NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
ORIGINAL ARTICLES
DIRECTIONS FOR THE SERUM-SIMULTANEOUS ANTI-RINDER-
PEST INOCULATION OF CATTLE.
BY
HUGH COOPER, M.R.C.V.S., I.V.S.,
Veterinary Research Officer,
Imperial Institute of Veterinary Research, Muktesar-Kumaun.
CONTENTS.
1. THE SERUM-SIMULTANEOUS METHOD.
2. SELECTION OF ANIMALS FOR INOCULATION
3. SEASON FOR INOCULATION
4. SEGREGATION AND DISINFECTION MEASURES
5. SERUM FOR THE ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION OF CATTLE AGAINST RINDERPEST
6. RECOMMENDED DOSE RATES OF SERUM
7. VIRUS OR VIRULENT BLOOD
8. THE RINDERPEST REACTION IN GOATS ....
9. PREPARATION OF GOAT VIRUS FOR INJECTION ....
10. VIRUS INOCULATION
11. SECOND INJECTION OF VIRUS
12. CONTAMINATED VIRUS
13. COMPARATIVE VALUE OF OX AND GOAT VIRUS ....
14. HYPODERMIC SYRINGES
15. THE RINDERPEST REACTION IN CATTLE .
.
....
16. PIROPLASMOSIS
17. COCCIDIOSIS
18. SUMMARY
19. REFERENCES
PAGE
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In order that the principles of the serum-simultaneous method of active
immunisation of cattle against rinderpest should be readily available to veterinary
workers and stock-owners in India, the circular instructions upon the method in
use at that time were published in 1925 from the Imperial Institute of Veterinary
Research, Muktesar, in the Agricultural Journal of India as one of a series of
articles contributed to the journal under the title " Some Recent Advances in the
Protection of Cattle and Other Animals against Disease ". [ Edwards, 1925.]
A 2
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THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, I
Since that date the instructions have been considerably modified, and the
greatest change occurred upon the introduction by Dr. J. T. Edwards, D.Sc.,
M.R.C.V.S., the late Director of the Institute, of virulent blood obtained from goats
after " fixation " of the ox rinderpest virus by intra-uterine injection into pregnant
goats [Edwards, 1927]. An addendum to the instructions dealing with the use
of this new form of virus was also published in the Agricultural Journal of India in
1928 [Edwards], but the issue of this first number of a journal devoted to the
interests of veterinarians engaged upon work in connection with animal husbandry
in India appears to be a suitable occasion for the publication again of the most
recent edition of the same directions since they now incorporate a description of
the use of both forms of virus.
The opportunity has been taken to publish with the directions a number of
charts Illustrating the several kinds of reactions that may occur in the course of
virus production and immunisation by this method of inoculation, whilst a plate
has been added illustrating the microscopical appearances of the three common
species of parasitic organisms that may be responsible for complicating diseases
described.
The directions have been drawn up with especial reference to the practical
needs of the veterinary worker in the field, and no attempt has been made to
discuss their theoretical implications or their bearing on the general principles of
immunology.
DIRECTIONS.*
1. THE SERUM-SIMULTANEOUS METHOD.
The operation is very simply carried out in practice. Cattle that are suscep-
tible to rinderpest are inoculated subcutaneously with a certain dose of anti-
rinderpest serum, estimated to be more than adequate to protect them against the
development of an attack of the clinical disease, and, simultaneously, they are also
injected with a small dose of virus, that is, virulent blood withdrawn from an
animal at the height of an attack of rinderpest.
2. SELECTION OF ANIMALS FOR INOCULATION.
Animals that are very weak or debilitated from any cause, and cows in a very
advanced state of pregnancy should not be inoculated.
*NOTE 1.—The instructions embodied in the following pages also apply to buffaloes.
*NOTE 2.—When a number of days after injection is mentioned, these days are to be counted
excluding the " zero day ", that is, the day on which the injection is given.
ANTI-RINDERPEST INOCULATION OF CATTLE
3
Cattle of any age may be inoculated including calves as young as a few weeks
old, provided they are in strong condition.
It is recommended that the operation should be carried out upon cattle as
early as practicable after purchase, and in calves, as soon as they are six months
old.
Cattle of two teeth and over usually require no further inoculation during
their life-time, but animals immunised at less than this age should be submitted
to a second immunisation after reaching it.
3. SEASON FOR INOCULATION.
Serum-simultaneous inoculation can safely be carried out at any season of the
year. Ordinarily, however, it is preferable to select a cool dry season when animals
are likely to be in the best possible condition.
During a natural outbreak of rinderpest in unprotected animals at any season
of the year, it is sound practice and strongly to be recommended that this form of
inoculation be used in preference to the serum-alone method. All in contacts, not
exhibiting fever or other visible signs of the disease, should then be inoculated.
It has been the practice hitherto in many places to brand each animal given
serum-simultaneous inoculation. A large letter " O" has been branded with a
hot iron upon one quarter. This practice is to be recommended as it provides a
distinguishing mark between immunised and unprotected animals in a herd.
4. SEGREGATION AND DISINFECTION MEASURES.
In natural circumstances rinderpest spreads to susceptible animals by direct
contact with affected cattle in the early stages of the disease. Since animals
undergoing serum-simultaneous inoculation must be considered infective for about
a fortnight, the main precaution to adopt is to restrict movement of the in-
oculated animals.
If a segregation camp is well fenced, or if the inoculated animals remain
constantly tied up and the camp is situated at least half a mile from sheds contain-
ing unprotected animals or a public highway, then precautions, other than the
ordinary rules of disinfection, are unnecessary.
Inoculated animals should be under the care of special attendants who must
not be allowed to come into contact with uninoculated animals. It is a good
practice to keep a sufficient number of smocks at the entrance of all sheds or enclo-
sures where the inoculated animals have been accommodated. These smocks are
used by the attendants while they are at work with the animals, and are taken off
and left at the entrance when they leave their work.
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THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [I, I
Shallow pails of disinfectant fluid should be placed at all entrances and in them
all persons should dip their boots (or feet) both while entering or leaving.
Arrangements should be made before immunisation is started for a sufficient supply
of grain and fodder to be within the camp.
Excreta and soiled bedding must be considered infective, and measures should
be taken for their disposal within the segregation camp.
5. SERUM FOR THE ACTIVE IMMUNISATION OF CATTLE AGAINST RINDERPEST.
Serum required for inoculation by this method must be specially indented for
from the laboratory a short time before the anticipated date of the inoculation and
the request for the serum must be made in the above precise terms. Old stocks of
serum that have remained over from a previous season must not be used. The
serum for serum-simultaneous inoculation is issued in bottles with special white
labels in two grades:—
Class I serum. This serum is to be used for imported Foreign cattle and also
animals containing any proportion of foreign (imported) blood.
Class II serum. This serum is issued for inoculation of all Indian breeds of
cattle and buffaloes.
6. RECOMMENDED DOSE RATES OF SERUM.
The following table indicates approximately the quantities of serum in cubic
centimetres for each hundred pounds body weight recommended for different
breeds of animals:—
Breed
Imported Foreign cattle
7/9th European breed
....
¾th
„
„
....
½
„
„
....
¼th
„
„
....
⅛th
„
„
....
Indian breed cattle
....
Buffaloes
Dose per 100 lbs. body
weight
45 to 50 c. c. .
35 to 40 c. c
30 to 35 c. c
20 to 25 c. c
15 to 20 c. c
12½ to 15 c. c
5 to 10 c. c. .
10 to 15 c. c
Class of serum
} Class I.
} Class II.
ANTI-RINDERPEST INOCULATION OF CATTLE
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The dose rate of serum indicated above for Indian breed cattle refers to " plains "
animals in areas where rinderpest is indigenous. Cattle bred in hill districts
require from 15 to 25 c. c. per 100 pounds. No animal, however, small and of
whatever breed, should be given less than 30 c. c. of serum.
In the event of any uncertainty concerning the dosage of serum to be
employed, this Institute will always be prepared to submit advice on the subject.
In order to avoid any risk of an animal receiving only a dose of virus it is a
good practice not to inject virus until the individual animal has been injected
with serum.
7. VIRUS OR VIRULENT BLOOD.
Two forms of virus for use in the serum simultaneous inoculation of cattle
are prepared and issued from the laboratory:—
(a) Ox virus. This product consists of virulent blood drawn from highly
susceptible hill bulls at the laboratory and is issued in bulk for the direct inocula-
tion of cattle in the field. When ox virus is employed it is very desirable that at
least one and preferably two susceptible cattle of small value should be given
virus alone and no protective serum in order to serve as controls. Very young
calves should not be used for this purpose. Such controls serve a two fold purpose:
(1) the extent of reaction exhibited in these animals provides an indication con-
cerning the virulence of the virus used for the immunisation; (2) if the controls
react well within five days after injection they may be bled and the virulent blood
thus obtained may be used for a second inoculation into the animals undergoing
immunisation.
(b) Goat virus. This product is despatched from the laboratory in three sealed
ampoules to be used for the manufacture of virulent blood by the operator himself.
The goats intended to act as virus producers should be arranged for several days
before they are required for injection, in order that temperature records can be
taken and noted twice a day for at least 3 days before injection, and those animals
showing a considerable fluctuation in body temperature or with a persistent
"normal" temperature over 103°F. should not be used as virus producers. In
very hot weather it may happen that all goats show a markedly higher tempera-
ture in the afternoon and evening than in the morning. In this event it is some-
times necessary to take only the early morning temperature, and such goats as
may show a " normal" temperature above 103°F. at this hour should be rejected
as being unsuitable for virus production. At least two goats showing a fairly
constant pre-injection temperature should be selected as virus producers and these
should be injected with the goat virus immediately on its receipt from Muktesar.
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THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [I, I
Mix the contents of all the three ampoules and inject the mixed sample subcu-
taneously into the two selected goats.
8. THE RINDERPEST REACTION IN GOATS.
A distinct rise in temperature occurs on the third, fourth or fifth day after
injection of the virus. The temperature reaction lasts for about five or six days
and a good virus is produced even if the goat shows no other signs of ill-health
at all and eventually lives its normal life. (Chart 2). Often, however, the goats
will show signs of malaise and inappetence and some may die. (Chart 1). In a
large proportion of animals, a secondary rise of temperature occurs with marked
symptoms of pneumonia and in such cases death usually supervenes. (Chart 4).
The rise in temperature due to rinderpest may be only from 2 to 3 degrees above
the normal, whereas in the later stages, that is, after the fifth day the temperature
may reach 106 or 107°F. due to the complicating pneumonia, and at this late stage
the goats must not be bled for virus. (Chart 3). The optimum day of bleeding
is the fourth day after the injection of virus, but if a suitable reaction occurs, goats
may be bled on the fifth day.
9. PREPARATION OF GOAT VIRUS FOR INJECTION.
The blood is run out of the jugular vein by means of a suitable bleeding needle
or canula into a clean glass vessel that has been sterilised by boiling beforehand.
To prevent clotting of the blood, some strands of metallic wire or glass beads are
placed in the vessel to defibrinate the blood by vigorous shaking for some minutes
after it has been let into the flask. Clotting can also be prevented by running the
blood into about one-tenth its volume of a 4 per cent. solution of potassium or
sodium citrate. Inoculation of the cattle with serum should not be commenced until
the virus has been prepared ready for injection.
A dose of goat virus used for immunising cattle should be injected also into
two more goats which will serve both as controls and virus producers for a second
inoculation into the cattle in the same way as in the case of ox virus.
10. VIRUS INOCULATION.
Whichever form of virus is used, it is important to remember that it is extreme-
ly fragile and is liable to deteriorate in potency rapidly. A high temperature
affects it adversely, and on exposure to the air it will become completely inert
probably within two days. Neither form of virus can be considered fit for use
after eight days from the date given upon the label or packing slip. Arrangements
hould be completed beforehand so that inoculation of the virus is carried out
ANTI-RINDERPEST INOCULATION OF CATTLE
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immediately on receipt from the laboratory. If this is not possible, the virus may
be stored for one or two days upon ice, provided only that the containers remain
unopened. It should be taken as an invariable rule that once the sealed container
has been opened, its contents must be used that very day or else it must be dis-
carded and a new consignment sent for.
The dose of virus to be injected into cattle undergoing immunisation need not
be gauged with any pretence at accuracy since a minute quantity only of virulent
blood is necessary to infect. The usual dose is from ½ c. c. to 1 c. c. of blood.
Larger doses up to 5 c. c. or more are usually employed for controls, but the degree
of reaction is not influenced by the dose of virus administered.
11. SECOND INJECTION OF VIRUS.
Provided that an animal receives a dose of certainly virulent virus at the
first injection, no further injection is theoretically necessary. In practice, however,
it is strongly recommended that a second injection of virus be given to all animals
except those in which a definite temperature reaction has occurred between the
third and fifth days after the first injection. The dose of virus usually employed for
the second injection is 5 c. c. and can conveniently be obtained from cattle or
goats used as controls during the first injection. If it is desired to make certain
that virulent blood will be available for the second injection then arrangements
should be made beforehand for a second consignment of virus to arrive from the
laboratory within eight days after the first injection. Since the protective effect
of anti-rinderpest serum lasts only for nine days it is imperative that the second
injection be given well within this period. It has already been pointed out that the
locally produced virulent blood from the controls to the first injection will be avail-
able either on the fourth or fifth day, and this arrangement is therefore a very
convenient one. Since second injections of virus are intended to "catch" the
animal that has escaped receiving a dose of virulent blood at the first injection
the second injection must be given while the serum is still conveying a passive
immunity to the animal, that is, within the nine day period after serum inoculation.
12. CONTAMINATED VIRUS.
A sample of every consignment of virus is submitted to bacteriological
examination before despatch from the laboratory, but the results of the examina-
tion are not known until 2 days later. If the sample is found contaminated with
extraneous organisms a telegram is sent immediately to the customer advising
withholding use of the virus. When bacteria are detected they are nearly always
in themselves harmless in their effects when injected into an animal, but their
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THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [I, I
presence causes the blood to decompose and may render the virus inert within a
short period of time. Any sample of virus having a disagreeable odour or having
become obviously contaminated or putrid must be discarded. The last remark
applies also to serum that has a disagreeable odour or is markedly altered in
appearance or consistency.
13. COMPARATIVE VALUE OF OX AND GOAT VIRUS.
(a) Virulence. Virus produced from susceptible cattle is highly virulent and
there is therefore always a risk of producing severe rinderpest reactions in the
inoculated cattle if the serum has been used in too small a dosage. On the other
hand, if a proportion of the inoculated cattle show evidence of a rinderpest reaction
then great confidence can be placed in the value of the protection set up.
Goat virus has a somewhat " fixed " or steady virulence usually considerably
lower than that of virus taken direct from cattle, and is therefore generally safer to
use. (Chart 7.)
(b) Intercurrent infection. Ox virus may contain piroplasms which arc poten-
tially infective organisms for cattle. Indian bred cattle are, however, usually
already "premunised" against these parasites, that is, they have already been
naturally infected as calves and are " carriers " of them during the rest of their
lives, and therefore have a degree of immunity. Imported European and sometimes
even Indian bred cattle have no immunity to these piroplasms and therefore may
show severe reactions, as described below. The reaction to the "redwater"
parasites (B. bigemina) can, however, be controlled by trypanblue, and if cattle
pass safely through an inoculation with ox virus containing piroplasms they can be
considered to have been " premunised" against the diseases produced by the
parasites as well as protected against rinderpest.
Goat virus, on the other hand, is " cleansed " of the cattle piroplasms since these
parasites cannot infect goats. There is no risk, therefore, of injecting pathogenic
piroplasms into cattle.
(c) Local virus production. It cannot be ascertained if the ox virus used for
inoculation is certainly virulent until rinderpest reactions have been exhibited in
the controls and/or some of the inoculated animals. If no reactions at all are
exhibited in any of the animals injected with the virus, then the value of the protec-
tion conferred upon the cattle remains unknown. It will be too late at this stage
to obtain a further supply of virus, unless arrangements for it have already been
made beforehand, and the serum and virus injections must then both be repeated
if it is desired to make certain that the cattle have been protected.
ANTI-RINDERPEST INOCULATION OF CATTLE
9
By observing the reactions in the goats used for virus production, however, the
operator can make himself reasonably assured that he is actually inoculating living
virus into the cattle to be immunised, and an almost unlimited supply of fresh and
reliable virus for immediate use from cheap and easily procurable animals is also
available when the goat virus method is adopted.
14. HYPODERMIC SYRINGES.
At least two syringes are necessary, namely, a small syringe for the inoculation
of virulent blood and a large syringe for the inoculation of serum. The " Record "
type of syringe is recommended since it has a glass barrel and the contents can thus
easily be seen at the time of injection. When a syringe having a metal barrel is
used, care must be taken to make sure that it is working properly, and contains the
full quantity of fluid before an injection is made. Syringes of one c. c. capacity
for virus, and 50 or 60 c. c. capacity for serum are convenient sizes to use. Another
type of large syringe is the so-called " Stockman " syringe in which the barrel can be
refilled without withdrawing the needle from the seat of inoculation or detaching
its nozzle. All syringes must be cleansed and sterilised by boiling for at least 10
minutes before use. It is necessary to detach the component parts of glass barrel
syringes and place them separately in water for boiling, otherwise the glass barrel is
likely to crack.
15. THE RINDERPEST REACTION IN CATTLE.
A typical rinderpest reaction following the injection of virus into a highly
susceptible animal starts by a sharp rise in temperature at the earliest on the 3rd
day and usually not later than the fifth day after inoculation. Fever may last for
from 3 to 6 days and towards the end of this period in severe reactions other
specific symptoms may occur, namely, the appearance of vesicles and ulcers in the
mouth, and diarrhœa. With the onset of diarrhœa the temperature usually drops
rapidly. In the most severe reactions, the temperature becomes sub-normal and
death may follow between about the 10th to 15th day after injection of virus.
(Chart 5). In experimental infection with rinderpest therefore the reaction is
characteristic and extends over a very limited period of time.
In " plains " cattle used as controls very severe reactions do not always occur,
but graded reactions of the same type are to be expected in them, which may
consist of fever only. A similar reaction consisting of fever alone, may also be
exhibited in some of the cattle under immunisation. (Chart 6).
Any other type of reaction that may be seen is due to a complicating infection,
usually from protozoan parasites, as described below.