyar [1920] found the disease raging, side by side, with hæmorrhagic
septicæmia, in the Kistna District.
Observations in South and East Africa and also in India point to the fact that
the disease is most frequent during or after the rains. In Madras, cases have been
observed at Negapatam in September; in the Kistna District, in August and
September ; at Kamalapuram, from April to December ; and at Gudalur, from
August to November. Swaminatha Ayyar [1920], speaking for the whole of the
Madras Presidency, says that the majority of cases occur during the months from
July to December. In the Central Provinces, the disease mostly prevails during
the rains, but sporadic cases of the disease have been met with from October to
February [Misra, 1927], whilst, according to Gopal Krishnan [1928], " an occasional
outbreak, or case, in any month of the year is not rare". On the other hand,
Rabagliati [1924], speaking of Egypt, observes : " The assumption that the disease
is confined to cold and wet weather was certainly not borne out in Egypt, where
the severe outbreaks have been in summer when it is very hot, and rain is
unknown."
SYMPTOMS.
As the name " stiff-sickness " suggests, the prevailing symptom of the disease
is stiffness, which may be noticed in one or more legs, the stiffness frequently
passing rapidly from one limb to another and involving the muscles of the neck,
back or the pharynx, and in the last event (which is regarded by Freer [1911] as
being very chracteristic of the disease), deglutition becomes difficult. Freer
graphically describes the appearance of an affected animal as being " very much
like that of a wooden cow ", with the characteristic look of " extreme hopelessness
unless assisted ", whilst Chambers [1911] characterizes it as being " stiff and
tucked up ". Meadows [1919] records cases of animals lying down obstinately and
refusing to rise and others standing with their backs arched and heads extended
whilst Ramanathan [1923] mentions having observed an animal which was " lame
on all its fours, with the back bent, as if suffering from rheumatism". The
temperature may rise up to 107° F. on the first day, but in normal cases it rapidly
declines and on the second day it is seldom above 104° F. [Bevan], and it regularly
B 2