NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
IMMUNIZATION OF DRAFT ANIMALS AGAINST ANTHRAX
157
a reaction as had been produced in cattle at the former test in April of that year.
The virulent spore emulsion was retested and found to be unchanged.
The elephants selected for the crucial tests were two males and two females
for immunisation and two crock elephants as controls—all full grown animals.
Two goats were also procured for initial control experiments.
To gain as much information out of the experiment as possible, the immunisa-
tion of the four elephants was done by four different methods. The inoculations
were done personally by the Special Research Officer. The test was commenced
on December 3rd, 1929.
INOCULATION OF VACCINE.
Elephant A—2 c. c. vaccine on two occasions at an interval of 14 days (2
c. c. double).
Elephant B—1 c. c. vaccine on two occasions at an interval of 14 days (1
c. c. double).
Elephant C—2 c. c. vaccine on one occasion (2 c. c. single.).
Elephant D—1 c. c. vaccine on one occasion (1 c. c. single).
All the elephants gave a definite thermal reaction from the first inoculation
commencing about the fourth day and being maintained a few days after which a
normal temperature was shown. There were no large local swellings, the average
size being about 4" diameter. No reaction was shown after the second inoculation
in the two animals which received a double dose.
A month was allowed to elapse from the date of the second inoculations for the
development of immunity.
ESTIMATION OF DOSE OF VIRULENT EMULSION REQUIRED TO KILL AN ELEPHANT.Before tes
was essential to know whether a dose of 1,000 M. L. D. would be sufficient to kill
an elephant.
A control elephant (E) and goat (I) were therefore given a dose of 1 c. c. of
virulent spore emulsion, equivalent to 1,000 M. L. D. for sheep, on January 20th.
The goat died of anthrax in 36 hours and the elephant on the 6th day after
inoculation. The diagnosis was made on the spot by microscopic examination of
the blood. The carcases were then cremated.
TEST ON IMMUNISED ELEPHANTS WITH VIRULENT EMULSION AND RESULTS.
Elephant A and the remaining control goat (II) were given an inoculation of
1,000 M. L. D. of virulent anthrax on January 26th. The control goat died in 30
158 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, II
hours from microscopically diagnosed anthrax. Elephant A developed a local
swelling about 3" in diameter which persisted for a few days but otherwise showed
no effect from the inoculation.
The elephant A presumably possessed the strongest immunity of all the
inoculated elephants having been given the largest dose of vaccine (4 c. c.).
As no ill effects were shown in this animal and as it was desired to push the test
to a conclusion as soon as possible, the remaining elephants B, C, D and one non-
inoculated control elephant F were injected with virulent spore emulsion on
February 7th, the vaccinated elephants receiving 1,000 M.L.D. and the control
F 500 M.L.D. or half the quantity administered to the first control elephant E.
Elephants B and D showed a slight temperature reaction within 48 hours after
the inoculation, elephant C remained normal. No local swellings developed and
the animals remained perfectly fit.
The control elephant E developed an enormous swelling at the site of the in-
oculation on the 3rd day and death from anthrax occurred on the fourth day.
CONCLUSION OF THE TEST.
The remaining four elephants were discharged from experiment on February
23rd and experiment concluded.
Notes on the Test. The dose of virulent culture (1,000 M.L.D.) which the
vaccinated animals received was many times greater than would ever be met with
in the infected areas in the jungle. The incubation period under natural conditions
is estimated at about 10 days and half the dose (500 M.L.D.) given to the second
control elephant showed an incubation period of three days and death in four, we
can therefore assume that the immunity would be sufficient to protect against any
natural infection.
The absence of swellings in the vaccinated animals at the site of the inocula-
tion was probably due to care in sterilization of the skin and to having the animals
under good control in a specially erected crush pen which facilitated the operation of
inoculation.
It will be noted that on each of the three occasions when virulent material was
inoculated, a control (non-vaccinated) animal was also injected, so the results may
be accepted as definitely conclusive.
It is remarkable that quite as good an immunity resulted from the single dose
of 1 c.c. as for the double dose of 2 c.c., but when it is remembered that the vaccine
is an emulsion of living spores which are capable of multiplying in the tissues on
injection, the quantity of material originally injected requires only to be enough
to set up a local focus of infection and start the immunising process.
IMMUNIZATION OF DRAFT ANIMALS AGAINST ANTHRAX
159
Conclusions.
From the results of the test on elephants at Shwenyaungbin, the following data
has been obtained:—
1. The period of incubation in experimentally produced anthrax in elephants
varies from 3 to 6 days.
2. Vaccine prepared from the South African bovine strain anthrax is safe for
use in elephants in doses up to 4 c.c.
3. Doses of 1 c.c. and over give an absolute protection against a dose of 1,000
M.L.D. of virulent elephants strain anthrax after a period of 30 days.
4. With care in carrying out the inoculations, the risk of producing local
swellings is very slight.
5. The most satistactory site for the inoculation of anthrax into elephants is
on the chest wall just clear of the play of the shoulder at the level of the elbow
joint.
CATTLE TESTS.
While these tests were in progress at Shwenyaungbin the cattle on the Agricul-
tural College farm, among which there had been a case of anthrax some time
previously, were inoculated with 1 c.c. of vaccine each.
No temperatures were taken, but it was not possible from the general appear-
ance of the animals during the next 14 days to note any departure from the normal.
In the milch cows there was no appreciable drop in milk secretion although this was
anticipated.
The following animals were vaccinated on the dates indicated:—
17th December 1929—
Bulls .
Cows
Heifers
Heifer's calf
Working bullocks
24th February 1930—
Bullocks
Cows
.....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
5
10
5
1
31
52
16
2
18
52
18
70
G
160 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, II
Conclusions.
These results in cattle when considered with the previous Laboratory tests
indicate that the use of the anthrax vaccine is safe in cattle. It is not considered
necessary to test out the immunity against a dose of virulent emulsion as it is
considered that a good protection is given.
BUFFALO TESTS.
It was considered desirable to test out the action of the vaccine on buffaloes as
these animals frequently contract the disease and are undoubtedly a source of
danger to the elephants working in the adjoining forests. Great difficulty was
experienced in getting suitable animals for a test in the Insein area. The majority
of the buffaloes kept in this area are of the Indian type of milch buffalo.
The problem was discussed with one of the members of the firm of Bombay
Burmah Trading Corporation (Mr. Phillips) and he kindly offered to place 12
animals at our disposal for a test, on the basis of payment for any animals which
died as a result of the inoculation.
This was accepted and a test on a mixed lot of twelve young and old animals
was carried out at Alegyun on February 24th, 1930. The vaccine used was the
same as that employed in the test on cattle and elephants in doses of 1 c.c.
The result of the inoculation was very satisfactory. All the animals developed
a temperature reaction about the fourth day, becoming normal two to three days
later. One aged very thin buffalo developed a severe reaction and was off feed for
one and half days but recovered rapidly. The reactions resembled those given by
cattle during immunisation.
Conclusions.
From these results, and taking into consideration the results in the allied
species, it is considered that anthrax vaccine is safe for use in buffaloes. The ques-
tion of degree of immunity is not at the moment of great importance, but this may
be tested out later if break-downs after vaccination are reported.
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE TESTS.
The vaccination against anthrax of the three species of draft animals—elephant,
cattle and buffaloes—has given very promising results in Laboratory and field
experiments.
These have demonstrated that a vaccine prepared in Burma from attenuated
strains is safe to use, and in those animals (sheep and elephants) which were tested
out for the immunity produced, the results exceeded expectations.
IMMUNIZATION OF DRAFT ANIMALS AGAINST ANTHRAX
161
PROPOSALS FOR THE FUTURE.
The question of introducing the vaccine for general immunisation of animals in
the infected areas can now be considered at the next step, and arrangements are in
progress for the inoculation of a number of elephants in the danger zones during the
approaching hot weather " rest period ".
Inoculation of cattle and buffaloes against the disease will give rise to consider-
able difficulties as there is no provision for compulsory inoculation against any
disease in the Cattle Disease Rules and only in the presence of an epidemic will the
villager consent to any inoculation being carried out on his animals. Inoculation
with anthrax vaccine under these conditions is not to be recommended.
Vaccination against anthrax is a preventive and not a curative measure and
should be done as an annual routine procedure, otherwise its value as a prophylactic
is not made full use of. Inoculations carried out in the presence of active infection,
in animals not previously vaccinated, are associated with considerable risk of trans-
mission of the disease to healthy animals by the operator's needle. Deaths under
these conditions, due to natural infection, would, in the majority of cases, be
attributed to the vaccine.
Until powers are available for compulsory inoculation of cattle and buffaloes
at any time it is considered necessary, little progress in connection with the control
of the disease in village herds can be hoped for.
Although the results in the Laboratory tests were considered satisfactory and
conclusive, it is realized that the final test of the efficacy of the vaccine will be the
results during the coming anthrax period (April to July) in vaccinated animals
working in the infected areas.
It is hoped that the inoculation of a sufficiently large number of elephants will
be completed this year before this period to allow of reliable data being obtained
for comparison with figures for the same areas in previous seasons.
DURATION OF DEGREE OF IMMUNITY.
It is the experience, in immunisation of animals against anthrax, that immunity
lasts about 12—16 months. It is customary therefore to repeat the vaccination
at 12 monthly intervals.
This is essential because an area once infected with anthrax remains so almost
permanently. The spores, the infective agent, are highly resistant and are known to
remain active for over 30 years.
162 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, II
Under ordinary conditions this annual inoculation is all that is necessary to
prevent mortality, but if the area is grossly infected or if an outbreak among non-
protected animals occurred in the neighbourhood, it would be necessary to re-inoculate
for the sake of safety at intervals of six months.
The question of duration of the immunity elephants may be tested out in the
future when arrangements can be made, and if it is considered that a test is neces-
sary. At present there is no intention to do so as it would involve considerable
expense for which there is no justification.
KEEPING QUALITIES OF THE VACCINE.
The vaccine is a very stable product and under good storage conditions will
remain unaffected for a considerable period. No difficulty should be experienced
with regard to its distribution in the jungle areas where it will be used, as it will
keep for about two months after issue from the Laboratory if protected from light
and heat.
INOCULATION OF HERDS.
The operation of vaccination is a very simple procedure and can be performed
by any one having a knowledge of general principles of sterilization and asepsis.
It is proposed therefore to train forest assistants in the various timber firms, etc.,
which will require to have large numbers of animals vaccinated annually in this
work, by a series of practical demonstrations now being arranged. This will relieve
the Civil Veterinary Department of the responsibility for having to arrange for
these annual inoculations in the future. With the present staff at our disposal it
would be impossible to undertake this work on firm's elephants in the forest areas,
but selected members of the Veterinary Staff will be trained in the work so that
they will be able to deal with animals in infected areas in their districts.
SUPPLY OF VACCINE.
A sufficient supply of tested vaccine is available to meet all requirements during
this season 1930-31, but it will be necessary to make provision for the season 1931-
32 during this present year.
The Special Research Officer having now taken over control of the Department,
it will not be possible for him to devote any lengthy periods of time to research work
and it is hoped that from among the applicants for the posts now being advertised
it will be possible to select one having the requisite Laboratory experience to carry
on this work.
IMMUNIZATION OF DRAFT ANIMALS AGAINST ANTHRAX
163
ANTHRAX IN HORSES.
No Laboratory tests have been carried out in regard to the immunisation of
horses against this disease.
Horses are highly susceptible to anthrax, much more so than cattle or elephants,
and a vaccine suitable for immunising this species would require to be specially
made and of a very low degree of virulence.
The cost of preparing a vaccine is mainly the cost of the experimental animals
used, and if only a small quantity was necessary the cost of production would be
prohibitive.
The distribution of the disease in horses appears to be limited to the Insein
District and the number of animals which would be submitted for vaccination would
be comparatively few. Under these conditions it is considered that it would not
be economical to maintain a stock of vaccine suitable for horses. If however it can
be shown that the cost of production would be justified., a stock could be prepared
in the future.
CONCLUDING REMARKS.
The assistance which has been given by firms and individuals during the last
couple of years while work on this problem was in progress is most gratefully
acknowledged, in particular the help and encouragement which was received on
many occasions from members of the Bombay Burmah Trading Corporation. The
arrangements for carrying out tests in elephants and buffaloes were organised by
this firm and no trouble or expense was spared to make the arrangements as perfect
as possible. To Mr. Wroughton and Mr. Prior must be given the credit for making
these tests possible.
The public spirited action of the four contributing firms in putting up elephants
for the test will be recognised as highly commendable when it is realized that had
the tests been unsuccessful they would have lost, in elephants alone, a sum of
approximately Rs. 30,000.
The local arrangements for the test at Shwenyaungbin were dealt with by
Messrs. MacGregor & Co., Toungoo, who willingly seconded their Veterinary Assist-
ant for the duration of the tests at considerable inconvenience. The work of this
officer, Mr. Birch, was very highly appreciated. He was in sole charge of the camp
until the work, with virulent anthrax was commenced and rendered invaluable aid
throughout in the control and management of the elephants and their attendants,
erection of crush pen for inoculation and cremation of the carcases of the animals
which died.
The developments during this coming season in immunised animals will be
awaited with interest, and, in view of the results herein recorded, with a consider-
able amount of confidence.
H
CLINICAL NOTES.
An Interesting Case of Cystic Calculi.
(With Plate VI.)
A Sahiwal stud bull, eight years old, while in active service, suddenly showed
acute symptoms of colic, on the morning of the 9th October, 1930. I suspected acute
digestive trouble and full dose of linseed oil with spt. ammonia aromaticus was
administered and the bull was given gentle walking exercise. After three hours,
finding no relief and the pain getting severer, another dose of oil was administered
with the same result. The temperature and pulse were normal, but the respiration
was laboured. Defecation and urination were arrested. A full dose of magnesii
sulph. with spt. ammonia aromaticus and tinct. belladona was administered and
warm soap water enema was given in the afternoon at 3 P.M. A small quantity
of soft dung was passed and the animal looked a bit relieved, but there was no
attempt to urinate, which drew attention to some obstruction in the urinary tract
and treatment was directed to stimulate the urinary apparatus to perform its held
up function. The bull was given internally repeated doses of dieuretics and blankets
wrung out in hot water were applied to the loins. He passed a small quantity of
urine on the 10th morning, at about 11 A.M., after which he did not even attempt to
urinate till he died, although all medicinal treatments were tried up to the end.
Palpation of the bladder from the rectum showed that it was full and the animal
evinced pain on pressure. The bull appeared spiritless, ceased to eat or drink, the
pulse quickened latterly and the expiration became prolonged and painful. There
was considerable oedema of the dewlap and brisket; the animal broke into profuse
sweat and ultimately died of uraemic poisoning on the 15th morning. The obstruc-
tion was suspected to be in the urethra, as the bladder was full on palpation. It
was diagnosed as calculi which had escaped from the bladder into the sigmoid flexure
of the penis which is especially predisposed to this accident owing to the narrowness
of the lumen and tortuous course of the canal—the stones having been intercepted
in their course from the bladder at the outward or first flexure of the
urethra above and in front of the scrotum. In consequence of the great difficulty
in reaching the calculi when lodged about the flexure and apprehending possible
rupture of the already over distended bladder, a surgical operation was deemed
inadvisable. The bull's temperature on the 14th evening was 100 o .2F. and 15th
morning 100°F. and he did not show any alarming symptoms until a few hours
before death. Accumulation of urine in the bladder produces in the more sensitive
( 164 )
PLATE VI.
Fig. 1. Calculi found in the bladder and
urethral canal.
Fig. 2. Showing the position of calculi in the bladder (a), urethral canal (b) and the sigmoid flexure (c).
CLINICAL NOTES
165
animals, such as horses and dogs, very early signs of discomfort and pain, whereas
in the indolent ruminant, especially bulls several days may elapse before any charac-
teristic symptoms are noticed.
On post mortem the bladder which was intensely congested with diptheritic
centres all over was found still full. The whole urinary canal from the bladder to
the end of the penis was dissected out intact and cut open. On the floor of the
bladder were found numerous round bodies varying in size and shape from Snipe shot
to Buck shot with a shining metallic surface (Plate VI). Similar bodies were found
all along the course of the urethra ; and the sigmoid flexure was choked with these
round bodies of varying sizes (Plate VI). One of the largest size was found lodged in
the lumen, 4 inches below the second flexure and this was the cause of complete
blockade of the flow of urine from the bladder. The kidneys were highly congested,
and the cortical portion of the right kidney showed fatty degeneric centres. The other
organs showed more or less pathological changes, and interstitial oedema due to
uraemic poisoning. The death resulted from uraemia from retention of urine in the
bladder for a week owing to the serious obstruction caused by calculi. The calculi
was analysed and found to be chiefly composed of calcium carbonate. These are
due to an excess of salt in the urine caused by drinking water containing too much
lime or eating food too rich in lime and magnesia.
The calculi weighed 4 drachms and 40 grains. The shining metallic colour
when removed from the bladder was due to the coating of urobilin, the colouring
matter present in the urine accumulated in the bladder. This metallic lustre dis-
appeared after exposure and drying. The indolent habits of Sahiwal bulls serve as
predisposing causes to this trouble. In places where the soil and water are rich in
lime, it is essential to examine the urine of the stud bulls as they advance in age,
and if any deposits or sediments are noticed to give them acidulated water (dilute
hydrochloric acid—2 drachms) in drinking water occasionally. In human beings the
similar deposits occur but generally people drink water after boiling and they take
sufficient acids in their food which cause the calcium salts to dissolve and pass off
in the urine. Plate VI, fig. 1 shows the varying size of the calculi found in the
bladder and all along the course of the urethra and Plate VI, fig. 2 shows how the
sigmoid flexure was choked with these calculi [L. S. JOSEPH].
The first case of Simple Monstrosity in the Pusa Dairy Herd
during its existence of over 20 years in Pusa.
(With Plates VII and VIII.)
This was a case of simple monstrosity with combination of the second order
" Nanomelus Brevis " (all limbs and ears and tail short) and third order " Labium
Leporinum " (harelip), with spina bifida (division of the spinal column) and
H 2
166 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, II
" Anasarca " (fluid beneath the skin). A half-Ayrshire-Sahiwal cow, Vida No. 170,
aged about six years in calf 7½ months to a Montgomery bull, Moti No. 368, which
died recently from uraemic poisoning, after her three previous normal calvings and
normal healthy calves, threw her still-born monster heifer calf on the morning of the
19th October, 1930, without any undue straining or exertion on the part of the
mother. From the size of the foetus as seen from Plates VII and VIII, one would
wonder how the process of expulsion was effected so easily without any external help.
The explanation is, that the connective tissue of the entire body of the foetus from
head to the croup was infiltrated with serum, and the young creature although in
appearance double the size of an ordinary calf and weighing 50 lbs. was quite
supple, and the rent in the spinial column facilitated the expulsion without any
external aid.
GENERAL APPEARANCE.
The body of a wild boar with short legs, ears and tail, the head of a lioness,
enormously large, short face and hare lipped. There was a rent of 4 inches on the
back behind the withers.
The post mortem revealed a large quantity of serosanguineous fluid in the
abdominal and thoracic cavities and similar fluid was found under the skin. The
spine appeared broken, having a gap of 4 inches, between the end of the cervical
and the beginning of dorsal regions and the spinal chord was found as if torn asunder
and hanging. The other organs were normal and perfectly developed.
In India people believe that the appearance of monstrosities in domestic animals
is due to the influence of enraged gods, and they are regarded with fear or horror.
Some regard them as prodigies, or freaks of Nature, and describe them as marvels or
curiosities, but scientifically they are simple modifications, or irregularities in the
development of organs of the foetus in utero. The embryo of the domestic animals,
in arriving at its ultimate development, appears to pass through all the degrees of
organization which mark the different types in the zoological series. The embryo
has been submitted to some kind of alteration ' in utero ' and this has been produced
during the interval between conception and birth [L. S. JOSEPH].
PLATE VII.
Fig. 1. Showing the head.
Fig. 2. Showing the whole length of the body.
A CASE OF SIMPLE MONSTROSITY IN PUSA DAIRY HERD.