NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
PLATE IV.
Fig. 5. C. longirostris : An ovum dissected out from the ovaries (magnified).
6a.
Proximal region of the mouth-parts of ♀ showing two of the
stylets and the membranous basal portion of the
labium (l)
of C. longirostris.
6b. Proximal region of the mouth-parts of ♀ showing all the
stylets and the membranous basal portion of the
labium (l)
of C. longirostris.
PLATE V.
Corizoneura longirostris ♂.
Fig. 7. Reproductive tract, showing the testes (t) and chitinized penis (p).
Fig. 8(a). Spermathecae.
Fig. 8(b). One of the three spermathecae highly magnified, showing only the basal and the distal portion.
Fig. 9. The accessory glands (a. g.), with the spermathecae (s).
NOTES ON CORIZONEURA LONGIROSTRIS
27
examined by him. Tetley was doubtless led to hold the view indicated above on
account of his inability to procure fresh specimens for study, for his description
was based upon only two pairs of specimens collected by Dr. Imms in 1912. In
such specimens the labium—if it has not been previously subjected to traction-
appears as a rigid process thickened at the base with ring-like folds. In freshly
caught specimens, however, even a small amount of traction results in the folds
being spread out to the extent of about 15 mm., so that the labium, which
ordinarily measures about 50 mm., attains a length of about 65 mm.,* when fully
stretched out. The membranous portion is much less pigmented than the rest of
the labium, as displayed in Pl. IV, figs. 6(a) and 6(b), which represent micro-photo-
graphs of the proximal region of the trophi of female C. longirostris, consisting of
two mandibles, two maxillae, the labrum-epipharynx, the hypopharynx and the
labium. The membranous basal portion presumably functions not only in facilitat-
ing the bending of the labium, as believed by Mitter, but also in elongating the labi-
um, should such be necessary for the organ to reach any considerable depth into the
tubular species of flowers, on which flies of this class usually feed.
(b) The reproductive tract.
For the reason already mentioned earlier in this paper, the internal anatomy
of any of the species of Corizoneura does not appear to have been studied by
previous workers. Illustrations of the alimentary canal and reproductive tract
of male C. longirostris appeared in another paper [Fletcher and Sen, 1929], but a
sketch of the latter is also included in this paper to show the characteristic
structure of the testes. Unlike those in Tabanus (in which they appear as more
or less elongated organs), the testes in C. longirostris (Pl. V, fig. 7) appear as more or
less rounded bodies, which communicate, by means of a pair of long and slender
vasa deferentia, to the ejaculatory duct. The chitinized penis appears as a conspi-
cuous piece of convoluted structure.
In the female, the ovaries do not present any noticeable features, but the
spermathecæ [Pl. V, figs. 8(a) and 9] are conspicuous in that the blind ends of these
tubes appear as relatively small bodies compared with the large size of the fly),
with a more or less rounded outline (Cf. spermathecæ of Hœmatopota, in which
they are markedly elongate and even somewhat pointed), the chitinous internal
layer of the tubes being, as is usual in Tabanids, heavily pigmented near the blind
ends [P1. V, fig. 8(b)]. The accessory glands are large, and in fresh dissections they
appear as two-prominent structures with the walls thrown into folds and ending
anteriorly in rounded protuberances (Pl. V, fig. 9).
* It is of interest that Hardwicke, in his d scription of C. longirostris, gives 2½ inches as the length
of the rostrum, but Mitter (l.c.) found the length to be only 30 mm.
28
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [I, I
REFERENCES.
Drake-Brockman (1910). Bull. Entom. Res. 1, 55-56.
Fletcher and Sen (1929). J. Central Bur. Anim. Husb. & Dairying, 3, 17-24.
Meinert (1881), Fluernes Munddele (Trophi Dipterorum). [Cited by Tetley (1917) in Bull. Entom. Res.
4, 267.]
Mitter (1917-18). Indian J. Medical Res. 4, 365-366.
Röder (1881). Stettin. Ent. Zeit. 42. [Cited by Senior-White (1927) in Catalogue of Indian Insects,
Pt. 12—Tahanidœ, p. 57.]
Senior-White (1927). Catalogue of Indian Insects, Part 12—Tabanidœ.
Tetley (1917). Bull. Entom. Res. 8, 253-267.
SELECTED ARTICLES.
A REVIEW OF UNDULANT FEVER.
BY
J. MILLS, M.D., CH.B.,
Pathological Laboratory, Royal Berkshire Hospital, Reading.
(Reprinted from the Journal of Dairy Research (London), Vol. I, No. 2, May 1930.)
The story of our knowledge concerning the causes of undulant fever depends
upon a study of three separate diseases, namely, Malta fever, abortion in cattle and
undulant fever itself, which were not supposed to be related one to another. As
time has passed, however, a very close relationship between these diseases has been
found to exist.
Undulant fever (synonyms—Mediterranean fever, Bruce's septicæmia, septicæmia
melitensis) is a disease characterised by febrile attacks of varying duration with
many remittances. The disease is endemic along the Mediterranean coasts and in
the Punjab.
Hippocrates described cases of long-continued fever with short apyrexial
intervals, which possibly was the disease we are at present considering, and in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries various authors described a disease which was
probably Malta fever.
The first great advance in our knowledge of this disease occurred in 1886-87,
when Bruce (1) studied Malta fever and showed it to be due to the Br. melitensis,
which he demonstrated in the spleen of infected individuals. He succeeded in
cultivating the organism, and reproduced the disease by inoculating it into monkeys.
Subsequently Wright and Smith (2) demonstrated the presence of agglutinins for
this micro-organism in the serum of infected individuals.
In 1904 a commission was appointed by the British Government to investigate
this disease (3). In their report they showed that the germ infected many of the
lower animals, especially goats; that it may be present in their milk and that the
milk of infected goats would agglutinate suspensions of this organism.
( 29 )
30
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [I, I
Infection of man occurs most probably in the great majority of cases by
ingestion of infected milk, chiefly goats' milk, though other modes of infection have
been frequently proved. Prophylactic measures directed to the milk supply resulted
in the reduction of the number of cases of this disease amongst the British troops
in Malta from 643 in 1905 to 1 in 1910 (4).
The next advance in our knowledge was made in 1914, when Kennedy (5)
reported that the milk and serum of certain cows in London agglutinated the
Br. melitensis. At this time the relationship of this organism to Br. abortus was
not known, and Kennedy did not suspect that the true explanation of his findings
was that the cows were infected with the latter organism.
Br. abortus was first described by Bang in 1897 (6), and is the organism
responsible for contagious abortion in cattle. In 1911, Schroeder and Cotton (7)
demonstrated by guinea-pig inoculation that 14 per cent. of samples of cows' milk
were infected with this germ, and in the same year Mohler and Eichhorn (8)
reported that abortion was frequent in goats that were infected with Br. melitensis.
These investigations suggested that there was some relationship between the organism
discovered by Bruce in 1887 and that first described by Bang ten years later,
though hitherto they had been considered to be entirely distinct. This suspected
relationship was confirmed by Evans (9) in Washington who, in 1918, showed that
on morphological and serological grounds the two were practically indistinguishable.
This work was confirmed by Meyer and Shaw (10) and by Khaled (11).
Several cases of undulant fever due to Br. abortus have been reported in Great
Britain and in America, in which the risk of infection from goats' milk could be
excluded. Diagnosis in the earlier reported cases rested mainly on clinical and
serological evidence only, efforts to isolate the organism from the blood and urine
of the patients having failed in the majority of the reported cases. Such cases,
though extremely suggestive and urging the necessity for further investigation, did
not offer conclusive evidence that the disease occurs in man following the ingestion
of infected cows' milk, and for that reason are not referred to in detail in this
review.
When we turn to the clinical picture presented by abortus infection in man, we
find some explanation why its identity with melitensis infection was not readily
detected. Harrison and Wilson (12) have pointed out that, in most of the reported
cases, the type of disease is somewhat different from that caused by melitensis
infection, and the illness is milder. Theobald Smith (13) carried out some experi-
ments on guinea-pigs which have a bearing on this point. By injecting minimum
lethal doses of abortus and melitensis he produced lesions which were superficially
distinct, but closer examination showed a fundamental relation between the
REVIEW OF UNDULANT FEVER
31
histological characters of the two. The results suggested similar diseases, one of
which, melitensis infection, was much more severe than the other.
More recently, however, Kristensen has reported a series of cases in which the
evidence of abortus infection of man appears to be complete (14). Kristensen tested
the sera of 1171 patients against a standard suspension of Br. abortus, which was
supplied by a veterinary college where it had been employed in the routine diagnosis
of contagious abortion in cattle. The sera of 89 of these patients agglutinated
this standard suspension in a dilution of 1/100 or higher. This dilution (1/100)
is well above the level which most workers consider necessary to indicate a positive
diagnosis. The results were confirmed by the complement fixation test. Blood
cultures were made from 20 of these patients and 13 yielded an organism indis-
tinguishable from Br. abortus. Serum, obtained from a rabbit immunised against
the standard abortus suspension, agglutinated the strains isolated from these
13 patients. Further, cross agglutination and absorption tests proved that they
were serologically identical with five abortus cultures derived from cattle suffering
from contagious abortion. Guinea-pigs, inoculated with the strains isolated from
the patients, developed typical signs and symptoms of abortus infection and the
organism was recovered from them. Pregnant cows which were inoculated with
these cultures aborted, and the organism could be isolated from the uterine
discharge and from the foetus.
In this series of cases, all of which showed clinical symptoms of undulant fever,
and in the majority of which infection by goats' milk could be definitely excluded,
the infecting organism was isolated and proved to be Br. abortus of bovine origin,
since this organism was constantly present in the infected individuals, was isolated
in pure culture and, when inoculated into animals, produced the disease and could
be recovered from the infected animals.
If we accept it as proved that a disease clinically identical with undulant fever
may be produced in man by ingestion of cows' milk which is infected with Br.
abortus, it is rather surprising that undulant fever has in the past been regarded
as having such a limited geographical range. If Br. abortus and Br. melitensis
are one and the same micro-organism, one would expect the disease to follow the
drinking of cows' milk much more frequently than it appears to do, since contagious
abortion in cattle leading to infection of milk is by no means infrequent. It is
possible that this apparent discrepancy is only due to a lack of accumulation of
accurately ascertained data. Among these data a consideration of the extent of
infection of our milk supply, cream, butter and cheese is of importance.
Reports regarding the frequency of milk infection vary widely. The earliest
were those of Schroeder and Cotton (7) and of Kennedy (5) mentioned above.
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32 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, I
More recently Schroeder and Cotton (15) have found that 83.3 per cent. of samples
of serum from 30 cows gave a positive agglutination reaction. Other workers have
obtained similar results as, for example, Carpenter (16) 66.6 per cent.; Pfenninger
(17) 34.8 per cent., Sheather (18) 34 per cent. and Fitch and Lubbehusen (19) 29.9
per cent. Much of this variation in the reported frequency of infection is dependent
on the technique employed to detect it, as is shown by the results of Carpenter
and Boak (20) who, in a study of milk from 378 cows from three certified dairies,
observed only 6.08 per cent. of infection when tested by guinea-pig inoculation,
whilst approximately 20 per cent. of. the cows showed the presence of specific
agglutinins in their sera. The extent of true infection of milk cannot, therefore,
be based on the presence of agglutinins alone in the milk of serum. Another factor
must also be taken into consideration when dealing with reports on cows from
certified dairies. In such dairies, cows that are poor producers are soon eliminated
from the herd, and cows that show Br. abortus infection are usually poor producers.
One would expect, therefore, to find a smaller percentage of infection amongst the
cows in certified dairies than amongst those in other dairies.
Cream appears to be a greater infective agent than milk, due to the fact that
when the fat globules rise to the surface they carry the organism up with them.
Carpenter and Boak (20) examined 17 samples of butter purchased in the open
market. They injected 2 c. c. of melted butter from each sample into guinea-pigs,
but failed to demonstrate the presence of Br. abortus in any of the samples
examined. The same authors examined 82 samples of cheese, many of them
imported into America from the Mediterranean district and manufactured from
goats' milk, but did not find any evidence of the presence of either abortus or
melitensis infection. It seems, therefore, that infection may be present in milk
and cream but is absent from butter and cheese, even though it is highly probable
that these products have been manufactured from infected milk or cream.
Experiments were carried out in order to find the reason for these differences.
Carpenter and Boak have studied the viability of Br. abortus in cream and cheese,
and have demonstrated that it could retain its viability for a period of 10 days in
cream and 142 days in butter. It appears, therefore, that the organism may
remain alive in cream and butter for a sufficiently long period to be a danger to the
consumer.
The possibility of infection from cream and butter may, however, be governed
by other factors than the viability of the organism. Thus Carpenter and Boak,
for example, state that the artificially infected cream failed to infect guinea-pigs
when the pH reached 5. Thus the change in the pH of cream before using it
for the manufacture of butter possibly accounts for the absence of the infecting
REVIEW OF UNDULANT FEVER 33
agent from market samples of butter, and the various processes in the manufacture
of cheese may have a like effect.
The number of samples of market butter and cheese examined by Carpenter
and Boak was not very large, but the technique appears to have been sound and
the results conclusive. Up to the present time, therefore, butter and cheese have
not been proved to be likely sources of infection.
There remain, then, only milk and fresh cream as probable sources of infection,
and proper pasteurisation would appear to be sufficient to render these non-
infective.
It has been stated above that various workers, when searching especially for
Br. abortus infection in milk, have found upwards of 5 per cent. of samples infected.
If these findings are true, it appears very strange that the presence of the infection
has not been discovered much more frequently and at an earlier date. During the
past 30 years there has been an increasing number of milk samples examined by
guinea-pig inoculation for the presence of the tubercle bacillus. If Br. abortus is so
frequently present in milk samples as the literature on the subject would lead one to
believe, surely it should have been detected in these routine examinations for the
presence of tubercle bacillus, especially in view of the small number of abortus
organisms which are capable of producing the disease in the guinea-pigs. The
author has failed to find any reports of such infection cropping up in routine tests
for tuberculosis. Again, Br. abortus produces in guinea-pigs lesions which have
some resemblance to tubercle, and such lesions, if present, would naturally have
been suspected and subjected to careful examination.
There would seem then to be a risk of abortus infection from ingestion of cows'
milk, but in view of the relatively small number of cases reported and of the
failure to find the organism in milk unless specially sought for, one is inclined to
the view that the risk is not great. Since, however, it is undoubtedly present,
efforts should be made to exclude infected animals from producing herds, and the
practice of immunising cattle with living abortus cultures should be discontinued,
since such animals have been shown to excrete living abortus organisms in their
milk for a considerable period after inoculation.
REFERENCES.
(1) Bruce, D. (1887). Practitioner, London, 39, 161, 188 ; 40, 241.
„ (1889). Brit. Med. J. 1, 1101.
(2) Wright, A. E., and Smith, F. (1897). Lancet, 1 ,656.
(3) Reports of the Commission for the Investigation of Malta Fever, 1-7, London, 1905-07.
(4) The Oxford Medicine, 4,800.
C 2
34 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, I
(5) Kennedy, J. C. (1914). J. Roy. Army Med. Corps, 22, 9.
(6) Bang, B. (1897). Z. f. Thiermed. 1, 241
(7) Schroeder, E. C., and Cotton, W. E. (1911). Ann. Report Bur. Animal Industry U. S. Dept.
Agric. 28, 139.
(8) Mohler, J. R., and Eichhorn, A. (1911). Ibid. 28, 119.
(9) Evans, A. C. (1918). J. Inf. Dis. 22, 580.
(10) Meyer, K. F., and Shaw, E. B. (1920). Ibid. 27, 173.
(11) Khaled, Z. (1921). J. Hygiene, 20, 319.
„ (1923). Ibid. 22, 335.
(12) Harrison and Wilson (1928). Lancet, 215, i, 1338.
(13) Smith, Theobald (1926). J. Exp. Med. 43, 207.
(14) Kristensen (1928). Cbl. f. Bakt. 1. Orig. 108, 89.
(15) Schroeder, E. C., and Cotton, W. E. (1924). J. Amer. Vet. Med. Ass. 64, 479.
(16) Carpenter (1926). Cornell Vet. 16, 133.
(17) Pfenninger (1923). Schweiz Arch. f. Tierheil. 65, 600.
(18) Sheather (1923). J. Comp. Path. and Ther. 36, 255.
(19) Fitch and Lubbehusen (1924). Cornell Vet. 14, 299.
(20) Carpenter and Boak (1928). Amer. J. Pub. health, 18, 743.
THE USE OF DRUGS IN THE TREATMENT OF DISEASES
CAUSED BY WORMS.
BY
MAURICE C. HALL, PH.D., D.SC., D.V.M.,
Chief, Zoological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.
(Reprinted from the Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics, Vol. XLIII, part 2, June 1930.)
Since 1915 the writer's principal scientific interest has been in the field of
anthelmintic medication. In the fifteen years from 1915 to 1930 the investigation of
anthelmintics has progressed to the point where it may now be admitted to be
actually scientific in approach, method, and technic and the number of investigators
in this field has increased in proportion to an immense increase in interest in the
subject. From 1881, the year in which several important treatments for human
anchylostomiasis were proposed, following the recognition of the fact that hook-
worms were serious pathogens responsible for Egyptian chlorosis, tropical anæmia,
and the St. Gothard Tunnel disease, to 1915, there had been an increasing interest
in the development of anthelmintic medication, but for the most part the studies
of this period were along the lines of critical empiricism and increasingly close
clinical observation. Previous to 1881 anthelmintic medication was mostly a
matter of uncritical empiricism.
In 1915 it was practically impossible to give an intelligent answer to a question
in regard to anthelmintic medication in the field of veterinary medicine. Books
and journals contained endless formulæ incorporating scores of drugs for the re-
moval of worms from domesticated animals, but there was no critical evidence on
which to judge the value of these drugs. The most that was offered was clinical
experience, and as clinicians are a mixed lot, comprising good observers and sound
thinkers on one hand, and poor observers and un-sound thinkers on the other, the
recommendations of innumerable John Does and Richard Roes, unknown to the
reader, could not be sorted to distinguish the good from the bad.
This situation was extremely uncomfortable for the Zoological Division of the
Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. A con-
stant stream of questions in correspondence called for answers in keeping with the
standing and reputation of the Bureau of Animal Industry. It was only possible
( 35 )
36 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, I
to say in reply that John Doe recommended so much ferrous sulphate given thus
and so, and Richard Roe recommended so much tartar emetic given this way or
that, for the removal of this or that parasite from such and such a host, and this
was obviously an unsatisfactory answer. To remedy this situation, the late Dr. B.
H. Ransom, a capable and sound scientist, who was then Chief of the Zoological
Division, inaugurated a project on anthelmintic medication. The results obtained
from that project have paid large returns to agriculture and the veterinary and
medical profession, and have done much to stimulate interest in the subject of
anthelmintics. The present writer was detailed in charge of this work, and was
associated from time to time with Foster, Shillinger, Gram and Wigdor. The
writer's administrative work of the past five years has prohibited any considerable
active participation in these investigations, and the actual investigations at present
are being carried out by Dr. W. H. Wright. This paper, therefore, represents the
observations of an old campaigner no longer on active duty, and might appropriately
be tinged with regret at the necessity for confinement to paper work at a time when
the subject of anthelmintics is entering the stage of basic scientific investigation,
and when there is active warfare on all fronts and " lovely fighting along the
whole line ".
Characteristically, the scientist who is no longer a youngster actively engaged
in research turns to philosophic speculations, the summarising of knowledge, the
correlation of other men's findings, and the formulation of principles. Conforming
to this habit, the writer proposes to discuss certain principles of anthelmintic
medication. This subject he has discussed in several previous papers, but our
principles may be regarded as tentative to the extent that they are subject to
modification in the light of additional knowledge, and they need occasional revision.
They may be taken as representing ideas which have grown out of an experience
that is extensive by comparison with that of other workers in this field, and out of
a rapidly increasing fund of available knowledge, and they are of value as back-
ground in the consideration of the individual cases the veterinarian will have to
consider in practice or research.
PRINCIPLES OF ANTHELMINTIC MEDICATION.
I. Factors in Anthelmintic Medication. Elsewhere the writer has noted that
the important factors in anthelmintic medication may be stated alliteratively as :
(1) The practitioner ; (2) the patient ; (3) the parasite ; (4) the parasiticide ;
(5) the purgative ; and (6) prophylaxis. These may be discussed very briefly as
follows :—
(1) The Practitioner, i.e., the veterinarian or physician, must know all the
other factors not superficially, but well, and must be a person of sound