NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
18
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ I, I
comes down to normal on the fourth day [Meadows]. The muzzle is generally
quite moist, sometimes with a ropy saliva hanging from the lips and a copious flow of
fluid from the nostril. There is complete suspension of rumination and feeding on
the first day, but these are usually resumed on the second day. " A very constant
and noticeable feature is a swelling around the eyes, which gives the animal a dull,
heavy appearance; in many cases this swelling and severe lachrymation is the
earliest clinical symptom, and with redness of the conjunctiva and glaring appearance
of the eye is most diagnostic" [Bevan]. Constipation is usually present but not
invariable, and there may even be diarrhœa at the commencement; the dung is
usually covered with strings of mucus. According to Bevan, "tympanites is
seldom present", but Edmonds and Walker [1929] mention the occurrence of
" frequent tympanites ".
Several workers in India have referred to the great suddenness with which the
disease makes its appearance. Thus, Meadows [1919] observes : " An animal
may be left quite all right and found a very few hours later with high fever and
showing all symptoms". Again, Gopal Krishnan [1929] writes: "An animal
apparently quite sound in the morning will be found to be in high fever when it
returns in the evening after work ".
Venkatachala Iyer [1924], who would appear to have had considerable oppor-
tunities of studying the disease in India, has furnished a brief account of the
disease-syndrome, embodying the essential clinical symptoms exhibited, and his
account will bear quotation as illustrating the remarkable quickness with which the
symptoms follow and the very brief period that elapses between their onset and
final disappearance : " The attack was ushered in with rigors, staring coat, droop-
ing ears and dry muzzle. The animal was off feed and dull, the mucous membrane
congested and the bowels constipated. The temperature was found to be raging
between 103-104° F. [Cf., however, Bevan's and Meadows's observations in this
respect]. A couple of hours after these symptoms commenced there was slight
dribbling of saliva. Respiration and pulse were found to be accelerated. These
indications lasted from one to three days. On the second or third day slight
metastatic lameness appeared. In animals that recovered improvement took
place by the abatement of the symptoms after the third day ". It is of interest
that the occurrence of 'rigor' is also mentioned by Misra [1927] as being an
invariable feature of the disease, for this observer writes : " The animal shivers
as a man does in malaria which is very evident in almost every case". This
phenomenon, however, does not appear to have been recorded by other workers.
Rabagliati [1924], commenting on Venkatachala Iyer's account as reproduced
above, states, on the authority of Allen [1909], that the symptoms observed in the
THREE-DAY SICKNESS OF CATTLE
19
Egyptian form of the disease were essentially the same as those mentioned by Iyer,
" except that in Egypt the breathing was altered at onset in a characteristic way,
being rapid and abdominal, while expiration was accompanied by a sort of ' double
lift '." He further observes that in Iyer's account " the lameness is not described
as occurring as early " as in Egypt, " nor does it appear to have been so severe."
A perusal of the available literature shows, however, that the occurrence of
lameness in a relatively early phase of the disease, although perhaps usual, is not
invariable in India, and according to Gopal Krishnan [1928], " occasionally no
lameness could be detected at all."
Although called " three-day sickness", complicated cases may show the
symptoms for three weeks or more, whilst, on the other hand, acute cases may
recover in 24 hours [Bevan].
REPRODUCTION OF THE DISEASE.
Beven [1907] failed to reproduce the disease, by injection of citrated infected
blood, in donkeys, rabbits and chicken, but obtained positive results in the case of
sheep, without, however, the " stiffness " characteristic of the disease. Robertson
(cited by Hutyra and Marek, 1922) was successful in reproducing the disease by
inoculating virulent blood in the jugular veins of oxen, the incubation period in
all such cases of artificial infection being 2 to 3 days. Rabagliati [1924] carried
out inoculation experiments, with both filtered and unfiltered infected blood, upon
twenty-six bulls, six sheep, a camel and a horse, and from the results he was led
to conclude that " the disease cannot be communicated by direct inoculation of
blood of infected animals", although, in view of the successful results
recorded by other workers, " confirmatory tests remain still to be esta-
blished". In the case of the so-called "bovine influenza" of Japan, Futamura
[1922] found that it was " inoculable" to mice, rabbits [Cf., however, Bevan's
observations as given above], sheep and cattle, but not to guinea-pigs and pigeons.
Theiler [1906-07] failed to reproduce the disease by rubbing on to the gums of
healthy animals the saliva derived from infected animals.
POST-MORTEM APPEARANCES.
Owing to the extremely low mortality, little exact information is available as
to the lesions that may be regarded as definitely diagnostic of the disease. The
chief pathological changes, as observed by Bevan [1907], have been summarized by
him as follows:—
(1) An altered condition of the blood, which clots very readily and which
allows a ready effusion of red-coloured material into the surrounding
tissues.
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THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [I, I
(2) A quantity of blood-stained fluid in the pericardial sac.
(3) A violent inflammation of the lining of the abomasum.
Freer [1910] noted an enlargement of almost all the lymphatic glands of the
body, particularly those in front of the sternum.
In the case of an animal that "died suddenly without treatment, " Venka-
tachala Iyer [1924] found the pleura to be congested; the lungs with a diffuse
venous congestion ; bronchi and alveoli with signs of hæmorrhage; heart pale and
flabby and containing clotted blood. These findings led him to regard the cause
of death as "acute congestive broncho-pneumonia ". In the case of " bovine in-
fluenza " of Japan, Futamura [1923] describes the principal lesions as gelatinous
œdema in various parts of the body, hepatization of the lungs, enlargement of the
liver and kidneys and congestion of the alimentary mucous membrane.
ÆTIOLOGY.
Futamura [1922] claims to have isolated a "bipolar organism" from cases
of "bovine influenza " in Japan, whilst Venkatachala Iyer [1924] mentions the occur-
rence of " varied organisms, including a few bipolar ones " in the lesions of an
animal that had died of three-day sickness, and he regards these organisms as the
likely cause of the disease " inasmuch as all the diseases originating from the
pasteurella group are found to run an acute course ", but Rabagliati [1924] observes
that he " cannot agree that a pasteurella is a probable cause " as suggested by Iyer
but " thinks that the causative agent is much more likely to be some form of ultra-
visible virus ". Bevan suspects that the organism is already present in bovincs,
but does not give rise to disease until " some unusual conditions " reduce the
tolerance or immunity.
As to the method by which the disease is conveyed, Venkatachala Iyer [1924]
refers to absence of attacks among cattle of uninfected localities and to the occurrence
of fresh outbreaks among cattle of infected places, and on this account, he is
" strongly inclined to believe that it is contagious ". On the other hand, several
workers [Theiler, 1906-07 ; Edwards, 1928] consider it unlikely that the disease is
transmitted by contagion and some authors regard it probable that it is conveyed
to long distances through the agency of some species of biting insect, such as a
midge. Freer [1910] states that attempts to transmit the disease by means of
ticks failed, and this was what one would expect in view of the long stretches of
uninfected areas that frequently intervene between infected localities—a fact point-
ing to the possibility of the infection being conveyed by some species of winged
vectors. Bevan refers to the view extant in Rhodesia that the infection is carried
by locusts or birds, particularly the so-called " locust-birds," whilst Meadows
THREE-DAY SICKNESS OF CATTLE
21
refers to the belief prevalent amongst peasants in India that the disease is
caused " by eating caterpillars and pupae which are found surrounded by froth
attached to grass stalks ".
MORTALITY.
Recovery is usual and the mortality rate hardly exceeds 2 to 3 per cent. in
complicated cases. Aghion [1910], in Egypt, states that he did not lose a single
case in 135 bulls affected at one time. The mortality figures given by Venkatachala
Iyer [1924], however, would appear to be relatively high, for, in one instance, he
records three deaths out of thirteen animals affected, two of the animals dying
after a brief period of illness lasting for 2 to 4 hours at night. In the midland
districts of South Africa, the disease is reported to have led indirectly to the death
of considerable numbers of cattle, which had become reduced in condition owing
to drought [Borthwick, 1921]. Bevan observes that death is frequently due to
injudicious treatment and that mortality chiefly occurs among animals suffering
from stiffness of the neck, this being probably due to drenching, since in such cases
drugs are liable to "go down the wrong way and cause pneumonia " [Edwards,
1928].
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS.
The disease may be confounded with blackquarter, both by reason of the
symptoms and its occurrence usually during the rains, but in three-day sickness
there is no external local lesion so characteristic of blackquarter. It differs from
rheumatic fever by the absence of any local swelling. It is, however, very difficult
to differentiate the disease from anthrax except by microscopical examination
[Venkatachala Iyer, 1924] " though when the epizootic is once established, diagnosis
should be easy and the rarity of deaths is especially suggestive" [Rabagliati,
1924].
TREATMENT.
Several workers have claimed to have obtained beneficial results with Epsom Salt
(in doses of ½ to 1 lb.) when given at the onset of the disease. Venkatachala Iyer
[1924] records having obtained " a decidedly good curative effect " with a single
hypodermic injection of one drachm of carbolic acid in half an ounce of distilled
water for adult animals and with half this dosage in the case of those under two
years of age. Edmonds and Walker [1929] recommend frequent massaging of the
muscles with a cheap stimulating liniment, this being accompanied with the ad-
ministration of drachm doses of powdered nux vomica twice daily. Swaminatha
Ayyar [1919] treats the disease " by administering cresol-saponified in doses of one
or two drachms well diluted in water ". Pantulu [1920] found that patients usually
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THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [I,
recovered in 1 to 2 days when treated with sodium salicylate and nitre. Swami-
natha Ayyar [1920] recommends drenching with one ounce of ammonium carbonate
and half an ounce of pulv. nux vomica dissolved in a pint of water and given in
three doses along with conjee. Ramanathan [1923] recommends the administration
of a single dose consisting of the following : magnesium sulphate, 4 oz.; potassium
nitrate, 2 drachms ; spirits ammonium aromaticus, 1½ oz.; liq. ammon. acetatis,
1½ oz.; water, 1 pint. Of the fifteen animals treated by him by this method, only
one succumbed. Misra [1927] records having obtained satisfactory results with a
single dose of a mixture consisting of sodium salicylate and spirits ammonium aroma-
ticus (quantities not stated), the mixture being particularly indicated in cases of
"restlessness ". Gopal Krishnan [1928] obtained " very effective and encouraging
results " with sodium salicylate ; 30 grains of this drug are dissolved in cold water
that has been previously boiled, the solution is filtered, and the filtrate injected
intravenously, the injection being repeated after 18 to 24 hours.
Bevan [1907], however, found that animals recovered equally quickly if no
medicine were administered at all, and he points to the danger of disturbing com-
plications being set up as a result of attempting to drug animals that are unable
to swallow. Meadows [1919] considers it safer to give drugs subcutaneously or
per anum, instead of by the mouth.
Affected animals should be protected from extremes of temperature and rain
and offered water and soft food [Meadows, 1919], whilst sweating should be en-
couraged by means of blankets and rugs [Bevan, 1923]. Aghion [1910] recommends
a liberal supply of cold water in which may be dissolved " moderate doses of mag.
sulph. and pot. nit.".
REFERENCES.
Aghion (1910). Amer. Vet. Rev. 37, 363-364.
Allen (1909). Annual Rep., Dept. Pub. Health, Cairo, p. 111. [Cited by Rabagliati in Vet. Rec. 4, N. S.,
p. 505.]
Ananthayya Shastry (1920). Madras Vet. Journ., p. 15.
Bevan (1907). Journ. Comp. Path. & Therap. 20, 104-113 (with illustrations).
„ (1912). Vet. Journ. 68, 458-461.
„ (1923). Wooldridge's Encyclopaedia of Veterinary Medicine, Surgery & Obstetrics I, 129-132.
(The text is largely the same as that published by the author in 1907.)
Borthwick (1921). Rep. Vet. Div. Union S. Africa for Fifteen months from 1st April 1919 to 30th June
1920.
Chambers (1911). Vet. Journ. 67, 51 (with illustration of a typically affected animal).
Dept. of Public Health, Cairo. Annual Rep. for 1909, p. 101. [Cited by Rabagliati in Vet. Rec. 4, N. S.,
505.]
Edwards (1928). Some Diseases of Cattle in India, pp. 71-72.
Edmonds and Walker (1929). Diseases of Animals in Tropical Countries, pp. 382 385
Freer (1910). Vet. Journ. 66, 19-22. [Also in Journ. Trop. Vet. Sci. 5, 145-148 ; 1911.]
THREE-DAY SICKNESS OF CATTLE
23
Futamura (1922). Journ. Jap. Soc. Vet. Sci. 1, 133-140. [Abstr. in Trop. Vet. Bull. 11, 26 ;
1923.]
Futamura (1923). Journ. Jap. Soc. Vet. Sci. 2, 200-202. [Abstr. in Trop Vet. Bull. 11, 142 ;
1923.]
Gopal Krishnan (1928). Proc. Fifth Annual Conference, C. P. and Berar Vet. Assoc., pp. 30-32.
Gray (1917). Rep. Vet. Div. Union S. Africa 1915-16.
Hoare (1913). A System of Veterinary Medicine 1, 941.
Hutyra and Marek (1922). Spezielle Path. u. Therap. der Haust. 1, 239-240. [Also its English trans-
lation, which, however, does not cite the references contained in the German edition.]
Meadows (1919). Vet. Journ. 75, 138-140; October. [Also in Madras Vet. Journ. Dec. 1919, pp. 24-26.]
Merkens (1919). Ncderl. Ind. Blad. V. Dierengeneesk. en Dierent. 31, 48-50. [Cited in Trop. Vet. Bull.
7, 120; 1919.]
Misra (1927). Proc. Fourth Annual Conference, C. P. and Berar Vet. Assoc., pp. 23-26.
Pantulu (1920). Madras Vet. Journ., pp. 23-24.
Parameswaran (1920). Madras Vet. Journ., pp. 12-14.
Piot Bey (1895). Bull. de L'Institute Egyptien, p. 101. [Cited by Rabagliati in Vet. Rec. 4, N. S.,
505.]
Rabagliati (1924). Vet. Rec. 4, N. S., 503-505.
Ramachandra Ayyar (1923). Madras Vet. Journ. pp. 16-17.
Ramanathan (1923). Madras Vet. Journ., pp. 12-13.
Swaminatha Ayyar (1920). Madras Vet Journ. pp. 14-15.
Theiler (1906-07). Rep. Govt. Bact. Transvaal Dept. Agric., pp. 22-23.
„ (1909-10). Rep.. Govt. Bact. Union S. Africa Dept. Agric., pp. 84-94.
Venkatachala Ayyar (1924). Madras Vet. Journ. pp. 35-39.
Venkatachala Iyer (1924). Vet. Rec. 4, N. S., 277-279. [The text of the article is practically the same
as that published by the author (with the initials " Ayyar ") in Madras Vet. Journ., as cited
above.]
Venkatesa Ayyar (1920). Madras Vet. Journ., pp. 27-28.
N. B.—In the case of articles cited from the Madras Veterinary Journal, it has not been possible to
ascertain the months of their publication from the single bound volume (dated 1919-25) that has been
available for consultation.
NOTES ON THE BIONOMICS AND ANATOMY OF CORIZONEURA LONGI-
ROSTRIS, HARDWICKE.
(DIPTERA: FAMILY TABANIDAE ; SUB-FAMILY PA
BY
S. K. SEN, M.Sc., F.E.S.,
Protozoologist, Imperial Institute of Veterinary Research, Muktesar-Kumaun.
CONTENTS.
NOTES ON IN THE BIONOMICS OF C. longirostris
NOTES ON THE ANATOMY OF C. longirostris
(a) THE MOUTH-PARTS
(b) THE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT
REFERENCES
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PAGE
25
26
26
27
28
Corizoneura, originally treated as a subgenus under Dialomineura (sub-family
Pangoninæ), was raised by Austen to generic rank in 1921, the genus Dialomineura,
Rond. (1864) itself having been shown by Brèthes (1914) to be a synonym of Osca,
Walk. (1850). In much of the earlier literature, flies of this class (characterized by
their conspicuously long proboscis) have been collectively referred to the genus
Pangonia, so that Hardwicke (1823), who founded the species which forms the
subject of this paper, described it as Pangonia longirostris.
Only two species of Corizoneura (including one variety) have been recorded
from the Indian Region. Senior-White [1927] gives the following synopsis for the
differential diagnosis of these :—
1. Proboscis much longer than the whole body
..
..
2.
Proboscis scarcely longer than the body
... laprobanes, Walk.
2. First two joints of front tarsi modified,
widened in both sexes
...
...
longirostris, Hardw.
First two joints of front tarsi simple
... longirostris var. varipes, Ric.
Both the species would appear to be denizens of hilly tracts, a very notable
exception being a record of the occurrence of C. longirostris in Allahabad [Röder,
1881].** The almost exclusive occurrence of these species in the Hills doubtless
accounts for the remarkably few observations on record concerning their habits
*Being a paper read at the Zoological Section of the Indian Science Congress, Allahabad,
January 1930.
**It is, however, more than probable that this is an error.
PLATE II.
Fig. 1(a). C. longirostris ♀ . (Body magnified 1½ times.)
Fig. 1(b). C. longirostris
♂.
(Ditto.)
Fig. 2. A flower of the species Roscoea purpurea, Smith.
PLATE III.
3a. Paired labellum of C. longirostris ♂.
3b. Tip of labeilum of C. longirostris ♂ (highly magnified).
4a. Paired labellum of C. longirostris ♀.
4b. Tip of labellum of C. longirostris ♀ (highly magnified).
NOTES ON
CORIZONEURA
LONGIROSTRIS
25
and internal anatomy, whilst their life-history is as yet entirely unknown. During
the past two years, the present writer has had occasion to make a search for the
early stages of C. longirostris, and although he has not been successful in his
attempts, he has nevertheless been enabled to record a few original observations,
which are likely to be useful to those interested in this group of flies.
NOTES ON THE BIONOMICS OF C. LONGIROSTRIS.
At Muktesar (Kumaun ; altitude 7,500 ft.), C. longirostris [P1. II, figs. 1(a) and
1(b)] has been observed to make its first appearance towards the latter part of July
and to disappear, in a remarkably sudden manner, towards the first week of Sep-
tember. This would appear to be, in the main, in accord with the experience of
Imms, who, as stated by Tetley [1917], found the flies † "on the basis of forests
towards the end of the rainy season, feeding on flowers of the orders Scrophularia-
ceæ and Labiatæ by thrusting their proboscis into them, poising themselves in the
air during the process". At Muktesar, C. longirostris has been noticed to feed upon
a species of flower, which the present vriter has had identified through the courtesy
of the Curator of the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Garden (Sibpur), as Roscoea
purpurea, Smith (P1. II, fig. 2), belonging to the family of Scitamineæ. The seas-
onal prevalence of the flower almost synchronizes with that of the fly, both making
their first appearance and disappearing about the same time of the year. As al-
ready noted by L1. Lloyd (cited by Tetley, 1917), the long proboscis in these
flies is used to extract the nectar from flowers which they do while on their wings,
in the manner of Sphingid moths, and the present writer has found it relatively
simple to capture specimens of these flies while they are in the act of so doing.
The remarkable structure of the labellum would appear to be well adapted for
such operation in that it is a honeycombed paired process, provided with depress-
ions and tufts of backwardly directed spines (P1. III, figs. 3 and 4). The precise
function of the labellum has been discussed by Tetley (1917), who observes :
" Having inserted its proboscis into the flower, the insect would naturally make the
two labelia diverge so as to suck up the nectar ; this would have the effect of mak-
ing the spines project into the sides of the flower and would give the insect a slightly
firmer hold while it was hovering." The spatula-like double labellum, however,
presumably mainly functions in scooping out the nectar, the depressions and brush-
like tufts of spines aiding in the process.
The question as to whether flies of this class are capable of sucking mammalian
blood has been discussed by several workers, and the different views have already
†It is of interest that Dr. Imms's specimens were taken by him, on the 7th July 1922, at
Bhowali (altitude, 5,000 ft.), which is situated at a distance of about 16 miles from Muktesar.
26
THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [I, I
been summarized both by Tetley [1917] and Mitter [1917-18]. Although the writer
of the present paper has not had occasion to notice these flies in the actual act of
sucking blood, nevertheless he has observed the presence of fairly large quantities
of blood in the midgut of at least two female specimens, in the course of the
numerous dissections performed by him.‡ He, however, did not succeed either to
induce them to suck blood or to oviposit in captivity, although the conditions were
made as favourable for them as could be thought of, for the flies were kept confined
in a capacious chamber, with large quantities of their natural food-plants
(R. purpurea, as mentioned above) and vegetation overhanging a small tank
containing water, whilst a goat was kept tied in the chamber for the supply of
mammalian blood, in case the flies would be disposed to bite at all. Under
such conditions, the flies did not survive for more than 4 days, although endeav-
our was made to revive any moribund fly by feeding it artificially on sugar
solution.
The condition of the ovaries was examined whenever a female fly was dissected,
and only in one instance were the ova found to have attained a certain degree of
maturity. The total number of ova (which presented a greenish appearance)
recovered in this instance amounted to about 150, each ovum being less than a
millimetre in length (Pl. IV, fig. 5).
NOTES ON THE ANATOMY OF C. LONGIROSTRIS.
(a) The mouth-parts.
The mouth-parts of C. longirostris, which constitute the most noticeable
features in the external anatomy of flies of this class, have already been made the
subject of detailed studies by Tetley (l.c.) and Mitter (l.c.), but neither of these
authors appear to have rendered an adequate appreciation of the morphology of
the basal portion of the labium. In describing this region, Mitter writes: " At
the base there are membranous folds which permit of a greater amount of flexion.
These membranous folds at the base of the labium facilitate its bending at the time
of sucking blood ". Tetley merely refers to the portion as being " enclosed in a
basal membrane, the membrane of Meinert ", but it is perhaps open to question
whether the basal portion may be correctly described as being " enclosed " in the
membrane, since the latter is merely a prolongation of the labium itself, as the
present writer has found to be the case in fresh specimens of C. longirostris
‡ In accordance with the information brought to him on one occasion by his field assistant (who
has had considerable experience with these flies), C. longirostris was observed by him definitely to suck
blood, while hovering, from one of the Government ponies at the station, by making repeated darts at
the animal. It is of interest in this connection that Drake-Brookman (1910-11) found C. distincta to be
a vicious biter of animals in Africa.