NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
70
MORTALITY IN SHEEP AND GOATS IN INDIA [Vol. XX, Part 1],
The object of the farm is to test the grading-up of local ewes with imported
rams Merino, Cheviot, Border Leicester and Wensleydale. The migratory flock
remains in the open throughout the year, but lambing ewes are penned if the nights
are rainy or cold. The stationary flock is housed from mid-November to mid-
April and fed on hay. Rainfall in winter at Reasi is heavy, the normal average
for the month being 4.23 in. from January to March. There are some 400 ewes.
The mean annual birth-rate from 1942-46 was 237; during March 1943, 168 lambs
were born. Rams and pure-bred stock are given concentrates; breeding ewes
and half-breds subsist on grazing. Shearing of the local stock is thrice a year,
in March, July and October, and they are dipped after the October clip. There
was a good deal of trouble from fluke disease, sheep scab and in lambs from some
helminthiasis. There were also heavy losses in lambs from pneumonia, caused by
winter rains.
2. Peshawar
The farm was actually at Togh (Kohat) at 2,500 ft. The object of the scheme
was to explore the possibilities of Karakul pelt production by crossing pure Karakul
rams with Hashtnagri ewes. The mean population in 1943-45 was 110 ewes and
50 young stock. Most of the lambs were born in January and February.
Setbacks due to disease have been from sheep-pox in 1943-45, rinderpest in
1942, pneumonia, foot and mouth disease, and especially in 1945 what was diagnozed
as pasteurellosis. There has also been lack of a good water supply.
Since young stock are liable to be slaughtered soon after birth for pelt production
or when about three months old, consideration of mortality rates is of little value
in this flock.
3. Quetta
The Bibrik breed of sheep was kept there. In summer the flock was grazed
at Nigandi (9,000 ft. to 11,000 ft.), 17 miles north east of Quetta, on wild
hilly country intersected by ravines. In the lower tracts of these hills the weather
is hot in summer and the rainfall precarious, so that the flocks had to move. An
account of the conditions at and near Nigandi and of the Bibrik breed is given in the
first report [1941-43]. Normally, lambing was from end-March to mid-July, and early
lambs did better than late ones. In September or October the flock moved down
to a place near Sibi, a journey of 120 miles across the mountains, which occupied
about two weeks. The grazing area near Sibi was subject to flooding in July-August
and at the end of winter. In March the stock moved up again. Shearing was at
end of May and beginning of November. Usually, rams alone were fed on concen-
trates, the ewes subsisting on grazing. The scheme had many adversities, due,
in part, to climate and disease factors. In 1943 and 1945, the summer rains failed
and this meant lack of green grazing, so that both young and old suffered. At
Sibi there were sometimes cold winter rains. The farm site at Nigandi had a nor-
therly aspect, unfavourable to the early lambing desired in Baluchistan owing
to the short period available there for green grazing. Every year from April to
July there were outbreaks of a fatal disease, of obscure origin though well known
72
MORTALITY IN SHEEP AND GOATS IN INDIA [Vol. XX, Part II,
these months. Watering is from a well. There is probably insufficient protection
from rain and wind. From 1942-46 the ewes were allowed to lamb at almost any
time of the year. At Gaya and in the early days at Monghyr there was much trouble
from helminths—Haemonchus and paramphistomes ; since then helminthic disease
has been uncommon. Most of the deaths in ewes and young lambs are ascribed to
malnutrition of the ewes. Lambs born in July to September have more resistance.
There have also been some cases of blackquarter.
6. Bhamburda
It is situated on forest land to the west of Poona at 1,800 ft. The farm has 280
acres of grazing on the eastern slopes of a chain of hills running north and south,
which give protection from the south west monsoon. The object is to improve the
wool of the local Deccan breed, partly by crossing with Merinos. A full account of
the local conditions is given in the 1938-39 report, and helpful remarks on sheep hus-
bandry and the wool problem in this and other reports. The normal rainfall is about
36 in., the monsoon with its South West winds lasting from mid-June to September,
the latter being the rainiest month. The winter season is from mid-November
to end-January ; the weather then is dry and cold with easterly winds. April
the hottest month. In 1940, the rainfall was normal, but the rain continued till Janu-
ary, creating bad conditions for sheep. Most of the Deccan sheep are in fact found in
the more arid districts towards the east where the rainfall is 15 in. to 25 in. In 1942,
the rainfall was badly distributed causing feed difficulties in the following year.
Lambs born in August and September get a better start than those born earlier or
later. Shearing is at end-August, and January or better mid-February. There
has been some trouble from worms during the wetter years, e.g., 1938-39.
7. Hosur
The sheep are kept at the Livestock Research Station, situated in the north
west corner of Salem District (Madras), at about 3,000 ft. There has been a flock at
Hosur since 1924. One of the objects is to evolve a white breed ; for this purpose
selected Bellary sheep have long been inter-bred, but since 1938 they have also
been crossed with Bikaneri rams from Hissar. The total farm area is 1,650 acres,
so there should be plenty of scope for grazing. The rams are fed concentrates
throughout the year; ewes at particular periods, as judged necessary. Neglected
lambs are bottle-fed with cow's milk. Shearing is in spring and autumn, usually
March and September, followed by dipping after two to six weeks. The climate is
described as dry and mild, with maximum and minimum temperatures of 90°F.
and 60°F., March and April being the warmest and December and January the
coldest months. The programme has been checked by helminthic infestation
(Haemonchus and Oesophagostomum), while an important cause of death, at least
from 1941 onwards, has been enteritis due to immature amphistomes, the effect
of which has been mainly evident in winter.
June, 1950]
F.
C.
MINETT
73
8. Etah (Uttar Pradesh)
It is situated at about 300 ft. Originally, two breeds of goats were being selec-
tively bred, Jamnapari and Barbari, but from 1941 the latter breed only was kept.
A great deal of valuable information has been accumulated at this station under
the direction of Mr. A. E. Slater on various aspects of goat breeding and dairying.
There has been much trouble from disease, such as pneumonia, foot and mouth
disease, goat-pox, and in the winter months bisi (probably paramphistomiasis).
9. Orai
It is in District Jalaun (Uttar Pradesh) about mid-way between Kanpore
and Jhansi at 770 ft. The farm of about 230 acres was started in November 1938
and in the spring of 1939 Bikaneri and local (Jalauni) sheep, about 100 of each
breed, were introduced. Subsequently, the number of the combined flocks was
raised to about 300. The work made a bad start due to an extensive outbreak of
sheep-pox during the summer of 1939 and the following winter. Since then
sheep-pox has appeared on more than one occasion, in spite of ovination.
Shearing is during first halves of April and October.
10. Dhar
It is in District Betul (Madhya Pradesh), at 1,260 ft. There was much disease
in lambs, presumably helminthiasis, in 1945-46. Shearing is in April and October.
11. Shillong
The Government Experimental Farm is at 6,000 ft. and has a rainfall of about
100 in. a year. Among others, Bikaneri and Hissardale sheep are kept.
12. Hingoli (Hyderabad, Deccan)
It is at 1,500 ft. Shearing is in March and October.
13. Farms in Mysore State
Hunsur Sheep breeding is practised at the Cattle breeding Station, altitude
about 2,500 ft. This small flock is shorn in February.
Hebbal (Bangalore District). Altitude 3,020 ft. The flock numbers some
30 only and shearing is in February.
Garudapalya (Kolar District). Altitude about 2,500 ft. Shearing of the
some 250 sheep is in February.
Yellichihalli. It is 12 miles from Mysore City, at about 2,600 ft. Shearing is
in January. There are 420 acres of rather poor land. Annual rainfall in 1940-44
averaged about 34½ in.
74
MORTALITY IN SHEEP AND GOATS IN INDIA [Vol. XX, Part II,
SECTION 1
Analysis of sample data
A circular letter was sent to the Superintendents of the farms asking for details
of not less than 100 and preferably 200 or 300 individual deaths, provided the deaths
had been distributed over a fairly long period, say two years or more. This condi-
tion was fulfilled in all cases save one and usually the period covered at least three
years. If there had been outbreaks involving the death of dozens or scores of animals
at any one period, information for a larger series was required. The details asked
for were, numbers of animals and breed, category (ewe, ram, etc.,) date of death,
date of birth (or approximate age at death), and supposed cause of death. The
data received have been arranged in tables ; in some cases owing to the voluminous
nature of the information only totals are shown. Tables I and IV show the period
covered and number of animals at each farm for which information was received ;
the total numbers are 3,548 sheep and 540 goats, which may be regarded as samples
of reasonable size.
Age groups for total deaths
When the cases are arranged in age groups, 43.3 per cent of the deaths in sheep
from all causes (Table I) are found to occur before the age of one year. With in-
dividual farms, extreme percentage values are 17.0 and 62.9 ; on six of the farms
the figures is well above the mean. Practically 9.0 per cent of the deaths fall within
the category of 'old age' which is arbitrarily defined as six years and over. With
goats at Hissar and Etah (Table IV) 67.2 per cent of deaths from all causes occur
before the animal is a year old,—62.7 per cent at Etah and 81.4 per cent at Hissar.
The mortality incidence in the samples falls steadily with increase of age from one
to five years, particularly in the case of sheep.
Age groups for specific classes of deaths
In Tables II and V the deaths are placed in broad groupings in order to try
to see more clearly the factors responsible for death. Such groupings should not
be too narrow because under the conditions at the farms exact diagnosis is often
impossible. Groupings were, therefore, selected as follows: group 1, disorders
of very early life ; group 2, parasitic disorders; group 3, lung affections; group 4,
'old age' ; group 5, miscellaneous. Since the terms used by the farm managers or
by those noting the supposed cause of death vary, a statement is given in both the
Tables of the ailments included under each farm.
Group 1. It contains 372 cases in sheep and 236 in goats, and is restricted to
fatalities in animals below six months of age. It is seen that with both species
fatalities are much heavier in the first than in the second three months. With
sheep, they are the heaviest of all during the first 14 days after birth and the same
is true of kids at Hissar.
Group 2. In group 2, containing 1,591 cases in sheep and 80 in goats, fatalities in
animals six years of age and over are excluded even though helminths were recorded
as having been found in them. Animals of any age up to six years, labelled as
June, 1950]
F.
C.
MINETT
77
October and March. Most of the 'encephalo-myelitis' cases at Hissar occurred in
May and June.
SECTION 2
Data extracted from the reports on the working of the schemes
A. BIRTHS
(a) Livestock population and birth rate
The figures shown are the means of a series of years, those for population being
taken from the number of stock persent on a particular date, usually April 1. (The
information is incomplete.)
Farm
Banihal
Peshawar
Quetta
Hissar
Monghyr
Hosur
Yel
Hissar
Etah
Population
Ewes
432
126
265
513
174
136
199
Does
165
78
Lambs
293
64
206
450
98
47
106
Kids
225
117
All stock
732(2)
192(3)
474(2)
1,004(9)
259(4)
245(7)
323(5)
418(7)
213(14)
Birth rate
237(4)*
72(4)
224(2)
385(7)*
95(3)
100(5)*
131(5)
252(6)
129(4)
Figure in brackets gives the period of years covered.
* Birth rate for calendar year, otherwise April to March.
The size of flocks on other farms is given as Orai 200 to 300, Dhar 300, Bhamburda 150, Hingoli
81 (to 1,937 and later reduced to 14 only), Hunsur, Hcbbal and Shillong about 50 each, Garudapalya
200.
(b) Season of birth
The season of birth for a large series of lambs born at Hissar during the period
1938-45 is given in Table VII. Over 70 per cent were born in August.
The season of birth for a considerable series of Jamnapari and Barbari goats
at Etah over a period of 14 years is given in Table VIII. The main kidding season
is roughly October to December.
B
78
MORTALITY IN SHEEP AND GOATS IN INDIA
[Vol. XX, Part II
At other farms seasonal figures for birth rate are less detailed, but the actual
season of births and that stated to be most generally suitable are as follows :
Banihal
Peshawar
Quetta
Hissar
Orai
Monghyr
Bhamburda
Hosur {
Yel
{
Hissar (Goats)
Etah ( „ )
Actual
March—July . .
December—June .
April—June . .
August (Table VII) .
Mid-September
—mid-November
September onwards
....
March—May (most)
August—October .
May—June . .
August—September
....
October—Decem-
ber (Table VIII).
Suitable
April—May
February
April—May
August—September
....
....
August—September
February—March
August—September
....
September—October
July—September
October
The ideal, of course, is that births should take place at a time when green feed
is available for the dams. As regards the young, early rather than late birth is
desirable so that some grazing may still be available when they reach grazing age.
(c) Sex ratio at birth
Sheep
Goat
Males
2,915
1,814
Females
2,891
1,679
Total
5,806
3,493
Sex ratio
(M : F)
1.008
1.080
With both species the series are unselected ; in goats the sex ratio is significantly
higher in favour of males. The figures for sheep are derived from seven of the
farms over several years' period ; 3,160 of them, however, are from Hissar for 1937-45.
With the goats, 1,688 births are taken from the Hissar records for 1939-46 and
1,805 from those of Etah for 1932-46.
(d) Numbers at one birth (goats)
At Hissar from 1940 to 46 out of 865 goats which kidded, 309 (35.7 per cent)
gave singles, 497 (57.4 per cent) twins, 55 (6.3 per cent) triplets, and 4 (0.4 per cent)
June, 1950]
F.
C.
MINETT
79
quadruplets. At Etah, out of 404 Jamnaparis 135 (33 per cent) gave twins and of
694 Barbaris 447 (64 per cent) gave twins.
B. MORTALITY RATES
(a) According to age or category of the population
The figures given are the total deaths for individual farms for periods name d
The totals for all farms are also shown with percentage figures in brackets.
Sheep
Young stock
Adults
Young stock
Adults
Hosur
1940-46
247 (48.4)
263 / 510
Hissar
1937-46
797 (76.0)
252 / 1049
Mon-
ghyr
1942-46
145 (66.8)
72 / 217
Quetta
1943-46
235 (61.2)
149 / 384
Banihal
1941-46
485 (53.5)
421 / 906
Yel
1940-45
254 (65.3)
135 / 389
Total
2163
1292 (37.4) / 3455
Goats
Hissar
1939-46
655 (82.0)
144 / 799
Etah
1932-46
630 (74.0)
221 / 851
Total
1285 (77.9)
365 / 1650
This shows, in agreement with the findings for sample data above (Section 1),
that mortality in young stock sheep and goats is nearly always higher than in
adults. Differences in the case of sheep are more significant than in the case of
goats.
Exact details regarding the incidence of mortality in goats at Etah and Hissar
up to the age of two years are given in Table IX. The bulk of the deaths occur
within the first three months.
B-2
80
MORTALITY IN SHEEP AND GOATS IN INDIA [Vol. XX, Part I I
The following shows, for various periods, the mean annual mortality rates
in different categories of the populations.
Sheep
Rams
Ewes
Lambs
Hissar 1937-46
(1)
20
514.1
466.2
(2)
2.1
24 (4.7)
85.9 (18.4)
Rams
Ewes
Lambs
Monghyr 1942-46
(1)
(4-year)
(3-year)
174.2
98.3
(2)
17.25
(9.9)
35.6
(36.2)
Hosur 1940-46
(1)
6
134.8
48.1
(2)
39.3 (29.2)
34.3(71.3)
Quetta 1943-46
(1)
12.33
262.33
175.66
(2)
1.00
48.66 (18.55)
78.33 (44.59)
Yel 1940-45
(1)
6.6
200.4
109.6
(2)
24.6 (12.3)
50.8 (46.4)
Goats
Stud bucks
Does
Kids
Hissar 1940-46
(1)
10
161.3
220
(2)
1.66
21.5 (13.3)
108.5 (49.3)
Etah 1933-46
(1)
20.3
76
(male)
39.4
(female) 85.1
(2)
3.
12.6 (16.5)
20.8 (52.8)
26.3 (30.9)
NOTES.—(1) Mean or population at beginning and at end of each year (April to March).
(2) Mean annual mortality rate (figures in brackets as percentage of the population).
The difference in mortality rate between young and adult sheep is found to be
highly significant, while with goats it is significant. The differences in total mortality
rate as between farms was significant in the case of sheep farms.
(b) According to season
In regard to seasonal moratlity in very young animals, six years' figures (April
1940 to March 1946) are available from Hissar for kids dying within a month of
birth (Table X). In this series of 332 deaths, the percentages point to a fall in the
gross mortality rate in kids born in July to October, while the number of birth
82
MORTALITY IN SHEEP AND GOATS IN INDIA [Vol. XX, Part II
(c) According to sex
The following is an unselected series of deaths in lambs in which the sex of the
offspring is recorded.
Number of deaths
Farm
Hosur
Hissar
Monghyr
Yel
Quetta
Males
116
205
29
131
481
145
626
Females
108
175
26
92
401
90
491
Ratio (M : F)
1.074
1.171
1.115
1.424
1.196
1.611
The ratio of male to famale deaths is thus 1.196 in lambs at four farms; at
Quetta, where the animal husbandry conditions are quite different, it is 1.611.
Even with the four farms with the lower M : F ratio, the difference is highly signi-
ficant. With kids, a small number of figures from Hissar give a M : F ratio of
3.857, the numbers being 108 males and 28 females. Unfortunately, both with
lambs and kids a considerable number of deaths have occurred below 14 days of
age, but the sex is not given.
(d) In relation to method of rearing young stock (kids)
Data taken from the Hissar reports of 1943-46, may be set out thus.
Experiment
1
2
3
0 (i.e. at
birth)
10(1)
10(4)
20(5)
9
1
10(1)
10(2)
20(3)
. .
Weaning at months
2
10(2)
10(1)
20(3)
. .
3
10
10(1)
20(1)
. .
4
10(2)
10
20(2)
. .
5
10
. .
10
Not weaned
. .
. .
. .
9
Deaths are bracketed. Equal numbers of males and females were used. The three experiments
were carried out in different years.
June, 1950]
F.
C.
MINETT
83
Data from Etah (1940-46) are more extensive and may be tabulated thus.
Feeding
Weaned
Unweaned
Experiment number
1
30(4)
20(1)
2
21(5)
15
3
25
24(1)
4
26(3)
25
5
22(2)
24(3)
6
22(2)
18(2)
Grand total
Total
146(16)
126(7)
272
These experiments also were carried out in different years; 139 were males
and 133 females and the two sexes were fairly evenly represented in the two groups.
Information as to whether the kids used were singles or twins could not be obtained.
It is assumed that kids 'removed from experiment' (figures given in brackets)
died ; this is stated as a fact in Experiment 1. Only kids ' removed ' within three
months of birth are included, except in Experiment 1 when the age at death is not
stated.
The data suggest that, as might be expected, naturally-fed kids are more likely
to survive than hand-fed ones, but differences are not significant.
(e) Mortality in relation to number of lambings in the year
This question has been investigated at Hissar and the following data are taken
from the reports for 1937-45. The figures are too small for significant differences.
It is clearly stated that the comparison is between ewes allowed to lamb once and
ewes given an opportunity to produce two lambs a year. The ewes were kept in
separate pens of about 40 each.
Year
1937-38
1938-39
1939-40
1940-41
1941-42
1942-43
1943-44
1944-45
One lambing
(1)
34
32
35
32
36
36
38
36
279
(2)
2
2
1
2
1
7
2
3
20 (7.16)
(3)
3
4
0
0
2
1
1
1
12 (4.3)
Two lambings
(1)
42
43
53
49
45
38
45
49
362
(2)
12
4
1
4
5
3
7
13
49 (13.5)
(3)
0
7
6
2
5
5
1
1
27 (7.4)
NOTE.—Lambs born. (2) Lambs died. (3) Ewes died.
Percentages are bracketed.
Mortality is only one point that has been considered in this investigation.
For this and other reasons it is held that it is uneconomical to attempt to breed
two lambs in the year.
84
MORTALITY IN SHEEP AND GOATS IN INDIA
[Vol. XX, Part II
TABLE I
Sheep : age incidence of total deaths
Age
Year
1—
2—
3—
4—
5—
6—
7—
8—
9—
10—
Lamb
Adult
Old
Month
0—
3—
6—
1
Bauihal
December '41
to
March'44
5 (1.0)
90 (18.5)
161 (32.9)
9 (1.9)
9 (1.9)
21(4.3)
1 (0.2)
11 (2.3)
37 (7.6)
8 (1.6)
47 (9.7)
87 (17.9)
486
2
Peshawar
January '42
to
May '44
69 (32.7)
4(1.9)
7 (3.3)
1 (0.5)
5 (2.4)
40 (19.0)
44 (20.9)
25 (11.8)
12 (5.7)
4 (1.9)
211
3
Quetta
May '42
to
August '45
25 (8.9)
20 (7.1)
44 (15.7)
60 (21.4)
44 (15.7)
47 (16.8)
32 (11.4)
7 (2.5)
1 (0.4)
280
4
Shillong
June '34
to
September' 45
27 (25.5)
26 (24.5)
13 (12.3)
12 (11.3)
8 (7.6)
15(14.2)
3 (2.8)
1 (0.9)
1 (0.9)
106
5
Hissar
October '41
to
October '42
94 (32.5)
85 (29.4)
19 (6.6)
45 (15.6)
10 (3.5)
8 (2 .8)
4 (1.4)
10 (3.5)
10( 3.5)
4 (1.4)
289
6
Orai
May '39
to
November
38 (19.2)
17 (8.6)
10 (5.1)
7 (3.5)
79 (39.9)
31 (15.7)
6 (3.0)
10 (5.1)
198
7
Monghyr
August' 42
to
December '46
45 (17.3)
39 (15.0)
21 (8.1)
59 (22.7)
14 (5.4)
11 (4.2)
12 (4.6)
25 (9.6)
1 (0.4)
1 (0.4)
32 (12.3)
260
8
Dhar
April '40
to
March '44
123 (32.0)
50 (13.0)
64 (16.7)
35 (9.1)
13 (3.4)
16 (4.2)
10 (2.6)
2 (0.5)
12 (3.1)
16 (4.2)
40 (10.4)
3 (0.8)
384
June, 1950]
F.
C.
MINETT
85
TABLE I—contd.
Sheep : age incidence of total deaths—contd.
Age
Year
1—
2—
3—
4—
5—
6—
7—
8—
9—
10—
Lamb—
Adult—
Old—
Month
0—
3—
6—
9
Bhamburda
January 39
to
August '45
10 (9.6)
3 (2.9)
9 (8.7)
17 (16.4)
2 ( 1.9)
2 (1.9)
37 (35.6)
14 (13.5)
8 ( 7.7)
2 ( 1.9)
104
10
Hosur
April 41
to
January '44
26 (10.0)
16 (6.2)
21 (8.1)
13 (5.0)
24 (9.2)
6 (2.3)
8 (3.1)
2 (0.8)
9 ( 3.5)
3 ( 1.2)
4( 1.5)
2 (0.8)
7 (2.7)
119 (45.8)
260
11
Hingoli
July 32
to
November '42
18 (8.1)
9 (4.0)
11 (4.9)
29 (13.0)
13 (5.8)
6 (2.7)
14 (6.3)
2 (0.9)
8 (3.6)
1(0.4)
49 (22.0)
63 (28.3)
223
12
Hunsur
October 40
to
August '44
(23.6)
6 (3.7)
22 (13.7)
27 (16.8)
2 (1.2)
15 (9.3)
38 (23.6)
13 (8.1)
161
13
Hebbal
April 39
to
August' 44
8 (16.7)
6 (12.5)
11 (22.9)
7 (14.6)
2 ( 4.2)
1 (2.1)
1 (2.1)
2 (4.2)
10 (20.8)
14 Garudapalya
March 41
to
January '44
47 (18.1)
18 (6.9)
6 (2.3)
46 (17.7)
23 (8.8)
40 (15.4)
18 (6.9)
26 (10.0)
17 (6.5)
11 (4.2)
4 (1.5)
2 (0.8)
2 (0.8)
260
15
Yellachihali
November 40
to
February '44
94 (33.8)
57 (20.5)
24 (8.6)
15 (5.4)
8 (2.9)
6 (2.2)
3 (1.1)
5 ( 1.8)
7 (2.5)
8 (2.9)
8 (2.9)
2 (0.7)
1 (0.4)
4 (1.4)
26 (4.9)
10 (3.6)
278
Total
573 (16.2)
455 (12.8)
509 (14.3)
356 (10.0)
291 (8.2)
252 ( 7.1)
197 (5.6)
136 (3.8)
123 (3.5)
63 (1.8)
61 (1.7)
9 (0.3)
3 (0.1)
122 (3.4)
343 (9.7)
55 (1.5)
3548
(NOTE :— Figuxres within brackets are the percentages of the totals of that column )
C