NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
March, 1950] K. S. RANGAPPA AND B. N. BANERJEE 29
was never allowed to rise above 110°C. and the ghee was filtered through a muslin
cloth, weighed and stored. The room temperature varied between 26°C. and 28°C.
during the course of the experiments.
Curd process
(a) Two litres of milk were boiled in a five-litre earthen pot, cooled and
seeded as before. After souring for 18 hours the curd acidity was determined
and then churned with a country churn in the earthen pot itself. During churning,
water was added from time to time equal to the volume of the curd. When the
butter granules were 1 mm. in size, the butter-milk was carefully siphoned off. (The
fat in the butter-milk was determined by the Gerber process.) Four litres of water
were then poured into the earthen pot and gently churned so that all the butter-
milk was washed off the granules of butter. Butter was collected, excess water
drained off and boiled into ghee.
(b) Two litres of milk were separated into 40-45 per cent cream, diluted with
water to two litres and churned. The butter was then boiled into ghee. The fat in
the butter-milk was determined as before.
(c) Milk was separated into cream as before. (It would no doubt be advantageous
in making ghee directly from cream to make the cream as thick as possible; but
the cream with fat higher than 45 per cent entails a greater fat loss in the skim milk.)
Cream was boiled over a low flame with stirring to avoid charing of casein. Heating
was continued until all moisture was driven off and the casein was coagulated, leaving
a clear fat layer. In order to give the ghee the requisite flavour the casein was
slightly browned while heating. This also helps in the better recovery of fat.
(d) Cream from two litres of milk was brought to boil, cooled, seeded and soured
for three hours at 37°C., when the cream developed a mild butter flavour and then
boiled into ghee.
(e) As it was found that the acidity of ghee from diluted and reseparated cream
was almost the same as that from direct cream, washing of the cream by gentle
churning in a bottle churn was tried. The cream thus churned was reseparated
and boiled into ghee.
In order to try the effect of citric acid on ghee flavour three more experiments
were conducted. (It is an established practice in many creameries in the West to
add 0.06 to 0.1 per cent citric acid to cream in order to improve the flavour
of butter.)
(f) 0.1 per cent of citric acid was added to cream before boiling it into ghee.
(g) 0.1 per cent of citric acid was added to milk. Milk was separated into cream
and the latter boiled into ghee.
(h) 0.1 per cent citric acid was added to two litres of milk and ghee prepared as
in (a).
The results are given in Table II.
F
2
30
METHODS OF PREPARATION OF GHEE
[Vol. XX, Part 1,
TABLE II
Property of ghee prepared by modified process
Cow=C
Buffalo=B
Method of prepara-
tion of ghee (boiling
process)
(a) Via curd process,
butter
do. . .
(b) Fresh
cream
butter
do. . .
(c) Directly
fresh
cream
do. . .
(d) Directly soured
cream
do. . .
(e) Cream, washed by
churning and
reseparated
do. . .
(f) Cream +0.1 per
cent citric acid
do. . .
(g) Cream from milk
+ 0.1 per cent
citric acid
do. . .
(h) Via curd process,
butter
(milk
+0.1 per cent
citric acid)
do. . .
Acidity
(per cent)
Curd
C. 1.1
B. 1.0
Cream
C. 0.035
B. 0.026
Cream
C. 0.035
B. 0.02
Soured
cream
C. 0.41
B. 0.39
Washed
C. 0.02
B. 0.02
Cream
C. 0.13
B. 0.12
Cream
C. 0.04
B. 0.04
Cream
C. 1.0
B. 1.0
Ghee
Acidity
(per cent)
0.05
0.06
0.02
.02
0.03
0.02
0.10
0.11
0.02
0.01
0.11
0.10
0.03
0.03
0.07
0.07
Quality (colour,
flavour and texture)
Deep yellow granular
rich
aromatic
flavour
Light yellow finely
granular,
good
aroma
Deep yellow granular,
milky
flavour
White granular, very
light flavour
Deep yellow granular,
milky flavour
Very light colour,
granular, flavour
of heated milk
Deep yellow light
milky but good
flavour
Very light yellow,
faintly
milky
flavour
Deep yellow granular,
milky flavour
White,
granular,
milky flavour
Deep yellow, granu-
lar, rich aromatic
flavour
Light yellow granu-
lar, good aromatic
flavour
Deep yellow granu-
lar, rich aromatic
flavour
Light yellow granu-
lar, good aromatic
flavour
Deep yellow granu-
lar, rich aromatic
flavour
Feed colour, good
aromatic flavour
Colour
(lov.
blue
units)
5.0
2.2
5.0
1.1
5.5
1.1
5.0
1.2
5.0
0.6
5.5
1.7
5.5
1.6
5.0
2.2
Vitamin
A
(lov. blue
units)
13.2
11.5
13.2
11.5
13.2
11.5
13.2
11.5
13.2
11.5
13.2
11.5
13.2
11.5
13.2
11.5
Yield
(per cent)
89
90
88
89
92
92.5
92
92
86
87
92
92.5
91
92
89.5
90
Induc-
tion
period
(hours)
25
27
..
26
42
34½
..
..
..
50½
36
..
33
31
31
March, 1.950] K. S. RANGAPPA AND B. N. BANERJEE 31
Discussion
Results in Table II show that no single process is ideal in all respects—low acidity,
high yield, induction period and best-flavour. Among these ghee made from cream
+0.1 per cent citric acid appears to approach the ideal in most respects,
since high yield, low acidity, high induction period and good flavour are combined
together.
EFFECT OF STARTER, DILUTION AND ACIDITY OF CURD AND TYPE OF CHURN ON QU
OF GHEE
Experiments on the preparation of ghee by the curd (indigenous) process revealed
that there are numerous factors which determine the quality and yield of ghee.
Dastur and Kothavala [ 1940 ] have reported that the loss of fat is about 25 per
cent. Srinivasan and Banerjee [ 1945 ] using a firm, homogenously set curd, free
from moulds, of 1.2 per cent acidity, have obtained yields of 90 to 94 per cent at
a churning acidity of 1 to 2 per cent. The effect of variation of seed, dilution of
curd, churning acidity and type of churn on the production of ghee were studied.
Experiment: Buffalo milk was used for these experiments
Effect of starter (seed curd) and churning acidity of the curd. Three types of seed
curd and four acidities of curd were tried. The laboratory seed served as the control.
A slightly gassy and ropy curd carried on with imperfectly processed milk, from a
private family, and a ropy village seed curd prepared from unprocessed milk were
used for experiment. Except for the last seed where steamed milk in one-litre lots
was used, they were all churned in the bottle churn at the extreme dilutions of
both 30 and 200 per cent by volume of the curd. The room temperature varied
between 17°C. and 24°C. during the experiment. Ghee was prepared by the boiling
process. The results are entered in Table III.
Discussion
With a good starter, churning time which is shortest at 0.45 per cent acidity,
increases with the churning acidity up to a limit of 1 to 1.2 per cent, beyond which
it decreases slightly with the rise in acidity. With the village seed, however, the
churning time is considerably low at all churning acidities. While this is true at
both dilutions of 30 and 200 per cent of the curd, the churning time is distinctly
longer at the lower dilution.
The fat yield is generally maximum at about 1 to 1.2 per cent acidity of the
curd, beyond which it slightly decreases. In the case of village seed, where the yield
is much lower than with the laboratory seed at all churning acidities, the yield of
fat is slightly higher at 0.42 to 0.47 per cent acidity, than at about one per cent.
This may be explained by the fact that the souring is uncontrolled in this instance.
In almost all other cases, however, the yield is slightly lower at the lesser dilution.
Acidity of ghee increases progressively with the churning acidity of the curd at
both the dilutions ; but is, as a rule, slightly higher at the lower dilution. With
the laboratory seed the induction period of ghee is nearly double at the lowest acidity
of 0.45 per cent (when the curd just sets) than at the higher acidity of 1.45 per cent.
32
METHODS OF PREPARATION OF GHEE [Vol. XX, Part I,
TABLE III
Effect of seed curd and curd acidity on yield and quality of ghee*
Curd acidity
Dilution
of curd
(per cent)
Churning
time
minutes
Acidity
(per cent)
Ghee
Quality (colour, flavour
and texture)
Yield
(per cent)
Induction
period in
hours
Laboratory seed
0.42-0.47
0.42-0.47
-
0.81-0.85
0.81-0.85
0.96-1.10
0.96-1.10
1.25
1.45
1.45
30
200
30
200
30
200
30
200
30
200
7
3½
12
10
21
8
25
8
17
6
0.10
0.05
0.09
0.07
0.14
0.10
..
Good
flavour
white,
granular
do.
Light-yellow gold flavour
and texture
do.
Good
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
79
77.5
87
86
93
95
93
95
89.5
92
22¼
25
(slow
deterlera
tion)
..
..
19
22½
..
..
11
14
Family seed
0.81-0.85
0.81-0.85
0.96-1.10
0.96-1.10
30
200
30
200
..
10
19
..
0.10
0.05
0.14
0.09
Good
do.
do.
do.
69
71
84
90
..
..
..
..
Village seed
0.42-0.47
0.42-0.47
0.96-1.10
0.96-1.10
30
200
30
200
7
5
8
5
0.06
0.06
0.17
0.12
Good
do.
do.
do.
75
75
66
72
17
18
..
14
* Vitamin A is constant for all samples of ghee at 12.5 blue units per gm.
With the village seed also the induction period is just as good as with the laboratory
seed at the low churning acidity of 0.45 per cent.
Dilution
Sterlized buffalo milk in five conical flasks each containing one litre
of milk was seeded with the laboratory seed curd. At 1.1 per cent acidity of the
curd, the five lots were churned with 30, 50, 100, 200 and 300 per cent of water
respectively at the room temperature of 25°C. Ghee was reprepared by the boiling
process. The churning time and properties of ghee were determined as before. The
results are given in Table IV.
March, 1950] K. S. RANGAPPA AND B. N. BANERJEE 33
TABLE IV
Effect of dilution of curd on yield and quality of ghee*
Dilution
of curd
(per cent)
30
50
100
200
300
Churning
time in
minutes
25
17
8 to 10
8 to 10
8
Acidity
(per cent)
0.14
0.12
0.11
0.1
0.1
Quality (colour,
flavour and
texture)
good
good
good
lighter colour
good flavour
and texture
do.
Yield
85
87
94
94
92.5
Carotene
lovibond
yellow units
gm.
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.0
2.0
Induction
period in
hours
24
..
..
28
..
* Vitamin A content (12.5 blue units per gm.) for all samples
The churning time of butter and the acidity of ghee steadily decreases, and the
yield increases with the dilution of curd up to a limit of 100 per cent. Beyond this,
at greater dilutions there is no improvement, but there is risk of increased fat loss in
buttermilk. Therefore, dilution of the curd with an equal volume of water is the
best for churning. It will also be noticed that the keeping quality of ghee increases
to some extent with increasing dilution of the curd.
Churning
Two methods of churning were tried. One was the country process in which
a wooden churner with a corrugated surface attached to a bamboo pole is
rotated by drawing alternatively the two ends of a rope coiled a few times round
the pole in a wide-mouthed earthen pot of about ten litres capacity. The other
was a ' Dazey' American bottle churn of four litres capacity in which the paddles
revolve in one direction only.
Buffalo milk was steamed, cooled and seeded with the laboratory seed. When
the curd reached one per cent acidity after 20 hours at the room temperature of
17°C. to 25°C., one lot was churned in the country churn and the other in the bottle
churn. Curd was diluted with an equal volume of water. The acidity, churning
time, flavour of butter and ghee by the boiling process were determined. The
experiments were repeated with unprocessed milk, using a village seed. The results
are given in Table V.
The mechanical churn clearly shortens the churning time, otherwise there is
little to choose between the two churns in the matter of yield and quality of
the resulting ghee.
34
METHODS OF PREPARATION OF GHEE
[Vol. XX, Part I,
TABLE V
Effect of type of churn on yield and quality of ghee
Type of churn
Churning
time in
minutes
Butter
Acidity
(per cent)
Quality (colour
flavour and
texture)
Ghee
Acidity
(per cent)
Quality (colour,
flavour and
texture
Yield
(per cent)
Steamed milk and laboratory seed
Country churn .
Bottle churn .
39
10
0.21
0.20
Good flavour, firm
and white
do.
0.11
0.11
Granular, yellow,
good flavour
do.
93.0
94.0
Unprocessed milk and village seed
Country churn .
Bottle churn .
11
Less than
5
0.19
0.21
Easily
over-
churned, faintly
mouldy
do.
0.12
0.11
Good
do.
73
72
SUMMARY
A simple but effective method of washing butter, conducive to considerable
improvement in the quality of village butter and ghee has been devised.
Among a number of methods of making ghee from curd and cream, it has been
found that ghee made from cream +0.1 per cent citric acid possesses good flavour
and keeping quality. The yield is also high.
The effect of starter, dilution and acidity of curd and type of churn have also
been studied.
The quality of starter used for making curd determines to a considerable degree
the yield and quality of ghee.
Dilution of curd, when churning, with an equal volume of water appears to be
the optimum proportion for yield and quality of ghee.
The American paddle churn compared to the village churn, while shortening
the churning time, does not affect the yield.
REFERENCES
Dastur and Kothavalla (1940). Rep. Imp. Dairy Dept. 22
Doctor, Banerjee and Kothavalla (1940). Indian J. vet. Sci. 10, 63
French (1936). Bull. imp. Inst., Lond. 34, 33
Kothavalla and Cox (1927). J. cent. Bur. Anim. Husb. India, 1, 95
Srinivasan and Banerjee (1945). (Article II in this Series)
Steward and Banerjee (1929). Cited in Wright's Report (loc. cit.)
Wright (1937). Report on Development of Cattle and Dairy Industries, India, 32
COMPOSITION OF MILK OF INDIAN ANIMALS
I. FREEZING POINT, LACTOSE, CHLORIDE AND ACIDITY IN THE MILK
OF DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ANIMALS
By C. S. DHARAMARAJAN, R. VENKATESWARA RAO, M. N. MENON and NOSHIR
N. DASTUR, Indian Dairy Research Institute, Bangalore
(Received for publication on 15 August 1949)
F REEZING point has now been accepted as the most reliable test for the detection
of adulteration of milk with small quantities of water.
Various
aspects of the subjects have been studied ever since the classical work of
Monier-Williams [1944] and it is not proposed to go into details here. Im-
portant data on the freezing point of milk have been recently summarized by the
Department of Health, Scotland [1943]. With regard to the freezing point of
Indian animals Leather [1914] found the freezing point of milk of individual cows
to vary from —0.529°C. to —0.577°C., and that of individual buffaloes from
—0.532°C. to —0.564°C. In a further communication the same author [1915]
gives the average freezing point of 77 cow and buffalo milk samples as —0.542°C.
Stewart and Banerjee [1930-31] from an analysis of cow and buffalo milk sold at
Calcutta suggest —0.530°C. as the minimum average depression for freezing point.
Bunce [1932, 1933] found the average freezing point of cow milk to be —0.566°C.,
and of buffalo milk —0.578°C., and recommended that for determining the percentage
of added water —0.550°C. be adopted as the freezing point of cow milk and —0.560°C
as that of buffalo milk. Macmahon and Srivastava [1935] report the mean de-
pression for cow milk to be —0.551°C. and for buffalo milk —0.562°C. Recently
Kothavalla et al. [1942] have given the average freezing point depression of cow and
buffalo milk as —0.546°C. and —0.543°C. respectively. The freezing point of the
foremilk and strippings was within the normal range found for the whole milk.
On the whole the number of samples of milk from Indian animals analyzed so far
are too few to give a clear picture about the average freezing point of cow and
buffalo milk. Further, almost all the data reported above were not collected with
the standard Hortvet Croyoscope. In the present studies a systematic survey
has been carried out about the freezing point of milk of Indian animals. Side by
side a record of the lactose and chloride content and acidity of milk has been kept.
The freezing point of milk is closely related to the lactose and chloride in milk
[Porcher and Chevallier, 1923; Staub, 1926] and is known to be influenced by the
development of acidity in milk [Macdonald, 1945]. A simultaneous study of all
these constituent
G
35
36
COMPOSITION OF MILK OF INDIAN ANIMALS
[Vol. XX, Part I,
EXPERIMENTAL
(i) Determination of freezing point. The freezing point was determined by the
standard technique using Hortvet Croyoscope as outlined by the A. O. A. C. [1946].
The thermometer used for noting the freezing point was standardized at intervals
against 7.0, 8.5 and 10.0 per cent A. R. sucrose solutions, and also checked against a
standard N. P. L. certified thermometer. Each day before taking readings with
samples, freezing point of fresh glass distilled water was determined to check the
zero of the thermometer. Each reading given in the Tables is a mean of two
determinations. It is well known that this technique gives depression which is
about —0.015°C. too large [Macdonald, 1947] than the true freezing point of milk,
but in the standard technique no attempt is to be made to correct the reading.
(ii) Determination of chloride. Chloride was determined by the method of
Davies [1938], and the results are expressed as mg. Cl 2 /100 gm. milk.
(iii) Determination of lactose. Lactose was determined polarimetrically by the
A. O. A. C. method [1946]. The results are given as gm. lactose hydrate/100
gm. milk.
(iv) Lactose chloride ratio. This has been calculated according to the relation-
ship formulated by Davies [1939], namely Lactose (per cent) +13.6 × Cl 2
per cent)=6.26.
(v) Acidity in milk. This was determined according to the A. O. A. C.
method [1946] and the results expressed as gm. lactic acid/100 ml. milk.
(vi) Milk samples used. Always a composite sample prepared by mixing
previous day's evening milk with the next day's morning milk was used. No
preservative was added but whenever necessary samples were kept in a refrigerator.
Samples from the whole herd milk were collected from the following breeds of
animals maintained at this Institute farm: Cross-bred, Gir, Sahiwal, Sindhi and
Tharparkar cows and Dharwar and Murrah buffaloes. The samples from each
breed of animal were collected twice in a week over a period of 14 months.
Altogether 728 samples were analyzed.
In addition, three Sindhi cows' and three Murrah buffaloes' milk was analyzed
over one complete lactation. During the colostrum period morning and evening
samples were examined separately. During the subsequent period composite
samples prepared as above were used for analysis. Milk samples were examined
three times in a week from day of parturition till each animal became nearly dry.
Altogether 385 cow milk and 322 buffalo milk samples were examined.
To save space, results of analysis of individual samples are not given but these
have been summarized on a percentage basis, for various constituents in the Tables
I to V. Results for milk from individual animals do not include samples collected
during first 10 days. This was done to make sure that colostral samples were not
included.
DISCUSSION
Freezing point of milk
It was found that over 96 per cent of the cow and buffalo samples exami-
ned show a freezing point depression, greater than 0.530°C. The average
38
COMPOSITION OF MILK OF INDIAN ANIMALS
[Vol. XX, Part I,
The lactose content of buffalo milk is distinctly higher than in cow milk, the
average being 5.26 per cent. No difference was noticed in the lactose content of
milk of the two breeds of buffaloes studied. Milk from individual buffaloes shows
wider fluctuations in lactose content, the average ranging from 4.99 to 5.41.
Nearly 93 per cent of herd milk samples have lactose content within the range of
3.51 to 5.50. In the case of milk from individual animals a large number of samples
have lactose content between 5.51 to 6.00 per cent, the number varying widely
from animal to animal. In the case of buffalo No. 272 this was as high as 40 per
cent of the total samples examined.
Chloride in milk
Data for the amount of chloride in milk are given in Tables III and V. The
average chlorine content of cow was 0.89 per cent. In the case of herd milk the
average varied from 0.082 to 0.097 per cent. Sahiwal cow milk contained the least
amount of chlorine, while Tharparkar cow milk was the richest in chlorine content.
Samples from individual animals of the same breed show wide fluctuations in the
chlorine content of milk. The chlorine content of nearly 97 per cent of cow milk
samples lies within the range of 0.071 to 0.130 per cent. Davies [1938] also reported
fluctuations in the chloride content of milk, the average in different breeds varying
from 0.085 to 0.128 per cent.
Buffalo milk contains less chlorine than cow milk, the average being 0.072 per
cent. There was no difference in the chloride content of two breeds of milk studied.
Buffalo milk shows a wider scattering in the distribution of chlorine content than
cow milk ranging from 0.031 to 0.190 per cent, though the majority of the samples
are covered by the range 0.051 to 0.130 per cent.
Relationship between lactose, chloride and freezing points
It is well known that these constituents of milk are closely related. The relation-
ship between lactose and chloride have been formulated by several workers. This
has been reviewed by Davies [1939] who found the following relationship for the
amounts generally found in milk :
Lactose (per cent) +13.5 Cl 2 (per cent)=6.26
This factor was calculated from the data obtained in the present studies and the
results are shown in Table VI. The average for cow herd milk was 6.10, for indivi-
dual cow milk 6.13, for buffalo herd milk 6.18 and for individual buffalo milk
6.27. It was noticed that in a large majority of samples the factor was lower than
the average suggested by Davies [1939]. Buffalo milk as a rule gave higher figures
than cow milk.
Staub [1926] has shown that the freezing point depression of milk was due to
three main classes of compounds, viz. lactose, chlorides and residual substances.
Taking the average freezing point of milk as —0.55°C., 0.41°C. was attributed to
lactose and chloride and the remaining 0.14°C. to other substances present. Assuming
that one per cent of lactose in solution causes a depression in freezing point of
March, 1950]
C.
S.
DHARAMARAJAN
AND
OTHERS
39
0.0532°C. and 1 mg. of Cl 2 of 0.0018°C., the contribution of lactose and chloride
to the freezing point of milk was calculated from the average figures with the follow-
ing results :
Cross-bred cow milk
Gir cow milk
Sahiwal cow milk
Sindhi cow milk
Tharparkar cow milk
Dharwar buffalo milk
Murrah buffalo milk
78.6
76.1
76.2
76.0
77.9
71.8
73.0
per cent
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Staub [1926] formulated a contribution of 74.5 per cent by lactose and chlo-
ride to the freezing point of milk. Porcher and Chevallier [1923] on
the other hand obtained a figure of 77 per cent. The results show that the contri-
bution of lactose and chloride to the freezing point of milk from Indian animals is
generally of the same order as that given by other authors inspite of the
variation in the percentage of lactose and chlorine in milk.
Acidity in milk
The results for the acidity in milk are summarized in Tables IV and V. The average
figures for acidity in cow and buffalo milk are very similar and come to 0.12 lactic
acid. For cow milk the large majority of samples lie within the range of 0.09 to
0.18 per cent, whilst in the case of buffalo milk this range extends from 0.07 to
of A. O. A. C. [1946] and for this reason the results are inclined to be a bit lower
than the figures usually found in the literature [c. f. Davies, 1939].
SUMMARY
Nearly 1,300 samples of cow and buffalo milk have been examined for freezing
point, lactose, chloride and titrable acidity.
Over 96 per cent of cow and buffalo milk samples show freezing point depression
greater than 0.530°C. The average freezing point of cow milk is —0.548°C. and
of buffalo milk —0.552°C. The range of distribution of freezing point is wider in
buffalo milk compared to cow milk.
Cow milk is poorer in lactose than buffalo milk. The average lactose of cow
milk was 4.92 per cent, and buffalo milk 5.26 per cent. On the other hand cow
milk contains greater amount of chlorine than buffalo milk, the averages being
0.089 and 0.072 per cent, respectively.
Lactose and chloride contribute nearly 77 per cent to the freezing point depression
in case of cow milk and 72 per cent in the case of buffalo milk.
The average acidity of cow and buffalo milk was 0.12 per cent lactic acid.