NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
246
REGIONAL AND SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF BOVINE, ETC.
[Vol. XXI, Part IV,
Khutis are kept mostly by Nepalis and to a less extent by local people, in riverain
tracts, forest areas and also in chars as there is ample facility for grazing and water
supply. Herds of cattle and sometimes buffaloes graze about in areas around the
khutis and are kept untethered in open enclosures. Milk and milk products are
usually produced in khutis. Bulls and bullocks are also sold or exchanged. A
khuti may contain a herd ranging from 25 to 500 animals.
As mentioned earlier, systematic investigation was carried out from the beginning
of January 1940 when an outbreak of the disease prevailed in Goalpara district.
Materials obtained from this outbreak as well as from others later, were used for
experimental work to confirm the existence of the disease in the Assam valley.
As outbreaks occurred subsequently, available data were collected to study the
epidemiology of the disease. Data obtained from outbreaks in various localities
of the Province during a perod of nine years are given in Tables I and II.
TABLE I
Particulars of outbreaks of bovine contagious pleuro-pneumonia in Assam
Serial
num-
ber
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
18
14
15
16
17
18
10
20
21
22
Locality affected
Village, khuti or
town
Nijalaguri
khuti
(Deosirl)
Sobanshah
Patakatchar
Bordangi
forest
Reserve
Barchandra
Patabari
Majull
Kokilamori
Kadamialgaon
Lowly
Dikhowmukh
Tarabari
Kamalabari Satra
Tufamari
Bagarmari
Ahad Busti
Nakhatra
Amteka forest area
Namdeurigaon
Chenga
Barpeta
Karanga Chapori
District
Goalpara
Kamrup
Goalpara
do.
Kamrup
Goalpara
Sibsagar
do.
Laknimpur
Kamrup
Sibsagar
Darrang
Sibsagar
Goalpara
Darrang
Goalpara
Nowgong
Goalpara
Sibsagar
Kamrup
do.
Sibsagar
Date of
Outbreak
November 1939
March 1940
June 1940
April 1940
June 1940
October 1940
March 1941
June 1941
December 1941
November 1941
August 1941
March 1942
April 1942
July 1942
October 1942
December 1942
January 1943
February 1943
April 1943
May 1943
June 1943
July 1943
Investigation
January 1940
June 1940
August 1940
September 1940
September 1940
January 1941
May 1941
October 1941
January 1942
February 1942
March 1942
May 1942
June 1942
September 1942
January 1943
February 1943
April 1943
April 1943
June 1943
July 1943
July 1943
July 1943
Number of cattle
Attacked
46
18
44
420
80
140
24
55
20
75
55
26
20
35
45
34
30
62
50
26
3
25
Died
30
17
29
400
76
123
15
48
15
70
50
21
13
28
45
30
26
54
35
21
1
18
December, 1951]
V.
R.
GOPALAKRISHNAN
247
TABLE I—contd.
Particulars of outbreaks of bovine contagious pleuro-pneumonia in Assam
Serial
num-
ber.
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
Locality affected
Village, khuti or town
Jorhat
Jaobari
Karoligaon
Naopama
Marniagury
Chenga
Dollijolia
Khonoma
Dumra
Shanabol
Amteka khuti
Chamaria
Deosiri khutis
Chitoli
Kumargaon
Millenkore
Samukjan
Tengaponia
Dalapa
Khongia
Afalagaon
District
Sibsagar
Darrang
do.
do.
do.
Kamrup
Sibsagar
Naga Hills
Sylhet
do.
Goalpara
Kamrup
Goapara
Sibsagar
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Date of
Outbreak
July 1943
August 1944
February 1945
March 1945
April 1945
April 1945
May 1945
August 1945
December 1945
December 1945
December 1946
April 1947
April 1947
August 1947
September 1947
September 1947
September 1947
October 1947
November 1947
February 1948
December 1948
Investigation
August 1943
September 1944
March 1945
March 1945
April 1945
April 1945
June 1945
October 1945
March 1946
March 1946
March 1947
June 1947
July 1947
November 1947
November 1947
November 1947
November 1947
January 1948
January 1948
May 1948
January 1949
Number of cattle
Attacked
11
35
6
19
13
17
24
27
52
84
25
21
40
141
29
35
Died
7
32
4
11
10
9
17
20
50
80
19
16
35
126
23
35
TABLE II
Regional distribution of bovine contagious pleuro-pneumonia in Assam for nine years
Serial
num-
ber
1
2
8
4
6
6
7
8
District
Goalpara
Kamrup
Darrang
Nowgong
Sibsagar
Lakhimpur
Sylhet
Naga Hills
Total
1940
3
2
..
..
..
..
..
..
5
1041
1
..
..
..
2
..
..
..
3
1942
1
1
1
..
2
1
..
..
6
1943
2
2
1
1
3
..
..
..
9
1944
..
..
1
..
..
..
..
..
1
1945
..
1
3
..
1
..
..
1
6
1946
..
..
..
..
..
..
2
..
2
1947
2
1
..
..
4
..
..
..
7
1948
..
..
..
..
4
..
..
..
4
Total
9
7
6
1
16
1
2
1
43
248
REGIONAL AND SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF BOVINE, ETC.
[ [Vol. XXI, Part IV
It will be observed from the above tables that 43 outbreaks occurred in the
province and the average mortality rate comes to 86 per cent. Sibsagar district
records the maximum number of outbreaks. Generally the disease is noticed in
one locality or khuti and after some months it spreads to other neighbouring khutis.
In several cases where such spread of the disease was observed, the unrestricted
cattle movement was found to be the cause of the spread. Cattle movement is
common for sale in cattle markets or in villages and for exchange of animals between
khutis. It has also been noted that cattle were sold off, even at a cheaper rate, when
the owner observed the onset of disease in his khuti. Another factor that contri-
butes to the spread of infection in neighbouring localities is the common grazing
ground. Village herds usually come in contact with infected animals during grazing
and the disease spreads.
Out of 43 outbreaks that occurred in the province during the period of nine
years, 40 were recorded in the Assam valley and the remaining 3 outside it; one in
Naga hills and two in Sylhet district (now in Pakistan). These three outbreaks
were found to be due to cattle movement or transportation from plains to the hills
during war emergency and immediately after. There was, however, no evidence
of spread of the disease elsewhere from these localities after effective control measures
were taken. Outbreaks were recorded in the same locality or village twice; in
Deosiri khutis in 1940 and 1947, in Chenga village in 1943 and 1945. It appears to
be too early to suggest any possibility of cyclic incidence in a particular locality.
Seasonal incidence.—An attempt was made to study whether the conditions of
climate are in any way concerned in the prevalence of the disease. The climate
of Assam is humid and the rainfall is high, particularly from June to September
while it is moderate from March to May. The winter season is short and compara-
tively dry and summer is shorter still. Due to heavy rainfall and annual floods,
large areas of lowlying land are inundated and several tracts remain waterlogged
and are generally open for grazing during winter only. Particulars relating to the
incidence of the disease and the climatic conditions of the districts [Kanjilal, 1934],
are given in Tables III and IV.
TABLE III
Seasonal incidence of bovine contagious pleuro-pneumonia in Assam for nine years
Serial
num-
ber
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Districts
Goalpara . .
Kamrup . .
Darang . .
Nowgong
Sibsagar . .
Lakhimpur ..
Sylhet . .
Naga Hills ..
Total
Janu-
ary
..
..
..
1
..
..
..
..
1
Febru-
ary
1
..
1
..
1
..
..
..
3
March
..
1
2
..
1
..
..
..
4
April
2
2
1
..
2
..
..
..
7
May
..
1
..
..
1
..
..
..
2
June
1
2
..
..
1
..
..
..
4
July
1
..
..
..
2
..
..
..
3
Aug-
ust
..
..
1
..
2
..
..
1
4
Sep-
tem-
ber
..
..
..
..
3
..
..
..
3
Octo-
ber
1
..
1
..
1
..
..
..
3
No-
vem-
ber
1
1
..
..
1
..
..
..
3
De-
cem-
ber
2
..
..
..
1
1
2
..
6
Total
9
7
6
1
16
1
2
1
48
December, 1951]
V.
R.
GOPALAKRISHNAN
249
TABLE IV
Climatic conditions of the districts where bovine contagious pleuropneumonia was
found prevalent
Name of district
Goalpara
Kamrup
Darrang
Nowgong
Sibsagar
Lakhimpur
Sylhet
Naga Hills
Altitude
376 ft.
712
560
203
817
842
290
5692
Rainfall
109.06
81.12
87.88
68.39
88.19
113.17
135.45
86.90
Temperature
Maximum
80.60
88.81
88.99
.
78.32
81.39
86.92
.
Minimum
66.86
66.86
66.66
.
66.28
65.77
66.00
.
Average relative humidity
83
86
85
.
90
89
85
.
* Data not available
The incidence of the disease has been noticed in all the seasons and in all the
months of the year; during April and December larger number of outbreaks were
reported while in January, the least. It would appear evident that there is no
particular season for its occurrence. The nature of incidence suggests that it is
rather erratic or irregular. However, some of the outbreaks were observed about
a week or two after heavy rains. It is likely that the chilling due to the rains
reduces resistance of the animals so that carriers either break.down or transmit the
disease to, in contact with healthy animals. In several places the outbreaks seem
to be the reappearance of the disease in an already known infected area or the
spread due to movement of cattle. So outbreaks occur generally with no relation to
climate, provided there is sufficient reservoir of infection.
DISCUSSION
The occurrence of the disease was observed in all the nine years for which data
had been collected. There is, however, some variation in the nature of incidence;
for instance, there was only one outbreak in 1944 and as many as nine in 1943.
It would seem that the disease has no periodicity or regularity in its incidence
as shown by the figures collected so far.
The reporting of the outbreaks of the disease, was not usually prompt; there
was often much delay, even up to about four to five months. Such delay limits
the possibility of taking timely control measures and allows the opportunity for
further spread of infection. Although some localities are far in the interior, with
bad communications where some delay in reporting is inevitable, there is neverthe-
less certain improvement and promptness in recent years.
It has generally been reported that in apparently recovered animals, the infec-
tive agent remains for a long time in a virulent conditions in necrosed or encapsulated
portions of the lung, thus forming sequestra. Such animals remain apparently
healthy but sometimes become infectious after some months or even years. No
K
250 REGIONAL AND SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF BOVINES, ETC.
[Vol. XXI, Part IV
sequestrum formation could be observed on post-mortem examination of several
cases of natural deaths in various outbreaks in Assam. However, it seems possible
that some recovered animals in an outbreak may retain the infective agent and start
further outbreaks or spread of infection at some later date.
In regard to the incidence of the disease in Kamrup district, where vaccination
trials were undertaken, no outbreak of the disease was reported for an observed
period of five years. The locality chosen was a known enzootic area on the Southern
bank of the Brahmaputra. Vaccination was carried out in February 1943 and
periodical observations were made for five years. Subsequent to vaccination,
no outbreak prevailed in this area, nor did any of the vaccinated animals contract
the disease.
SUMMARY
The paper records some observations on the regional distribution and seasonal
incidence of bovine contagious pleuro-pneumonia in Assam for a period of nine
years—January 1940 to 1949.
In a previous paper on the subject, details were given of the existence of the
disease in this country and of the experiments to confirm it in an outbreak in 1940.
Since then, systematic investigation was conducted and particulars were collected
from 43 outbreaks that occurred in eight districts of Assam.
There is a fairly widespread distribution of the disease in the Brahmaputra
Valley of Assam. Outbreaks occur due to unrestricted cattle movement and
contact of animals in common grazing ground. Generally, outbreaks seem to
prevail with no particular relation to climate as they are observed in all the seasons
and even in all the months of the year.
The nature of incidence of the disease in the province in general, and in a vacci-
nated locality in particular, is discussed.
The work has been carried out under a scheme of research financed by the Indian
Council of Agricultural Research, India.
REFERENCES
Gopalakrishnan, V. R. (1943). Indian J. vet. Sci. 13, 287
Gopalakrishnan, V. R. (1946). Indian J. vet. Sci. 16, 200
Kanjilal, U. N. and Coll. (1934). Flora of Assam, 1 (1), 30
FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF DIFFERENT STRAINS OF
FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE VIRUS IN INDIA*
By C. SEETHARAMAN and N. S. DATT, Indian Veterinary Research Institute,
Mukteswar
(Received for publication on 25 June, 1951)
(With one text-figure)
ALTHOUGH foot-and-mouth disease does not cause a heavy mortality among
susceptible animals particularly in India, the economic importance of the disease
in respect of cattle is so great [Seetharaman, 1950] that scientists have been striving
for a long time to evolve a suitable vaccine. The recurrence of the disease in reco
vered animals after relatively short intervals led various workers to conceive the
probability of the existence of different antigenic types of the virus.
Vallee and Carre [Hutyra and Marek, 1922] were the first to distinguish two
types of foot-and-mouth disease virus. One was designated 'O' after the department
of Oise where the strain was first examined and the other 'A' after Ardennes the
place of origin. Waldmann and Trautwein later named these types as 'A' and 'B'.
The results obtained by Vallee and Carre were also confirmed by various workers.
Subsequently, Waldmann and Trautwein [Hutyra and Marek, 1928] discovered
another type of foot-and-mouth disease virus which was designated 'C'. Thus,
three different strains of the virus came to be recognised.
With the discovery of the three immunologically different types of the virus,
it became necessary for any campaign of vaccination against foot-and-mouth disease
to determine the type or types of the virus responsible for spontaneous outbreaks of
the disease in a locality. Further, the type determination helps in tracing the source
of infection and the mode of its spread. Besides the three standard strains of foot-
and-mouth disease virus, there exists in nature a number of other strains of viruses,
the antigenic structure of which may show a partial tendency to conform to any one
of the three standard types. These are called variants. For instance, a particular
strain totally breaks immunity against 'O' and 'A' but against Waldmann 'C'
there is a partial breakdown of the immunity, indicating that this particular strain
possesses some antigenic relationship with 'C' strain and hence is referred to as
variant of the standard type ' C ' or in short 'C' variant. The nature of these
variants has been explained as due to the characters and the properties of the virus
undergoing change during animal passage both in experimental and natural infections.
Thus Manninger and Laszalo [1930] demonstrated experimentally that the different
variants of the virus were not definite types with fixed properties but only modifica-
tions with the immunological characters changed during animal passage. A parti-
cular fixed type of the virus may exhibit such a change only in the first few outbreaks
after which it may revert to its original fixed types, thereby indicating that the
*Work done in the Foot-and-Mouth Disease Research Scheme financed by the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research.
L
251
December, 1951] C. SEETHARAMAN AND N. S. DATT 253
also an atypical strain which was isolated from natural outbreak of the disease in
Rawalpindi [Abdussalam, 1945]. On typing, this strains broke immunity against
all the three strandard types, each of which again broke immunity against it.
RESULTS
The results of type determinations (Table I) showed that 37 strains belonged to
Vallee 'O' or 'O' variant, 17 to Vallee 'A' or 'A' variant, 7 to Waldmann 'C' or
'C' variant and one remained atypical.
TABLE 1
Results of type determinations
Type
Vallee 'O'
'O' Variant
Vallee 'A'
'A' Variant
Waldmann 'C'
'C' Variant
Atypical
Number of
strains
recognized
20
17
5
12
2
5
1
Province or state of origin
Baluchistan (1), Gwalior (1), Orissa (1),
Punjab (1), Sind (1), United Provinces (15)
Assam (1), Bihar (1), Bombay (1), Hydera-
bad Deccan (1), Kashmir (1), Madras (1),
N.W.F.P. (1), Oriesa (1), United Pro-
vinces (9)
United Provinces (5)
Central Provinces (1), Madras (2), Punjab
(3), United Provinces (6)
Madras (1), United Provinces (1)
Bengal (2), Gwalior (1), Punjab (1), United
Provinces (1)
Punjab (Rawalpindi) (1)
Percentage
existence of
the strain
32.2
27.4
8.1
19.3
3.2
8.1
1.6
DISCUSSION
From the above table it would be observed that all the three known strains
occurred in India and the percentage of incidence of the strains were Vallee (0) or
'O' variant 59.6, Vallee 'A' or 'A' variant 27.4, Waldmann 'C' or 'C' variant
11.3 and atypical 1.6 (Fig. 1). A reference to the literature indicates that Vallee 'O'
M
254 FREQUENCY OF STRAINS OF FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE
[Vol. XXI, Part IV,
FIG. 1.
predominates, next in turn is 'A' and lastly 'C'. The observations made in
India are in agreement with those recorded elsewhere in the world. In the
preparation of polyvalent vaccine, the occurrence of the atypical strain could
however be ignored because of its rarity.
The atypical strain of the virus isolated is perhaps a variant having some of the
characters of any one of the O, A or C, which has been brought about by animal
passage during the course of a natural outbreak. There are references in literature
to the occurrence of such atypical strains. Manninger [1931] reported that during
the period 1927-30, 28 strains were tested in Great Britain of which 27 belonged to
'O' type and one which did not appear to be either 'O' or 'A' or 'C' type.
Andrews [1931] described 23 strains isolated in Great Britain from natural outbreaks
December, 1951]
C.
SEETHARAMAN
AND
N.
S.
DATT
255
of which 21 belonged to ' O ' type, the other two not falling under any of the three
standard types. These strains were not intermediate but were distinct from one
another.
It has been observed under experimental conditions that an animal recovered
from an infection of ' O ' and ' A ' is rendered resistant to some extent to an infection
with ' C '. This is because Vallee 'O' and 'A' occur more frequently in nature, the
animals perhaps develop resistance to Waldmann ' C ' and hence the frequency of
occurrence of infection with 'C' is low as compared with ' O ' and ' A '. We are
therefore in agreement with Fluckiger [1948] that vaccine containing the two strains
' O ' and 'A' should be quite adequate for combating foot-and-mouth disease.
SUMMARY
Analysis of the various types of foot-and-mouth disease virus encountered in
India is given. Besides incidence of the standard strains 'O', 'A' and ' C ' and
their variants, the occurrence of one atypical strain was observed. Vallee 'O'
type has been found to be preponderant in India as elsewhere in the world.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are greatly indebted to Mr. V. R. Rajagopalan, Officer-in-charge
of the Section of Pathology and Bacteriology for his guidance and technical advice.
REFERENCES
Abdussalam, M. (1945). Annual Progress Report of the Scheme for Vaccination of Cattle against
Foot-and-Mouth Disease, Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Andrews, W. H. (1931). Fourth Progress Report of the Foot-and-Mouth Disease Research Committee,
London, Section III, 62
Daubney, R. (1934). J. Comp. Path. 47, 259
Fifth Progress Report of the Foot-and-Mouth Disease Research Committee, London (1937), 129
Fluckiger (1949). Vet. J. 104, 135
Henderson, W. M. (1949). Report services, No. 8, Agricultural Research Council, London
Hutyra and Marek (1938). Special Pathology and Therapeutics of the Diseases of Domestic Animals,
397
Manninger, R. and Laszalo, S. (1930). Bull. Int., Epizoot. 3, 402 (original not seen)
Manninger, R. (1931). Bull. Int. Epizoot. 5, 264 (original not seen). Abst. Vet. Bull. (1931),
1, 281
Seetharaman, C. (1949). Annual Progress Report of the Scheme for Vaccination of Cattle against
Foot-and-Mouth Disease, Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Seetharaman, C. (1950). Indian Fmg. 11, 155
Third Progress Report of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Research Committee, London (1928), Section
III, 63
Waldmann, O. and Pape, J. (1920). Berl. Tierar. Wschr. 36, 519
COMPARISON OF FIRST AND SECOND EJACULATES COLLEC-
TED IN RAPID SUCCESSION FROM THE INDIAN WATER
-BUFFALO BOS BUBALIS
By S. S. PRABHU and P. BHATTACHARYA, Animal Genetics Section, Indian
Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar
(Received for publication on 20th May 1951)
I NFORMATION on the relative quality of semen samples collected in succession
on a given day, or at an interval of days, is of value in intensive utilisation
of bulls at artificial insemination centres. It also facilitates drawing up of routine
schedules for semen collection from artificial insemination bulls. Considerable data
on frequency of copulation and ejaculation and on the relative qualities of ejacu-
lated semen collected in quick succession, or at intervals of days, are available in lite-
rature for bulls (Kirillov and Morozov, 1937; Davis and Williams, 1939; Herman
and Swanson, 1941; Trimberger and Davies, 1942; Anderson, 1941, 1942 a and b;
Webster, 1932; Weatherby et al., 1942). No such investigation relating to the Indian
water.buffalo Bos bubalis, however, has been reported so far. In view of the peculiar
position occupied by the Indian water buffalo in the dairy industry* and the growing
popularity of artificial insemination as a method of achieving rapid livestock impro-
vement (Bhattacharya and Prabhu, 1950), it became necessary to collect this in-
formation. Accordingly the present study was undertaken.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Over 100 pairs of ejaculates collected in rapid succession at weekly intervals
from 8 buffalo bulls Nos. 4, 21, 33, 17, 19, 20, 16, and 31 were analyzed for following
semen characteristics:
(i) Volume (ii) Initial motility (iii) Sperm concentration (iv) Percentage of
abnormal spermatozoa (v) Total sperm in an ejaculate (vi) Initial pH
(vii) Percentage of dead sperm (viii) Percentage of 'weakly motile'
spermatozoa (ix) Percentage of 'progressively motile' spermatozoa
(x) Percentage of 'total motile' spermatozoa (xi) Total number of motile
sperms in an ejaculate. In addition, 'reaction time' was also recorded.
The percentage of dead spermatozoa was determined by using the opal-blue
differential staining technique developed by Lasley, Easley and MacKenzie [1942]
with the pH of the buffer adjusted to 6.6. The percentage of 'weakly', 'progres-
sively' and 'total motile' spermatozoa were found by the technique described by
Lasley [1944].
*According to the 1945 livestock census about 1/3 of the total cows and buffaloes kept for breeding
or milk production are buffaloes and they are responsible for the production of approximately half
the estimated annual milk and milk products.
257
N