NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
298 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, IV
blance to Theileria parasites and this may render the question of diagnosis of
"redwater" by blood smear examination a matter of some difficulty. The round
signet ring forms, however, appear to undergo no such change.
The microscopical method of diagnosis does not readily lend itself for adoption
in the field, since, apart from the fact that it is not every field worker who has
a microscope available for his use, it may happen that smears have been taken
before the parasites have appeared in any large numbers in the circulation, or
again, when they have already disappeared, for they may be present in the blood
only during a relatively short time in the course of an attack, as is witnessed by
the fact that at Muktesar organisms have been found to occur in large numbers
in smears taken on one day but have been completely absent in smears made on
the following day.
2. By the thermal reaction.—A sudden and sharp rise of temperature after the
lapse of a certain period following upon " serum-simultaneous " inoculation against
rinderpest is almost a certain indication of piroplasmosis affection. In uncom-
plicated acute experimental rinderpest, the temperature begins to rise about the
third day after inoculation of the virus and this rise is continued until about the
fifth day when it falls gradually, the normal being reached at about the seventh
day. If, instead of this gradual rise and fall, there is a sudden and sharp elevation
in the temperature after the sixth day, then the fever is almost certainly due to
piroplasmosis. Again, in rinderpest the temperature does not ordinarily rise above
104—105° F., but in acute piroplasmosis it may shoot up to 107° F. or even higher.
Conditions obtaining in the field, however, usually preclude the possibility of all
affected animals being kept under daily observation, and therefore diagnosis by
observation of the temperature reaction cannot be recommended in such cases.
3. By the passing of red-coloured urine.—This does not occur as a characteristic
symptom of the disease in the majority of clinical cases in India, although the
name "redwater", under which the disease is known, owes its origin to this
phenomenon.
4. By the presence of jaundice.—Jaundice is a rare phenomenon in bovine
piroplasmosis and it is believed that in these animals both the kidneys and the
liver function in the elimination of liberated hæmoglobin. On the other hand,
in equine and canine piroplasmosis, diagnosis is chiefly based upon the icteric
condition of the visible mucosæ, as in these animals it is probably only the liver
that is concerned in the elimination process and as such the excess of pigment
gains access to the circulation and the body tissues are thereby stained yellow.
5. By blood counts.—The reduction in the number of red blood-corpuscles
per cubic millimetre of blood may point to piroplasmosis but by itself it can by
DIAGNOSIS OF " REDWATER" (PIROPLASMOSIS)
299
no means be depended upon as a sure indication of the disease and, further, the
apparatus for blood counting is not generally available for use in the field.
II. POST-MORTEM DIAGNOSIS.
1. By the character of the blood.—The blood in the carcase of a bovine animal
dead of redwater is often found to be of thin and watery consistency and the tissues
become stained by it owing to hæmolysis, but the latter character is generally not
present in Indian cattle, except only in the very acute primary affections of adults
already mentioned.
2. By splenic enlargement.—An enlargement of the spleen, with other naked-
eye changes in this organ, is regarded as a very characteristic feature of this disease,
and it is found to occur in a considerable proportion of animals dead of acute and
severe piroplasmosis. The surface blood vessels are injected and petechial marks
are found on the surface. The pulp is dark and jam-like in appearance and the
trabeculæ and Malpighian corpuscles are indistinct. However, cases often occur
in India where no splenic enlargement is present, although blood smears may show
a heavy infection with piroplasms. Further, the diagnostic indication afforded by
splenic enlargement cannot be regarded as specific to the disease, since it occurs
also in other diseases of cattle, notably, hæmorrhagic septicæmia and anthrax.
3. By the appearance of the liver.—In acute cases, the liver is often found to be
enlarged, friable and highly congested. It appears as if it has been partly cooked
in boiling water. Often, it is found to be icteric also. But cases are not un-
commonly met with where there are no appreciable alterations in the naked-eye
appearances of this organ.
4. By the character of the bile.—The bile is thick, dark, opaque and almost
semi-solid in consistence. This, however, is not of constant occurrence.
5. By the appearance of the heart.—The pericardial sac contains an excess of
effusion which is of a sero-sanguineous nature. Petechial marks are often seen
on the epicardium and endocardium, more especially in the left ventricle. These
lesions are, however, not always found in the disease.
6. By the character of the intestinal contents.—In about fifty per cent. of animals
dead of piroplasmosis at Muktesar, the intestinal contents in the cæcum, colon and
rectum have been noticed to be slightly tinged red with hæmoglobin.
7. By a constant and peculiar lesion in the kidneys which has not been previously
described.—On opening the abdominal cavity of an animal dead of piroplasmosis,
one's attention is drawn to a peculiar appearance presented by the kidneys: with
300 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, IV
the fibrous capsule intact, these appear to be of an oily dark-bluish colour which
is quite distinct from the greyish-green colour brought about by decomposition
changes and resembles to a certain extent the colour of the distended cardiac veins.
On removal of the easily detachable fibrous capsule, the surface presents a dark-
violet colour, and an examination of a section of the organ shows that the
blue colour is not present in the parenchyma, but that the cortex shows only
intense congestion. Particles of dark-yellowish pigment have been found in the
leucocytes on histological examination of this kidney lesion. In over three hundred
cases of post-mortem examination conducted on animals dead of piroplasmosis at
Muktesar, this kidney lesion was constantly found to be present. Cases have been
met with where no other lesions were encountered, excepting this colour lesion
of the kidneys, and microscopical examination in such cases has always confirmed
the diagnosis of clinical piroplasmosis. It is believed, therefore, that this hitherto
undescribed lesion forms an easy and reliable method of post-mortem diagnosis in
" redwater " of Indian cattle.
TICK INFESTATION IN THE COASTAL TRACT OF NORTH
KANARA DISTRICT.*
BY
R. N. NAIK, G.B.V.C.,
Assistant Veterinary Research Officer, Imperial Institute of Veterinary Research,
Muktesar.
(Received for publication on 30th July 1931.)
(With 4 figures.)
In the course of his duties while he was in charge of the Veterinary Dispensary,
Kumta, the writer's attention was repeatedly drawn towards the emaciated condi-
tion in a considerable proportion of the cattle inhabiting the coastal tract of North
Kanara District. From enquiries it transpired that the tick was mainly responsible
for this condition; the opinion prevalent amongst the local residents seemed to
describe the damage to the fact that the tick sucked up gradually the blood of
cattle and made them useless for purposes of work or for milking. They believed
that its ravages have told upon the existing mongrel breed and helped to degene-
rate it to the extreme and as a result there was no encouragement for cattle
breeding.
In the present publication an endeavour has been made to present what facts
the writer has been able to collect concerning the different aspects of tick infesta-
tion considered in relation to the local conditions of the tract to which these facts
relate. A few suggestions are offered upon what has appeared to the writer the
most feasible methods of control of this pest. It is hoped that these suggestions
will be found generally applicable to other localities in India, where, as the writer's
enquiries have revealed, tick infestation constitutes perhaps one of the ever serious
scourges that the livestock owner has to contend with.
It is also hoped that the information embodied in this paper will constitute an
addition to the tick literature in India.
* Paper read at the 17th Indian Science Congress, Allahabad, 1930.
( 301 )
302 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, IV
The writer desires to express his grateful thanks to the following officers for
the encouragement given by them in the prosecution of the investigation :—
E. S. Farbrother, M.R.C.V.S.,I.V.S., Superintendent, Civil Veterinary
Department, Bombay Presidency.
Dr. Mann, Ph.D., Director, Agricultural Department, Bombay Presidency.
Collector of North Kanara District.
Veterinary Inspector V. N. Kulkarni.
Valuable suggestions have been received from K.S.J.D. Buxy, Deputy
Superintendent, Civil Veterinary Department, Bombay Presidency, and
Mr. S. K. Sen, M. Sc., to whom sincere thanks are due.
HISTORICAL.
Compared with what is known in other countries, very little appears to be on
record upon ticks occurring in India. This being due, it would appear, to the
paucity of material available for examination by experts. Systematic arachnology
though it dates from 1758, when Linnaeus had described two species, would
appear to have been earnestly begun in 1897 by Supino who described about 20
species, many of which were from Burma. Lately when more materials were
available, Neumann revised Supino's species and also described some new forms.
In 1901 Stiles and Hassall recorded B. Australis, the vector of Piroplasma bovis
for the first time in India. Christopher's memoir, " Anatomy and Histology of
ticks " appeared in 1906 and Warburton published in 1907 a short account of " The
Ticks infesting domesticated animals in India ". Since 1909 Nuttall, Warburton,
Robinson and Cooper have considerably enriched our knowledge of the more
common species of ticks found in India. Sharif [ 1928 ] of the Zoological Survey
of India, published, what would appear a comprehensive account of the forms
occurring in India and in this connection he described nine genera, forty-five
species, four sub-species and six varieties of which five species, two sub-species and
one variety are new and one species and two sub-species recorded for the first time
in India.
A good deal of original information upon tick-borne diseases in India has been
embodied in some of the papers published during recent years from the Imperial
Institute of Veterinary Research. [ Cooper, 1926, 1, 2 ; Edwards, 1927. ]
TOPOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATIC FEATURES OF KANARA.
North Kanara, the southern most district of the Bombay Presidency, lies
between 13° 55' and 15° 31' North latitude and 74° 9' and 75° 10' East longitude.
TICK INFESTATION IN COASTAL TRACT OF NORTH CANARA
303
It is a belt of the country on the Arabian Sea about 110 miles from north to south
and from ten to sixty miles from east to west. Central Kanara is a country of great
richness of scenery and includes three belts: the coastal tract with broad winding
lagoons, rich plains and wooded hills running to the sea; the central belt of the
lofty Sahyadris (Western Ghats) covered with magnificent forests; and an eastern
upland which is wild waving and thickly wooded in the west and in the east passes
into a bare land and thickly populated plain. A somewhat broken and irregular
range of central hills divides the district into two parts; the Up-ghats and the
Below-ghats. The investigation of ticks was carried out in the latter part of the
country.
CLIMATE.
There are four seasonn which along with the average mean temperature,
humidity and rainfall are tabulated below :—
TABLE I.
Months
March . . . . .
April . . . . .
May . . . . .
June . . . . .
July . . . . .
August . . . . .
September . . . .
October . . . .
November . . . .
December . . . .
January . . . .
February . . . .
Temperature
20 years
average
(fig. 1)
81.4
84.2
84.3
81.6
79.1
79.7
79.3
81.4
81.4
78.4
75.9
78.2
Humidity
20 years average
(fig. 2)
80 % to 70 %
Do.
Do.
90 % to 80 %
Do.
Do.
80%
Do.
70%
Do.
80 % to 70 %
Do.
Rainfall
average
1923-26
(in inches)
..
..
2.40
42.97
46.33
32.05
Seasons
}Hot months
}Wet months
11.74
2.90
0.28
..
..
..
}Hot and damp
months
}Cool months
304 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OP VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, IV
Fig. 1. Temperature (Mean), coastal talukas N., Kanara.
TICK INFESTATION IN COASTAL TRACT OF NORTH CANARA
305
Fig. 2. Humidity (Mean twenty years' average), North Kanara.
The country is comprised of forest area, garden area, and rice field area. The
former two covered with evergreen trees, plants, bushes and pastures. Rice fields
supply straw for cattle.
CATTLE AND CATTL
Cat t l e bel ong t o t he i ndi genous mongr el br eed and ar e i nferi or. I n t hi s t ract
they number to 1,24,284 according to the
306 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [I, IV
decades ago they were of better breed and quality but now they have degenerated
on account of restricting the grazing area, non-observance of breeding principles
and the increase in the tick infestation. All bulls above five or six years of age
are mulled or castrated leaving scarcely any one for breeding purposes. A. large
number of cattle are imported every year from round about districts.
The cattle shed is generally built of kutcha-mud walls, soft murum floor and
thatchings of rice straw, palm leaves or hay. The manger is made of bamboos or
stumps. The shed structure and the floor present a most shabby appearance and
are unhealthy to the extreme, the exposed sides adding to it. Quantities of green
leaves and dry leaves are usually spread under the feet of cattle as litter in order
that they may be turned into humous condition by the action of animal excreta
and be thus useful as manure. The leaves, green or dry, spread as litter is
left uncollected at the average of six days to more than a week and then are
stored in the manure pit which is ordinarily maintained in close proximity of the
shed. The cattle shed is not only used for housing cattle but also for storing fodder
on its upper portion.
TICK FAUNA OF KANARA.
Through the courtesy of the Zoological Survey of India, the ticks collected by
the writer from cattle in Kanara have been identified as follows:—
1. Haemaphysalis bispinosa, Neumann.
2. Haemaphysalis spinigera, Neumann.
3. Boophilus australis, Fuller.
4. Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides, Supino.
5. Amblyomma integrum, Karsch.
6. Hyalomma aegyptium ssp. isaaci, Sharif.
A short description of these forms is given below :—
Haemaphysalis species.
These are reddish brown in colour and when replete the females are dark grey.
They are sluggish in movements, belong to the class of intermittent feeders,
easily dislodged from the skin of the host, of common occurrence in Kanara, attack
several species of domestic animals and sometimes man.
Boophilus australis.
The male is pale or dark brown and the female when replete is slate blue in
colour resembling a castor seed. A continuous feeder and attacks all domestic
310 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, IV
Fig. 4. A graph expressing the correlated influence of temperature and humidity upon tick
metabolism.
308 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, IV
days later he felt much pain at the pit below the scrotum and eventually dis-
covered that this was due to the tick being located in this region.
In the absence of natural hosts ticks may crawl into the human habitations
much to the annoyance of their inmates. Such occurrences are not infrequent
in this tract, for instance, Superintendent, Agricultural Farm, Kumta, had his
quarters invaded by an army of ticks, although they were situated at a distance
of about 80 yards from the cattle shed.
Ticks possess passive means of defence which are mainly the so-called pro-
tective resemblance which connotes inconspicuousness. When a tick is touched or
dropped on the palm of the hand ." death feint" for a short while is exhibited.
Amblyomma forms appear to mimic some insects or small animals which being
nauseously distasteful are often conspicuous having a combination of colour
markings termed " warning colours ".
The general rule observed in nature is that smaller species of ticks abound in
their number, possess less resisting power, lay smaller number of eggs and finish
their life cycle much earlier than bigger species which, on the other hand, are found
in very small number though greater number of eggs are laid by them, possess
comparatively greater resisting power and take nearly double the period for
finishing the life cycle.
CORRELATED INFLUENCE OF CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ON TICK METABOLISM AND
INFESTATION.
Fig. 3 shows the number of tick-infested cattle treated at the Kumta Veteri-
nary Dispensary during the years 1923 to 1926. This figure, when read in con-
junction with Table II which represents temperature, humidity and rainfall,
reveal the following interesting facts:—
1. The tick infestation is the greatest during the months of June to Novem-
ber every year.
2. The tick infestation is most virulent during wet and hot-damp seasons.
3. A temperature of 75° F. to 85° F. with a humidity of 75 to 90 per cent.
represents what would appear to be the optimum condition (Fig. 4)
for the development of ticks found in this tract, which appears to be
in conformity with the "water-optimum" theory propounded by
Headlee [1917].
4. Early rains in the month of May help to increase the tick infestation.
5. Moisture is highly favourable to the rapid multiplication of ticks.
TICK INFESTATION IN COASTAL TRACT OF NORTH CANARA
309
Fig. 3. Chart showing tick cases treated in the veterinary dispensary, Kumta, Outpatients and
M. S. cases.
E 2
TICK INFESTATION IN COASTAL TRACT OF NORTH CANARA
311
TABLE II.
Showing rainfall, thermometric and hygrometric records at Kumta Town.
Ser i
al No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Months
January
February
March
April
May .
June .
July .
August
September
October
November
December
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
1923
Rainfall
..
..
..
..
0.11
24.53
63.99
44.64
17.2
0.32
..
..
Temparature
Max.
F.
87.4
85.0
88.1
91.3
91.3
89.6
81.4
83.1
84.3
87.1
88.3
90.6
Min.
F.
77.1
76.1
80.1
83.8
82.8
80.1
76.3
76.4
77.0
78.5
76.9
78.0
Hygrometric
readings
Wet.
F.
72.2
71.7
75.8
80.8
79.5
80.6
77.2
78.l
77.8
78.1
75.3
72.9
Dry.
F.
79.9
77.6
81-4
86.3
85.2
83.6
77.8
78.7
80.2
81.6
81.3
81.2
1924
Rainfall
in
inches
..
..
..
..
2.62
56.24
52.90
16.13
9.70
1.55
0.26
..
Temperature
Max.
F.
87.7
88.1
90.6
91.1
91.8
81.8
81.8
82.0
81.5
81.2
81.7
84.3
Mi n
F.
77.5
76.8
79.5
83.2
83.0
81.6
81.1
80.6
80.5
80.3
79.6
82.1
Hygrometric
readings
Wet.
F.
73.5
75.9
77.1
80.0
80.2
76.7
79.2
81.4
81.1
81.0
80.2
78.5
Dry.
F
79.5
80.6
83.7
85.8
85.1
80.4
79.8
81.4
82.1
82.2
81.9
79.8
1925
Rainfall
in
inches
..
..
..
..
6.96
55.66
3323
33.90
2.27
6.50
0.87
0.50
Temperature
Max.
F.
84.6
84.0
86.4
90.0
90.0
81.8
81.4
80.6
84.1
97.8
100.8
88.0
Min.
F.
77.9
76.0
82.3
87.9
86.4
80.0
79.7
78.4
79.2
76.9
73.8
77.7
Hygrometric
reading
Wet.
F.
69.2
67.0
72.0
79.1
79.0
77.3
77.2
74.4
71.1
75.6
72.1
70.6
Dry.
F
75.9
75.0
81.4
85.6
84.3
79.8
78.9
77.9
78.7
79.0
77.7
76.9
(Obtained from Agricultural Experimental Station, Kumta.)
312 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, IV
The exact extent of correlation existing between the virulency of tick infestation
on the one hand and the climatic condition on the other will be readily understood
by a reference to Fig. 3 read in conjunction with Table II.
DISSEMINATION OF TICK INFECTION.
Although, a priori, there is a considerable likelihood of tick infestation occur-
ring as a result of contact with infested animals, under natural conditions there
does not appear to be any appreciable spread of the infection by this method since
the tick once attached to the host does not disengage itself except when such a step
is demanded by any special circumstances. However, male ticks do detach them-
selves and wander about in search of mates on the skin of the host itself.
It is generally conceded that the most common way of picking up the in-
fection is from such wooded tracts as providing grazing for cattle. Ticks in
various stages have been observed to climb up blades of grass and leaves of shrubs,
and to remain attached to them by means of their posterior limbs, the anterior
ones being left free to gain purchase on moving animals. During rainy season,
one may observe his cattle returning home in the evening harbouring innumerable
ticks on the extremities of the body, especially on the muzzle. In Kanara it has
been observed that gurgi (Strobinlanthus perfoliatus) and chirkul (Grewia microcos)
bushes are invariably infected with ticks. Thick shrubs of these plants notably of
the former species occur in abundance in the local forests, and these constitute a
favourite hiding place for wild animals during the day time and also harbour ticks
in great abundance.
The cattle sheds as they are constructed in these localities with their rough
mud walls and kutcha floor, are admirably adapted for the breeding of ticks. In
the course of his investigation the writer found certain sheds literally covered with
these parasites. Fodder and Agricultural materials are as much responsible as
cattle themselves for the spread of the infection.
PATHOGENICITY.
Injurious effects caused by ticks may be due to :—
1. Bites.
2. Extraction of blood.
3. Transmission of protozoon diseases.
4. Tick Toxæmia.
TICK BITES.
Pustules, ulcers and dermatitis are often met with in tick infested cattle.
These lesions are specially seen on the finer skin of the body such as dewlap,