NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
REVIEW
SWINE PRODUCTION
BY W. E. CARROL AND J. L. KRIDER
(Published by New York Mc Graw-Hill Book Co. Inc. 1950, P. 498, illustrated,
$5,00)
M C GRAW-HILL has published a new book on Swine Production written by
two men with very wide training and experience in the field. The book is one
of the McGraw-Hill series in the Agricultural Sciences of which R. A. Brink is
Consulting Editor.
The text consists of four main parts. They deal with organisation establishing
a swine enterprise, management, and feed as factors in the cost of production of swine
or swine products. The book is very well printed on heavy glossy paper and is
extremely well bound with a very strong cloth cover. It is well illustrated. Numer-
ous references are given at the end of all but one of the 23 chapters contained in the
book.
The authors were associated with the University of Illinois when they prepared
this work. The area extending throughout the central midwestern part of the U.S.A.,
including Illinois, is one of the most intensive swine producing areas in the world.
This has been true for several decades. As may be expected, therefore, some of the
most noted specialists in the field of swine production are found in the agricultural
colleges and research stations there. Carrol and Krider have, in this book, made
a notable contribution to the literature on swine production now available to teachers,
students and practical swine breeders. Their presentation is as practical as possible,
consistent with considering carefully the latest and most technical advances in the
various aspects of the field. Other workers are very freely quoted to present facts
on as wide a basis as is possible, in a form that is thereby largely indisputable.
The text is written for students and breeders in the U. S. A. for this reason it is,
in many respects, not directly applicable to India, particularly in reference to prices
and price relationships. Nevertheless, the breeding, feeding, disease and general
management fundamentals included and discussed are practicable here. Therefore,
the book will be found to be of very great value to any one interested in the theory
or the practice of swine production in India. (J.N.W.)
123
MGIPC—M—7 A. R.—6-2-52.—850.
ORIGINAL ARTICLES
INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATION ON IMMUNITY, 1
By AMRITAMOY MUKERJI,* B.SC., G.V.Sc, ASSOC. I.V.R.I, Bengal Veterinary
College, Belgachia, Calcutta
(Received for publication on 1 August, 1950)
I N a tropical country like India, of all the environmental factors influencing
the animal body it is, obvious that the most important one is the radiant heat
of the sun. During the major part of the year, atmospheric air temperature
remains high, and therefore, the loss of body heat becomes difficult in animals living
under such depressing conditions. The body is constantly producing internal heat
in all its metabolic functions and this heat must be dissipated into the surrounding
environment. As heat loss becomes difficult, all body functions and resistance
to infection are lowered. In contrast to the detrimental influence of the high
external temperature on the health and general vitality of the animals, cooler
environment acts as a direct stimulant to the general vigour of the animals and
increases their power of resistance to infection.
There is sufficient experimental evidence that environmental temperatures
play a significant role in modifying resistance to infectious diseases. McDowell
[1923] studied the effect of different temperatures and humidities on the resistance
of rates to a pneumococcus infection and found that animals kept in humid heat
are more susceptible to infection of various kinds than those living in a cool environ-
ment. Mills [1939] reported that the studies on resistance to infection started
in his laboratory by Dr Joseph W. Colvin are providing clear proof that resistance
to infection is indeed linked to ease of body, heat loss, and combustion level of the
individual. Mice adapted for at least three weeks to 90°F. and 60 per cent relative
humidity, succumb with only one-fourth the injected dose of organisms it takes to
kill those adapted to 65°F. or, if an intermediate size of dose be injected, then all
hot room mice die while all from the cold room survive. Mills and Schmidt [1942]
studied the effect of environmental temperatures on resistance to infection and
found that there is a marked lowering of resistance to infection in depressive warmth
and a stimulation by cool environments. Survival time of mice, after type I pneu-
mococcus inoculation is markedly shorter for heat adapted animals than for those
kept in a cool environment. Mice kept at 65°F. had a mean survival time of 44.9
hours, those at 75°F. survived 36.3 hours and those at 90°F. only 27.5 hours. They
contended that a reduction in phagocytic activity is probably a dominant factor
in the lowered resistance brought about by environmental warmth. Mills [1939]
remarked that with exposure to typhoid infection, a higher degree of immunity
seems to be required for safety in tropical regions than in temperate coolness.
* Condensed from the thesis submitted on 22 September, 1947, for the Associateship of the
Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar Mukhteswar.
125
130
INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATION ON IMMUNITY, I [Vol. XXI, Part III,
Grouping. Efforts were made to distribute as equitably as possible equal
number of rabbits of similar colour, size and sex in the two groups, viz.' shade'
and ' sun' (vide Table I). Shade group, consisting of 10 rabbits, was kept in a
fairly dark and cool room throughout the total period of immunization and was
never allowed to be exposed to the sun during this period. Sun group, consisting
of 10 rabbits, was also accommodated in the same room in separate cages under
identical conditions during the total period of immunization except for the short
periods in the day time when it was exposed to the sun in a place adjacent to the
room.
TABLE I
Rabbits exposed to sun
Serial
number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Rabbit
number
75
78
437
458
305
81
82
84
86
87
76
77
60
61
368
90
83
85
88
89
Colour
Body weight
in gm.
Sun group rabbits
Dark brown all over the
body.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Brown and white
White
Ears and hind part dark
brown, rest white
Tan and white
Ear, abdomen, hind part
brown, rest white
890
1670
1040
1450
1800
1090
1390
1800
1150
1250
Sex
Female
Male
Male
Male
Male
Female
Male
Male
Female
Female
Shade group rabbits
Dark brown all over the
body
do.
do.
do.
do.
Brown and white
White
Ear and hind part dark
brown, rest white
Tan and white
Ear, abdomen, hind part
brown, rest white.
1570
1470
1570
1120
1400
1250
1370
1270
1350
1370
Male
Female
Male
Male
Male
Male
Female
Female
Male
Female
Dose in
c.c.
2.2
4.2
2.6
3.6
4.5
2.7
3.5
4.5
2.9
31
3.9
3.7
3.9
2.8
3.5
3.1
3.4
3.2
3.4
3.4
Remarks
(1) Group
average of
body weight:
Sun Group = 1,353 gm.
Shade Group=l,374 gm.
(2) Each rabbit was in-
jected subcutancously
with 1st dose of alum-
precipitated
toxoid
@ 2.5 c.c. per kgm.
body wieght on 25-5-46.
(3) Each
rabbit
was
injected
subcuta-
ncously with 2nd dose
of
alum-precipitated
toxoid similar to the
above on 16-6-46.
(4) Bled for immune sera
on 1-7-1946.
N.B.—Rabbit No. CO died on 4-6-1946 due to coccidiosis
Exposure to the sun
Five iron cages with wooden floor, each measuring about 3 ft. × 2 ft. × 2 ft.
were used for accommodating 10 rabbits, two in each cage, during the period of
exposure to the sun. The roof and sides of the cages were made of iron rods, the
132
INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATION ON IMMUNITY, I [Vol. XXI, Part III,
At 10-30 a.m. readings were recorded outside the rabbit house where sun group was
exposed to the sun. At one hour interval, readings were again recorded in the
rabbit house and by this time the sun group rabbits were also removed to the rabbit
house. Similarly, in the afternoon, readings were recorded first in the rabbit house
before the sun group was brought out for exposure, and then in the exposed place
one hour later, i.e., just before the sun group was returned to the rabbit house.
These readings provided an indication of the air temperature and the relative humi-
dity of the air inside the room and in the exposed place outside before, during and
after the daily period of exposure. The meteorological data recorded at different
times of the day during the period of the experiment are given in Table II.
TABLE II
Air temperature and relative humidity for periods covered in the experiment (26 May
to 4 June, 1946 and 17 June to 26 June, 1946 at Mukteswar (7,500 feet high
above sea level)
Readings
Air temperature (°F.)
Relative humidity (per cent)
Readings inside rabbit
house
Rango
64—73
59—86
Mean
68.7
73.9
Readings near the place of
exposure
Range
68—75
44—82
Mean
72.3
63.0
Fixation of provisional standard unit of antitoxin
As a general rule, when sera or toxins of unknown strength are being titrated,
comparison is made with sera of known unitage. But standard serum or toxin
was not available at the Indian Veterinary Research Institute when this work was
undertaken, hence, it was necessary to prepare the author's own provisional standard
serum against which sera of unknown strength were titrated. In order to accom-
plish this half a dozen rabbits were selected at random from both the groups, bled
from the ear vein two weeks after the 2nd injection and serum was collected from
the blood.
Titration. Six rows, each consisting of eight agglutination tubes, were arranged
in a rack for six samples of rabbit serum. A volume of 0.5 c.c. of 50 per cent
falling dilution of each sample of serum was added in each tube and 0.5 c.c. of
toxin containing 32 M.H.D. (original strength 3,200 M.H.D. per c.c.) was added
in each tube. The tubes were allowed to stand on the bench for 30 minutes and
then incubated in a water bath at 37°C. for 30 minutes. The rack was then
removed and 0.1 c.c. of 10 per cent suspension of washed erythrocytes was
added to each tube, the rack was then returned to the bath for one hour, being
shaken at the end of first half an hour. Final reading was taken after one hour's
standing on the bench, the smallest amount of serum required for neutralization
being noted. End-point was taken as the dilution showing a ' partial' or appro-
ximately 50 per cent haemolysis, and was judged by the colour of a prepared
September, 1951]
AMRITAMOY
MUKERJI
133
standard. In those cases where 50 per cent haemolysis was not visible, an
interpolated reading was taken, i.e., the titre was calculated at the arithmetic mean
of the preceding and the following tubes. It was found that the serum of rabbit
No. 458 gave a titre of 1/64, which was highest among the lot of six samples of
sera titrated. Since only 1/64 c.c. of serum of rabbit No. 458 just neutralized
32 M.H.D. of toxin, 1 c.c. of serum contained 64 units of antitoxin. This unitage
was considered as the author's provisional standard unit of antitoxin and against
this provisional standard, sera of unknown strength were titrated.
Determination of L H dose of toxin
The term L H dose refers to the amount of toxin neutralized by one unit of
standard antitoxin, i.e., by ' L H dose ' is meant that quantity of toxin, which, when
mixed with one unit of antitoxin, produces partial lysis of rabbit erythrocytes
after one hour at 37°C.
(1) L H dose of toxin was determined by mixing decreasing quantities of the
toxin with one full unit of provisional standard antitoxin. A volume
of 0.5 c.c. of 50 per cent falling dilution of toxin and 0.5 c.c. of
provisional standard serum containing one unit of antitoxin were
added in each tube.
(2) L H /10 dose of toxin was determined by mixing 0.5 c.c. of 50 per cent
falling dilution of toxin and 0.5 c.c. of provisional standard serum
containing l/10th unit of antitoxin in each tube. Preliminary titra-
tions at L H level for antitoxin contents in unknown sera revealed that
with the majority of the samples of sera, this dose was not suitable
and considered to be stronger than necessary. All the samples of
unknown rabbit sera were then titarated against L H /10 dose of toxin.
Out of 18 samples of unknown sera titrated, unitages of 16 samples
were higher than one, but in two samples the unitages were found
to be less than one. These two samples were titrated against L H /50
dose of toxin, which was determined by mixing 0.5 c.c. of 50 per cent
falling dilution of toxin and 0.5 c.c. of provisional standard serum
containing l/50th unit of antitoxin in each tube.
In the final titrations for antitoxin contents in unknown sera, all the 18 samples
were titrated on the same day and repeated on four successive days in order to
find out the mean antitoxin unit per c.c.
Titrations at L H /10 level for antitoxin contents in 16 samples of unknown rabbit sera
Unknown serum diluted 1: 5 (stock dilution)
Stock dilution of serum
Saline
Discard from highest dilu-
tion, so that only 0.5 c.c.
is left in each tube. Add
L H /10 dose of toxin 0.5
c.c. in each tube.
End dilution
(1)
0.5
0.0
0.5
1/10
(2)
0.5
0.5
0.5
1/20
(3)
0.5
1.0
0.5
1/30
(4)
0.5
1.5
0.5
1/40
(5)
0.1
0.4
0.5
1/50
(6)
0.1
0.5
0.5
1/60
(7)
0.1
0.6
0.5
1/70
(8)
0.1
0.7
0.5
1/80
(9)
0.1
0.8
0.5
1/90
(10)
0.1
0.9
0.5
1/100
(11)
0.1
1.0
0.5
1/110
(12)
0.1
1.1
0.5
1/120
134
INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATION ON IMMUNITY, I [Vol. XXI, Part III
The tubes were allowed to stand on the bench for 30 minutes, then incubated
in water bath at 37°C. for half an hour. The rack was then removed from the bath.
A volume of 0.1 c.c. of 10 per cent suspension of washed rabbit erythrocytes was
added to each tube and the racks were returned to the bath and incubated for
one hour. The racks, on removal from the bath, were allowed to stand for one
hour, after which final readings were taken. End-point was the tube showing
' partial' or approximately 50 per cent haemolysis. Unitages of unknown sera
were declared according to the end-points. Thus, unitages :—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, 11, 12.
Titrations at L H /50 level for finding out unitages for values less than 1 in 2 samples
of unknown rabbit sera
Unknown serum diluted 1. : 2.5 (stock dilution)
Stock dilution of serum
Saline
Discard from highest dilution, so
that 0.5 c.c. is loft in each
tube. Add L H /50 dose of toxin T
0.5 c.c. in each tube.
End dilution
(1)
0.5
0.0
0.5
1/5
(2)
0.5
0.5
0.5
1/10
(3)
0.5
1.0
0.5
1/15
(4)
0.5
1.5
0.5
1/20
(5)
0.5
2.0
0.5
1/25
(6)
0.5
2.5
0.5
1/30
(7)
0.5
3.0
0.5
1/35
(8)
0.5
3.5
0.5
1/40
(9)
0.5
4.0
0.5
1/45
The method of titration was similar to that described above. Unitages of
unknown sera were declared according to the endpoints. Thus, unitages 0.1, 0.2
0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9.
Final result of titrations of 18 samples of unknown rabbit sera is given in
Table III.
TABLE III
(A) Result of titrations of 9 samples of sera from rabbits belonging to the 'sun group'
Serial
num-
ber
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Rabbit
number
75
78
437
305
81
82
84
86
87
Titrations (antitoxin unit per c.c.)
12-7-46
3
2
2
10
2
4
4
0.8
5
13-7-46
4
1
3
10
2
6
5
0.8
4
14-7-46
3
1
2
10
1
6
5
0.9
3
15-7-46
4
1
2
10
2
5
3
0.8
3
Mean
antitoxin
unit
per c.c.
3.5
1.2
2.2
10.0
1.7 }
5.2
4.2
0.8
3.7
Mean antitoxin unit per c.c.
for the group
Total of mean antitoxin unit
per c.c. of 9 rabbits =32.5 c.c.
Group average = 3.6 unite
per c.c.
September, 1951]
AMRITAMOY
MUKERJI
135
(B) Result of titrations of 9 samples of sera from rabbits belonging to the ' shade group'
Serial
num-
ber.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Rabbit
number.
76
77
61
368
90
83
85
88
89
Titrations (antitoxin unit per c.c.)
12-7-46
7
0.5
4
8
1
7
1
3
11
13-7-46
8
0.7
5
7
1
6
1
2
12
14-7-46
7
0.6
6
8
1
7
1
3
11
15-7-46
7
0.6
5
8
1
6
1
3
12
Mean
anti-
toxin
unit
per c.c.
7.2
0.6
5.0
7.7
1.0 }
6.5
1.0
2.7
11.5
Mean antitoxin unit per c.c.
for the group
Total of mean antitoxin unit
per c.c. of 9 rabbits=43.2 c.c.
Group avevage=4.8 units per
c.c.
Statistical results
There is no significant difference between the means of the groups compared for
antitoxin units per c.c.
SUMMARY
The influence of solar radiation on the formation of specific antibodies in the
rabbits hyperimmunized with alum-precipitated staphylococcus toxoid was studied.
The ' sun group ' was exposed to the sun daily for a brief period for 10 days after
each injection. The ' shade group ' was kept indoors and not exposed to the sun
during the corresponding period. Both the groups were bled for immune sera
14 days after the second injection. The interval between the two injections was
21 days. The results of titrations revealed that the mean antitoxin unit per c.c. of
immune serum was more in the ' shade group ' than in the ' sun group '. On statis-
tical analysis, the difference between the means of the two groups compared for
antitoxin, units per c.c. was, however, found to be non-significant.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was initiated and completed under the guidance of Dr F. C. Minett,
C.I.E., D.Sc., H.R.C.V.S., the former Director of Indian Veterinary Research
Institute, Izatnagar/Mukteswar. I am highly indebted to him. I gratefully acknow-
ledge the help I received from Shri V. R. Rajagopalan, Dip Bact. (Manchester),
136
INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATION ON IMMUNITY, I
[Vol. XXI, Part III
Research Officer, Mukteswar, in this work. Statistical analysis of the results of the
experiment was done by Shri S. Sen, Statistician of the Indian Veterinary Research
Institute to whom I offer my thanks.
REFERENCES
BIGGER, J.W., BOLAND, C.R., and O'MEARA,R.A.Q. (1927). J. Path. Bact., 30, 271
BRYCE, L.M., and BURNET, F.M. (1932). Ibid, 35, 183
BURNET, F.M. (1929). Ibid, 32, 714
—(1931).
Ibid,
34, 471
DOLMAN, C.E. (1932). Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada. 26, 309
—(1933).
J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 100, 1007
—and
KITCHING,
J.S. (1935). J. Path. Bact. 41, 137
GLENNY, A.T. and STEVENS,M.F. (1935). Ibid. 40, 201
JAMESON and POWELL (1934). Amer. J. Hyg. 19, 246
KIRKBRIDE, BERTHELSEN AND CLARK (1931). J. Immunol. 29, 209
LEONARD, G.F., and HOLM, A. (1935). Ibid, 29, 209
MINETT, F.C. (1935). J. Path. Bact. 42, 247
—(1937).
J. Comp. Path. Therap. 50, 179
—(1939).
Ibid, 52, 167
McDOWEL, C. (1923). Amer. J. Hyg. 3, 521
MILLS, C.A. (1939). Medical Climatology (Bailliere, London)
—and
SCHMIDT,
L.H. (1942). Amer. J. Trop. Med. 22, 655
NKITZ, W.O., and RIEMERSCHMID, G. (1944). Onderstepoort J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Indust.
20, No. I, 29
PARISH, H.J. and CLARK, W.H.M. (1932). J. Path. Bact. 35, 251
—,
O'MEARA, R.A.Q., and CLARK, W.H.M. (1934). Lancet 1, 1054
RIEMERSCHMID, G. and ELDERA, J.S. (1945). Onderstepoort J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Indust. 20, 223
SMITH, M.L. (1935). J. Path. Bact. 42, 227
WELBUM, L. E. (1921). C. R. Soc. de Biol. 85, 1205 (Quoted by Bigger el al (1927) ). J. Path.
Bact. 30 (Original not seen)
INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATION ON IMMUNITY, II
BY AMRITAMOY MUKERJI*, B.Sc., G. V. Sc., Assoc. I. V. R. I., Bengal Veterinary
College, Belgachia, Calcutta
( Received for publication on 13 March, 1951)
(With ten-text figures)
A SERIES of experiments were conducted at Izatnagar in the different seasons of
the year to study the influence of solar radiation on the course of rinderpest
and the resulting immunity in Kumaon hill-bulls, plains buffaloes and goats.
General procedure adopted for all the experiments with goat tissue vaccine on different
species of animals
Selection of animals. The chief criteria for the selection of animals were coat
colour, size, age and sex. The importance of these factors has already been
clearly indicated in the Part I dealing with rabbits.
Pre-experimental management. The selected animals were allowed grazing
in the morning from sun rise uptil 9 a.m. and again in the evening for some time
before dusk. During the intervening period, they were tied up in a shed. The
animals were kept under this kind of management for about 2 weeks. Therefore,
in the pre-experimental stage, they were not allowed to be exposed to the direct
rays of the sun during the hot hours of the day and consequently they were not
heat adapted before coming under the experiment.
Pre-experimental data and grouping. Some of the important constituents of
blood, viz.—Hb. R.B.C. count, Cell Volume, Ca, P and Mg were estimated once before
vaccination and again after the reaction period (on the 15th day after vaccination;
for comparison, as well as for finding out which of the constituents are more affected
by the course of the disease. Opportunity was also seized to find out the co-relation,
if any, between the biochemical reactions and the release of antibodies in the circula-
tion. Body temperature of all the animals was recorded twice daily for about five
days prior to vaccination in order to be sure that the animals were apparently
in health before coming under the experiment. The normal range as well as the
individual variations were also known by recording the body temperature.
The animals were grouped into two lots, Sun Group and Shade Group, on the
basis of colour, haemoglobin level of the blood and mean of the three consecutive
days' body weight prior to vaccination. Both the groups were balanced in such
a manner that identical animals in respect of size, colour and general condition were
equally distributed on each side. Body weight for three consecutive days after the
reaction period was also recorded for finding out the difference between the means of
the initial and final body weights of the individuals as well as of the Groups, which
provided an indication of the effect of the course of the disease on the general condition
of the animals.
*Condensed from the thesis submitted on the 22nd September 1947 for the Associateship of the
Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar Mukteswar.
137
140
INFLUENCE OF SOLAR RADIATION ON IMMUNITY, II [Vol. XXI, Part III.
II. Inappetence : (a) For each day that the animal feeds fairly
1
mark, (b) for each day that the animal feeds slowly
2 marks, (c) for
each day that the animal is off feed
4 marks.
III. Intestinal disturbance: (a) For each day the animal has soft faeces
2 marks, (b) for each day the animal has diarrhoea
4 marks.
N.B.—The above marks are allotted on cumulative basis.
IV. Specific lesions: (a) Few vesicles
5 marks, (b) Numerous
vesicles
10 marks.
N.B.—The above marks are allotted on alternative basis.
V. Condition : The number of marks allotted under this head is the difference
in weight (in lb.) between the average of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd days ' weights and the
average of the 12th, 13th, 14th and 15th days ' weights, less 10 as an allowance for
normal gain on the present ration. Where a gain in weight is registered, it should
be substracted from the other marks.
VI. Type of Syndrome: (a) Where any two of items I, IT, III, IV and V
(loss of weight only) are present
5 marks. (b) where any three of the
above items are present
10 marks. (c) where any four of the above
items are present
15 marks. (d) where all five are present
20
marks.
N.B.—The above marks are allotted on alternative basis.
When the marks allotted to an individual total more than 100, the total is taken
as 100 for the purposes of estimating the average. The average reaction and potency
should be worked out for each dose rate. If in a full test, the potency at the lower
dose rates is higher than the potency at 10 c.c., it will not be included in the gross
potency estimation. The gross potency is obtained by taking the average of the
potencies of each dose rate.
All the animals, belonging to both the groups, were bled on the 21st day after
vaccination. About 100 c.c. to 120 c.c. of blood was collected separately from each
animal into sterile flasks for immune sera. Equal quantities of serum, say, 40 c.c.
from each of the flasks of the Sun group were collected and pooled together in a
sterile serum bottle. Carbolic acid was added as a preservative in 0.5 per cent
concentration. The bottle was labelled and capped. Similarly 40 c.c. of serum was
collected from each of the flasks of the Shade group and pooled together in a separate
sterile serum bottle, carbolised as above, and then the bottle was labelled and capped.
Both the bottles were kept in the refrigerator until they were used. The two lots
of sera were tested for potency simultaneously and under identical conditions.
Management of animals after the immunizing period
The animals in the two groups were mixed together—soon after the immu-
nizing period was over and were then managed under identical conditions till the