NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
TREATMENT OF DISEASES CAUSED BY WORMS 45
days or longer to pass all of the bots destroyed by a drug, as the bots may
wander around in the cæcum for a long time before leaving it.
Our failure to remove worms may be explained in various ways, and there
are some failures for which we have no explanation. In some cases we have no
known anthelmintic with the selective action necessary for the removal of the
worms. In general, the larger worms in the digestive tract are more readily
removable than the smaller, a thing which Railliet and the writer have both
noted previously, The writer would be inclined to think that the greater size
is actually a reason why larger worms are more readily removed, since a worm with
a diameter relatively large in comparison with the size of the lumen of the tube
in which it lives is more certain to have at least part of the body projecting out
of the mucus and other contents of the tube, and hence accessible to anthelmintic
attack. The difficulty in removing the smaller worms appears to be associated
with the fact that their small diameter permits them to lie in contact with the
mucosa with a layer of mucus and other material above them which mechanically
prevents anthelmintics from coming in contact with them ; or. these small worms
may be actually embedded in the mucosa, or buried in nodules out of reach of
drugs passing through the lumen of the digestive canal. Similarly, larger worms,
such as ascarids, may be inaccessible to anthelmintics if they are in the bile ducts
or pancreatic ducts.
Partial failures follow in part from the fact that we have no known drugs and
developed methods of procedure which result in 100 per cent. removal of worms.
in 100 per cent. of animals treated, for any species of worm or host animal.
Drugs which remove on an average over large series of cases from 90 to 100 per
cent. of any kind of worms may be regarded as excellent. In default of such drugs
we must use the best we have until we can develop better drugs.
COCCIDIOSIS.*
BY
W. R. KERR, M.R.C.V.S., D.V.S.M.,
Lecturer in Veterinary Science, Harper Adams College.
(Reprinted from the Harper Adams Utility Poultry Journal, Volume XV, No. 11.)
Coccidiosis, as a disease of poultry, is becoming a menace to the industry, a
disease which may cause serious losses in chicken rearing. Second only in import-
ance to B. W. D., though it is not so readily disseminated, there is not the same
possibility of elimination as in the latter disease. The seriousness of the problem
has to be realized, and reasonable means of control and treatment instituted to
safeguard poultry husbandry.
CAUSE.
This is primarily a disease affecting the young of members of the bird family,
and also many of the animals—cattle, sheep, rabbits, goats, etc.—and is caused by
a small parasite Eimeria (Coccidium). It is observed in all species of the domes-
tic fowl, pheasants and grouse. Usually in each a different name is given, but
according to Hutyra and Mank it is probably only a different variety of Eimeria
Avium.
The droppings of affected chicks may contain millions of "oöcysts" as the
parasite is named at this stage. The transmission of the disease is chiefly by
water and food-stuff contaminated by the droppings, whilst other means of
spreading are by workers' boots, adult carriers, contaminated range, and also the
egg shell is stated to be a source of infection. The parasite is very resistant, and
can live in the soil of a hen run for at least a period of twelve months.
LIFE HISTORY.
The oöcyst, which is very minute, is approximately 1/700 ins. in size, and
resembles a miniature egg in that it possesses a resistant shell containing a fluid,
the white, in which floats a part similar to the yolk. In the presence of moisture
and warmth an important phase takes place at this stage, before it can become
infective to chicks, and that is, the yolk part has to develop or sporulate into
four small elements. This takes at least 48 hours. The sporulated oöcyst is
*Paper read at the XIVth Annual Poultry Conference at H. A. A. C., September 1930.
( 40 )
COCCIDIOSIS 47
swallowed by susceptible birds, and on reaching the intestine is acted upon by the
digestive juices which set free the elements, now eight in number. These attack
the cells lining the walls of the intestines and then grow and multiply, and by
doing so destroy these cells. This method of multiplication is known as asexual,
but later male and female forms appear and another division takes place—that of
the fertilised female—the oöcyst—which is passed out in the droppings.
SYMPTOMS.
This process causes severe damage and inflammation to the bowel wall, produc-
ing the various symptoms observed. These appear six days after exposure to
infection.
(1) Acute, characterised by a violent and uncontrollable diarrhœa, which may
or may not contain blood, increased thirst, listlessness, and death occurring at or
about the second day. Sometimes there may be sudden deaths due to hæmorrhage
and shock. In less acute cases the diarrhœa is not so violent, and in such cases
the birds usually waste away, showing signs of paralysis and a chalky diarrhœa.
In chronic cases the appetite remains good, but the chicks are stunted and un-
thrifty.
The susceptible age is from 10 days to four months, but most common at three
to four weeks. Outbreaks amongst adult fowl are not often encountered, but when
this does occur, it is usually about the period of five months.
POST MORTEM.
On examining the carcase the cæca or blind gut are usually found to be
enlarged, and in acute cases contain blood or blood-stained material. The walls
may show red spots and ulcers. In chronic cases a cylinder of cheesy matter is
present, ulcers and sometimes perforation of the bowel wall. Often no changes are
observed with the naked eye, and only a microscope will reveal the presence of the
oöcysts.
The appearance of diarrhœa in chicks more than 14 days old and the presence
of blood should be regarded as highly suspicious of coccidiosis.
CONTROL.
Work on the control and the treatment of this was carried out at this College
during the season of 1930, and some of the results are included in this paper.
Coccidiosis as a problem can be tackled by two methods :—
(1) Sanitary.
(2) Treatment.
D
48 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, I
Sanitary. The phase in the life cycle where 48 hours are required for the
sporulation of the oöcyst, and the fact that moisture is essential, forms the im-
portant basis of our control measures, because the unsporulated oöcyst, if swa-
llowed, will not produce coccidiosis. The statement of Johnson is supported,
that the severity of the disease depends to a certain extent upon the number of
sporulated oöcysts present. This fact is of utmost importance, as reduction in the
number acts as a control measure, and this can be accomplished by—
(1) Removal of the droppings at least every second day, by strict cleansing.
(2) Moving of floorless pens in the same period.
(3) The use of wire flooring, and so allowing the droppings to pass through.
The latter is very valuable where it can be utilized, as undoubtedly a great
amount of possible infection is removed.
The oöcyst has two enemies—heat and drought. Heating at 80° centrigrade
kills. Therefore the use of boiling water and sunshine is to be commended in the
control of this disease.
Chemical disinfection. In view of the advice to disinfect utensils soil and
floors, and the statement of certain workers that the oöcyst was resistant to chemi-
cal disinfectants, experiments were set up to determine their value and efficiency.
A definite quantity of oöcysts from fresh droppings, after having been centri-
fugalised and washed, were put into separate dishes and covered to a depth of
¼ in. in the disinfectants to be tested. These included Jeyes' fluid, free iodine,
corrosive sublimate, potassium permanganate, chinosol, and carbolic acid. The
dilutions were those advised, but in all cases a much greater strength was employed
than used in practice, as example—1-20 Jeyes' fluid. These were therefore applied
under more suitable conditions than would be found in the poultry house. In all
cases sporulations took place in these fluids in 3-4 days, and certain of these when
fed to chickens produced coccidiosis.
Results at the moment show that the only method of control which can be
advised with confidence is that of mechanical cleansing, and that disinfection by
chemical means effects no control whatever, indeed in many cases it seems rather to
assist the sporulation of the oöcysts than to destroy them.
Treatment. Attempts were made to combine treatment with reasonable sani-
tary measures. The method used was to test the usual drugs, or combination of
drugs generally advised in treatment, against controls of untreated birds. During
the experiments it was evident that in some cases artificial infection had been too
severe as the subjects succumbed, and in some cases the controls fared better than
the treated birds.
COCCIDIOSIS 49
It is realised that drugs used for this purpose are limited in their action, and
that results hitherto have been poor and inconclusive. Most of them are supplied
to the affected birds through the drinking water, and when such bodies as mercuric
perchloride, carbolic acid, potassium permanganate, hydrochloric acid, free iodine,
etc., are used, they enter into organic combination with the ingesta and mucous of
the crop and gizzard, and are therefore inert bodies on reaching the intestine and
cæca. Others have no direct action on the parasite but depend on symptomatic
treatment, such agents as astringents, for example. Certain results have been
claimed for the use of dried milk, and similar products which affect a change
of pH in the intestine.
The oöcyst is impervious, but digestive experiments here show that the ele-
ment forms are easily destroyed by certain chemicals. To achieve this, it is
essential for the agent to be in a free state, at the lower portion of the intes-
tines.
The possibility of iodine in this connection seemed impressive, and experi-
ments were carried out to find the most convenient form in which it could be
effectively administered. It was decided to use the power of casein to absorb
iodine for this purpose. Casein in milk can absorb large doses of iodine by the
application of heat, and it was found by experiment that this combination did not
affect the hydrolysis of protein and its ultimate absorption as amino acids, and
also that iodine was set free to combine with other organic matter to be passed out
in the excreta.
This preparation seemed to fulfil the desired conditions and its use was ex-
tended to field work.
The combination is as follows :—
Iodine Solution :—
Iodine
......
Potassium Iodide
....
Water
......
1 part (¼oz.)
2 parts (½oz.)
50 parts (25 oz.)
To a quart of fresh of separated milk add 3 ounces of the iodine solution, and
heat until it becomes white. This is the stock solution, and 1 pint should be
added to every gallon of drinking water used. The chemical nature of the complex
formed is popularly ascribed to the formation of colloidal iodine.
Excellent results have been obtained from the use of this treatment on
poultry farms in this province. According to the reports received from 30 out-
breaks recorded, this method of treatment, in conjunction with sanitary measures,
exerts an immediate effect on the death rate and the future condition of the
birds.
D 2
ABSTRACTS
Large-scale Treatment of Lands infested with Parasites.
(For the purpose of this note, the term " Treatment" has been taken to include, in addition to
dressing of lands, such operations as drainage, desiccation, clearing of bushes and rotation
of crops and grazing animals.)
The bulk of the work carried out under this head has been directed to the destruction of the
different species of snails known or suspected to be the intermediate hosts of certain trematodes
known to be pathogenic to man and animals. Some work has also been done upon the ridding of
pastures of certain common species of nematodes, e.g., the stomach worms of sheep (Hœmonchus
contortus and Ostertagia spp.), but investigations in this connection have not been pursued very
far. No work appears to have been done in regard to the control of the cestodes of ruminants,
presumably because the life-history of these parasites is not yet known.
A. MEASURES AGAINST TREMATODES.
Egypt, South Africa and Wales would appear to be the only localities where more or less
intensive investigations have been conducted upon the problem of controlling the molluscan hosts of
trematodes known to be pathogenic to man and animals. The results of these investigations
may be briefly summarized as follows :—
(a) Work in Egypt.
Work in Egypt has been conducted mainly with reference to the control of Bilharziasis, these
investigations having been inaugurated by Leiper as early as in the year 1915 and later continued
by Khalil, who has since published a full account of the work in the Reports and Notes of the
Public Health Laboratories, Cairo, (1924). The following is an abstract of the information
contained in the Reports :—
Leiper (1915-18) observed that snails were incapable of resisting desiccation for more than
a short period and that a weak solution of ammonium sulphate (commonly used as a fertilizer)
killed the molluscan hosts of Bilharzia (Schistosoma) within a few hours. He therefore proposed
a combination of the two methods in attacking the snails. Two years later, Khalil and Lee found
that the snails were killed in 1 in 1,000,000 copper sulphate solution in tap water after 5½ hours'
immersion. During the next few years, Khalil conducted what would appear to be an extensive series of
experiments upon the destructive power of this chemical for snails and the result obtained by him
led him to formulate the following recommendation for adoption in the field : " If copper sulphate
solution is to be utilized in combating Bilharziasis in Egypt, it will have to be put into small
irrigation channels and drains choked with vegetation and algæ and hence a concentration of 1 in
300,000 to 1 in 200,000 will be the lowest practicable one, if the laboratory results were to be
found applicable to the conditions in the field." The drug, when used in the above concentration,
is stated by him to be harmless for man and higher animals, although its effect on fish " is
doubtful", whilst it was found by him to exert no deleterious effect upon cotton, maize and wheat
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56 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [I, I
7. Pullorum disease in adult fowls can result from their continuing to harbor infection acquired
when they were chicks. Infection may also be acquired by mature fowls from consumption of
contaminated food, such as infected eggs, or from association with infected adult fowls.
8. Drugs and chemicals have not been demonstrated to have any curative value for chicks
actually infected with pullorum disease. Some chemicals, however, particularly the hypochlorite
solutions, are of value as disinfectants in the drinking water for chicks to prevent the spread of
infection through this route.
9. The systematic application of the serum-agglutination test to breeding fowls and the prompt
removal of reactors, combined with proper management and sanitation on the farms and in the
hatcheries, provides the most effective and practical means for the prevention of pullorum disease in
adult fowls and chicks. The slow or tube method and the rapid method for performing the
agglutination are equally reliable.
10. Repeated agglutination tests at intervals of from 1 to 2 months offer a reasonably certain
means of eradicating pullorum disease from a flock in one season. It is believed that owners of
infected breeding flocks would find this system of testing more worth while than annual testing.
11. Any testing procedure to be successful must be accompanied by strict adherence to sanitary
measures.
12. The agglutination test made with whole fresh blood was not found to be a satisfactory
substitute for the slow or rapid agglutination tests made with blood serum.
13. The intradermal or 'pullorin' test in its present status is not a satisfactory means of
detecting adult fowls with pullorum disease.
Tanning of Goat Skins.
The following is extracted from the List of Official Investigations and Enquiries from India
dealt with by the Imperial Institute, London, during 1928, 1929 and January—June 1930 :—
Two lots of goat skins, tanned respectively with Konna and Thumpagan barks, were forwarded
to by the Director of Industries, Travancore, to ascertain their suitability for the United Kingdom
market. The skins were inspected by the Imperial Institute Advisory Committee on Hides and Skins
and placed in the hands of Commercial firms for finishing trials. It was found that the skins tanned
with Konna bark were the more satisfactory. If steps are taken to promote a local industry in
Travancore with a view to the shipment of such skins to the United Kingdom, it would therefore
be advisable to tan them with Konna bark and to aim at as light a colour as possible, special attention
being paid to the liming operation and the prevention of " blasting ".
IMPERIAL BUREAUX OF ANIMAL NUTRITION AND ANIMAL
GENETICS.
The following publications on Animal Nutrition and Genetics have been received
by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research from the Imperial Bureau of
Animal Nutrition and the Imperial Bureau of Animal Genetics. Research workers
who have not received copies of communications dealing with their special subject
are invited to communicate with the Council :—
IMPERIAL BUREAU OF ANIMAL NUTRITION.
Publications.
The role of vitamins and minerals in stock feeding, by J. B. Orr.
Pig recording in East Prussia and South Sweden, by A. N. Duckham.
Pica, by J. W. Foster.
The influence of diet on the physiology of the stomach, by J. B. Orr.
Calcium and phosphorus in the metabolism of the lactating animal and fac-
tors that influence their assimilation, by J. B. Orr and H. E. Magee.
REPRINTS.
Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture.
1. Artificial illumination to increase winter Egg production, by Prof.
Raymond T. Parkhurst.
2. Substitutes for fish meal in the rations of fattening pigs. (Report
by Prof. T. B. Wood, Dr. J. B. Orr and Dr. C. Crowther. Edited by H. R.
Davidson.)
The Milk Industry.
The mineral requirements of dairy cows, by J. B. Orr. (August 1925.)
The Veterinary Record.
A note on the toleration of farm animals for high doses of iodine, by
J. B. Orr, A. Crichton and W. Middleton. (Vol. IX, No. 48, 1929.)
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58 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [I, I
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology.
1. Some remote effects of deficient diets on the rhythmical movements of the
isolated intestine, by H. E. Magee, Wm. Anderson, and Miss J. M'Callum.
(Vol. XIX, No. 2.)
2. The influence of bicarbonate and phosphate on the movements of surviving
intestine, by Miss J. W. M'Callum and H. E. Magee. (Vol. XX, No. 1.)
Journal of Physiology.
1. Changes in parathyroid and adrenal glands and in blood calcium in relation-
ship to egg formation in fowls, by T.P. Sun and Marion M. MacOwan. (Vol. LXX.)
2. Influence of intestinal movements of electrolytes in the lumen of isolated
segments, by H. E. Magee and B. A. Southgate. (Vol. LXVIII, No. I.)
3. Studies on diffusion through surviving isolated intestine, by D. W.
Auchinachie, J. J. R. Macleod and H. E. Magee. (Vol. LXIX, No. 2, April 14,
1930.)
The Pig Breeders' Annual, 1930-31.
Observations on the nutrition of breeding pigs, by J. B. Orr and H. R. David-
son.
The Journal of Hygiene.
1. The influence of certain dietary supplements on the nutrition of the African
native, I, by Francis Charles Kelly and John McAskill Henderson. (Vol. XXIX,
No. 4, February 1930.)
2. The influence of certain dietary supplements in relation to the calcium
requirements of growing African natives, II, by John McAskill Henderson and
Francis Charles Kelly.
3. A note of the influence of the addition of certain supplements to the diets
of African natives, III, by John McAskill Henderson and Francis Charles Kelly.
(Vol. XXIX, No. 4, 15th February 1930.)
The Analyst.
1. Phenols in sterilised milk, by A. T. R. Mattick.
2. Notes on the Thiocyanate method of estimating iron. Influence of
different classes of phosphates, by Geoffrey Winthrop Leeper.
ANIMAL NUTRITION AND GENETICS 59
The Journal of Agricultural Science.
1. Investigation on the mineral content of pasture grass and its effect on
herbivora, by Walter Elliot, J. B. Orr and T. B. Wood. (Vol. XVI, Part I.)
I. General report, by Walter Elliot.
II. Report on the effect of the addition of mineral salts to the ration of
sheep, by Walter Illiot and Arthur Crichton. (Vol. XVI, Part I.)
III. Report on the chemical analyses of pasture from various areas in the
British Isles, by William Godden. (Vol. XVI. Part I.)
IV. Report on the seasonal variations in the mineral content of pastures, by
Ethel M. Cruickshank.
V. Report on the effect of fertilisers on the mineral content of pastures, by
William Godden.
2. Factors affecting the iron and manganese content of plants with special
reference to herbage causing " Pining " and " Bush-sickness", by W. Godden and
R. E. R. Grimmett. (Vol. XVIII, Part III).
The Scottish Journal of Agriculture.
1. Surplus potatoes. The use of potatoes and oats as feeding stuffs. (Vol.
XIII, No. 1, January 1930.)
2. The nutritive requirements of poultry. The mineral requirements : Pre-
liminary communication. (Vol. VIII, No. 1, January 1925.)
3. The nutritive requirements of poultry. The effect of adding vitamin rich
substances to normal rations. II. Vitamin B or the water soluble Vitamin of
Yeast.
4. Milk substitutes in the rearing of calves, by J. B. Orr and A. Crichton and
others. (Vol. XII, No. 2, April 1929).
5. The nutritive requirements of poultry. VII. Growth in Chickens—II,
by M. Moir and others. (Vol. XII, No. 3).
Edinburgh Medical Journal.
1. Some aspects of the Van Den Bergh test for bilirubin, by J. P. M'Gowan.
(Vol. XXXVI, No. 4.)
2. Some points in regard to the genesis of mesoblastic tumours, by J. P.
M'Gowan. (Vol. XXXVI, No. 11, Nov. 1929.)
3. The alkali-reserve of the blood in relation to the Van den Bergh Bilirubin
test, by J. P. M'Gowan. (Vol. XXXVII, No. 1.)
60 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, I
The Lancet.
1. Milk consumption and the growth of school-children, by J. B. Orr. (Vol. I,
No. 5448, January 1928.)
2. Milk consumption and the growth of school-children, by Gerald Leighton
and Mabel L. Clark. (Vol. I, No. 5497, Jan. 1929.)
3. Diet and peptic ulcers in cavies, by H. E. Magee, W. Anderson and J.
McCallum.
4. Milk consumption and the growth of school-children, by M. L. Clark. (Vol.
I, No. 5520).
Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, 1929.
1. The relation of chemical composition of pasture to its feeding value, by J. B.
Orr.
2. The influence on nutrition of sunlight and artificially produced ultra-violet
rays, by J. B. Orr and others.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 1928 (Vol. XXI.)
A further contribution to the subject of aplastic anæmia, by J. P. McGowan.
West African Medical Journal.
Notes on certain edible and native salts from Nigeria, by William Godden.
The Biochemical Journal.
Insulin and increase in weight of young animals, by John James Richard
Macleod, Hugh Edward Magee and William Middleton. (Vol. XXIV, No. 3.)
The Milk Industry.
The action of strong sunlight on milk, by W. L. Davies. (July 1930.)
IMPERIAL BUREAU OF ANIMAL GENETICS.
Bulletins.
Quarterly Bulletin, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4.