NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
September, 1951]
R.
N.
DESAI
193
Though the intra-sire regressions for lines varied widely, the differences were
not significant. They were, therefore, pooled.
When n records were averaged for each dam in computation of intra-sire regres
sion, the relationship of heritability to regression is :
H (=) 2b √1+(n—1)R
n
but as the number of records vary among the dams, the relationship of H to b is:
H(=)2b√1+(m—1)R
m
where m is the hormonic mean [Snedecor, 1946] of the number of the records per
ewe. An approximation of the sampling variance of heritability, V(H), when H
is derived in the above manner is given by the following formula :
V (H) (=) 4 [1+ (m—1)R/m] 2 V(b) + 4(b) 2 [m-1/m] 2 V (R)
The heritability estimates by lines and stations are presented in Table II.
TABLE II
Heritability estimates by lines and stations
Line
S. E. Shrop
S. E. Crossed
W. C. Columbia
W. C. Shrop
N. W. Shrop
N. W. Hamp
N. W. Crossed
N. C. Shrop
N. C. Crossed
Over all
By Stations
S. E.
W.C.
N. W.
N.C.
Procedure 1
—.2195±.0746
.0865±.0224
—.1599±.0580
—.2764±.0945
.1776±.0552
.2082±.1056
Not estimated due
to small numbers
.2825±.0627
.0656±.0147
.0306±.0102
—.1570±.0594
—.1533±.0569
.1768±.0616
.1390±.0383
Procedure 2
.3379±.0608
—.4115±.0849
.2401±.0464
—.4143±.0924
.0116±.0026
.2550±.0541
.2398±.0534
.3317±.0526
—.2131±.0355
.0736±.0152
.0922±.0189
.0700+.0143
.0808+.0179
.0572+.0109
194
THE INHERITANCE OF FERTILITY IN SHEEP [Vol XXI, Part III.
The heritabilities, according to procedure 1, show a wide range among lines.
Due to such a range it is rather difficult to draw any conclusions. The overall
heritability by this procedure is 3.06 per cent and is lower than 7.36 per cent esti-
mated by the second procedure. The following interpretations are based on the
results obtained from the use of procedure 2.
There is some consistency in the heritability figures calculated by the second
procedure, except in the case of three lines. If the data of the dam-daughter pairs
of these three lines are studied, the following reasons may be suggested as to the
causes of the negative results.
Some of the sire groups have daughters with only one record, as against 3.25
records in some cases and 3.50 in others for dams. Such comparisons introduce
bias in the results under some sire groups where the number of records of dams and
daughters is nearly equal, the number of dam-daughter pairs is very low, ranging
from 4 to 6. It is logical to conclude, therefore, that sampling errors are responsible
for the negative estimates of heritability. These negative estimates therefore,
have been considered as zero.
ESTIMATES OF REPEATABILITY
Repeatability for lambing average was estimated by the intra-class correlation
method from 2,696 lambing records from 962 ewes. In order to eliminate the differ-
ences due to lines, ewes and age of ewes, the multiple co-variance method was used
and intra-class correlation was calculated by the formula as outlined by Snedecor
[1946].
r = m 1 — m 2 / m 1 + (Ko — 1) m 2
The sums of squares and the errors of estimates after correcting for age effects are
represented in Table III. The repeatability, after correcting for age, was calculated
to be .0498±.0263. The standard error of sampling variation for repeatability was
calculated by taking the square root of the variance of repeatability which is ob-
tained by the following formula :
V (R) = 2(1—R) 2 /azk 2 [ z [1 + R (k-1) ] 2 + a [ 1-R (k-1)] 2 ]
TABLE III
Sums of squares of lambing average before and after correction for age effects
Source of variance
Total
Between lines
Between ewes within lines
Within ewes within lines
d.f.
2695
10
951
1734
Before correction
Sums of
squares
880.5045
36.3745
327.7000
516.4300
Mean squares
3.6375**
.3446**
.2978
d.f.
949
1732
After correction
Sums of
squares
285.3939
469.4865
Mean squares
.3007m 1
.2711m 2
**Highly significant.
September, 1951]
R.
N.
DESAI
195
where a is the number of degree of freedom for m 1 , z is the number of degree of
freedom for m 2 and k is the weighted mean of the lambing records. The estimate of
repeatability of fertility is the total genetic variance and may include some of the
permanent effects of environment. Consequently, it is expected to be as high, or
higher, than the heritability estimate.
The estimate of repeatability .0498±.0263 is smaller than the overall estimate
of heritability .0736±.0152 according to the second procedure of analysis. Since
the standard error for repeatability is high, such a low estimate is due to the sam-
pling error. Nevertheless, the estimates are reasonably close to each other.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The estimates of heritability were made by the intra-sire regression of lambing
records of offsprings on those of dams. The overall estimate was found to be .0736
±.0152. Such a low estimate may be due to the lack of control on the environmental
variations or it may be due to a low frequency of genes affecting the genetic
variability.
Similarly, the repeatability for lambing average was estimated from the same
data. It was found to be .0498±.0263. It is lower than the heritability figures.
Since the genetic make-up of any individual does not change during its life repeatabi-
lity should be at least as large as the heritability. It can be larger even, because the
permanent effects of environment would also be sometimes included in it. The
standard error of it indicates that it is in error. However, both the estimates are
reasonably close to each other.
The overall heritability indicates that the most effective method of improving
fertility would be to cross the lines under consideration with some other outstan-
ding lines or perhaps with other breeds of known high fertility in order to bring in
new genes for fertility. If no other line or breed is available that has a higher
degree of fertility, it is possible that crossing with a breed of the same degree of
fertility would be useful. The hope would be that the recombination of genes
might prove beneficial. The estimates of heritability by stations also substantiate
this interpretation.
REFERENCES
Cockerham, Clark, (1949). Heritabilities and repeatabilities in sheep. M. S., Thesis. Uni. N.
Carolina
Joseph, W.E. (1932). Factors related to weights of lamb crop produced by grade fine wool ewes.
Proc. Am. Soc. An. Prod. 219-221
Kiser, O. M. and Christagan, R. J. (1940). Breeding for single and twin lamb production.
Proc. Am. Soc. Ani. Prod. 182-184
Lush, J. L. (1940). Intra-sire regressions of offspring on dam as a method of estimating herit-
ability of characteristics. Proc. Am. Soc. Ani. Prod. 33, 293-301
—and
F. S. Straus (1942). The heritability of butter-fat production in dairy cattle. J.
Dairy Sci.25, 975-982
—(1943).
Animal Breeding plans. 2nd ed. The Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa
Olbrycht, T. M. (1934, c). The statistical basis of selection in animal husbandry. Part I.
Studies on the life performance of brood sows: An analysis of variance and co-variance of
progeny born and reared J. agric. Sci. 33, 28-43
196
THE INHERITANCE OF FERTILITY IN SHEEP [Vol. XXX, Part III.
Olbrycht, T. M. (1934, b). The statistical basis of selection inanimal husbandry. Part II. The
judging of brood sows by their number of offspring born and reared in the earliest litters.
J. Agric. Sci. 33, 74-84
Rasmussen, K. (1942). The inheritance of fleece weights in range sheep. Sci. Agric. 23, 104-116.
Shoffner, R. N. and Sloan, H. J. (1948). Heritability studies in the domesticated fowl. 8th
World's Poult. Congr. 269-287
Snedecor, G. W. (1946). Statistical methods applied to experiments in agriculture and biology.
3rd ed. Iowa State College Press. Ames. Iowa
Wentworth, E.N. (1913). Why inbreeding decreases fertility. Breeder's Gazette, 63, 1164
Wright, Sewall. (1922a & b). The effects of inbreeding and crossbreeding on guinea pigs. I—
Decline in vigour. II—Differentiation in inbred families. U. S. D. A Bull. 1090, 63.
III—Crosses between highly inbred families. U. S. D. A. Bull. 1121
PASTEURELLOSIS IN SWINE
BY K. C. SEN GUPTA AND N. S. VERMA, Animal Husbandry Department, Uttar
Pradesh, Lucknow
(Received for publication on 18 May 1948)
P ASTEURELLOSIS is comparatively an uncommon infectious disease in swine
which usually complicates other infectious diseases like swine fever and Foot and
Mouth disease. Pasteurellosis has been reported from many parts of Europe,
Ireland, America and S. Africa. The reported information in India is rare, perhaps
for the reason that the swine breeding industry has not received the attention that
it deserves in this country. Shahi [1937] recorded an outbreak of this disease at
Keventer's piggery, Aligarh. The object of this paper is to record another such
outbreak which occurred among large white Yorkshire pigs of Government Farm,
Babugarh (District Meerut) in June 1947.
Clinical symptoms
The condition was clinically characterised by dullness, high temperature (105
to 110°F.), inability to stand, heavy breathing and groaning at intervals. The
death in majority of cases was observed to supervene in 24 hours. In these cases
bloody discharge was noticed from anus just before death. In others death was
noticed even within six hours. One breeding sow, however, lingered on for 19 days
but later died. Mostly pigs between four months and two years were affected but
some older animals were also affected. In all 29 deaths were recorded in a herd
of 156 pigs.
Postmortem lesions
The general condition of the animals which died after short duration of illness
was good. Skin over the abdomen, scrotum and inner side of the thighs was purplish
in colour. Lungs were highly congested and in some cases even areas of consolida-
tion were present. The mucosa in the fundus portion of the stomach was swollen
and highly congested. Intestinal mucosa showed patchy congestion. Mesenteric
lymph glands were congested and oedematous. The carcase of breeding sow
which died of illness extending over 19 days was highly emaciated and several
bedsores were present on the body. Areas of lung tissue were hepatised and showed
necrotic patches. Thoracic lymph glands were enlarged.
Bacteriology
Examination of blood smears from several dead animals showed varying number
of bipolar organisms, which could be isolated in pure culture from heart blood.
The organism was gram negative and produced acid and no gas in peptone water
containing 0.5 per cent glucose, laevulose, saccharose, raffinose, mannitol or sorbitol.
It was unable to ferment arabinose, xylose, maltose, lactose, inulin, dextrin, dulcite,
197
198
PASTEURELLOSIS IN SWINE
[Vol. XXI, Part III,
salicin, adonite and glycerol. Production of H 2 S on lead acetate medium was
faint. Ammonia was slightly produced. Methylene blue was reduced and catalase
test was strongly positive. V. P. and M. R. tests were negative. In peptone media
it produced indol.
A 24 hours old broth culture died in 10 minutes at 58°C. and in two minutes
at 60°C. Formalin in 0.5 per cent concentration killed a 24 hours old broth culture
within ten minutes.
Rabbits and G. pigs inoculated subcutaneously or intraperitoneally with saline
suspension of liver, spleen and lungs or culture suspension died within 18 hours.
Crow died in 20 hours after subcutaneous injection of 0.5 c.c. of culture suspension.
Buffalo calf infected by subcutaneous route with 5 c.c. of culture suspension
showed high fever and inflammatory oedema at the point of injection and died in
72 hours. Postmortem examination revealed severe gastro-enterities. Mesenteric
lymph glands were congested and oedematous. The organisms could be easily
isolated from heart blood of all these animals.
Goat showed a rise of temperature to 106.6°F on the day following subcutaneous
injection of 2 c.c. of culture suspension but did not die. Duck and fowl were found
resistant to the infection. Two country pigs showed no reaction when subcutaneous
injection of saline suspension of material, from a carcase or culture isolated from
it was given to them.
The organism isolated from dead carcases was also identified as 'Pasteurella'
at the Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar.
Control measures
All the measures regarding segregation and disinfection were taken and the
entire herd was immediately inoculated with anti-haemorrhagic septicaemia serum.
The housing conditions were improved. Later all the animals were vaccinated
with formalized agar wash vaccine prepared from the organisms isolated during
the outbreak. No cases were reported that year after prophylactic inoculations.
DISCUSSION
Such an outbreak was practically unknown in the piggery. Prior to the appear-
ance of the disease no animals were purchased from outside, and the possibility
of the disease having been introudced from outside was obviously eliminated. The
biological tests excluded the co-existence of any other infecting agent. Adverse
climatic conditions as well as bad housing appear to be the predisposing factors.
It may be pointed out that most of the deaths occurred in those paddocks which
were open and had no protection against sun or rain. Moreover, the season was
extremely hot at that time.
SUMMARY
Record is made of an outbreak of Haemorrhagic septicaemia in pigs at Govern-
ment Farm, Babugarh.
The diagnosis was confirmed by bacteriological as well as biological tests.
The outbreak was controlled by the use of anti-haemorrhagic septicaemia
serum and improvement of housing conditions.
September, 1951]
K.
C.
SEN
GUPTA
199
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are indebted to Shri T. J. Egan, Director and Shri R. L. Kaura,
Joint Director of Animal Husbandry, Uttar Pradesh for their valuable suggestions.
The assistance of Shri J. L. Govil is also acknowledged.
REFERENCE
Shahi, H. B. (1937). Ann. Rep. Vety., 7
TEOSINTE
BY M. R. PANIKKAR, M.Sc., Senior Technical Assistant, Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, Delhi
(Received for publication on 30 March 1951)
T EOSINTE (Euchlaena mexiana Schrad. Syn. Reana luxurians Dur.) or buffalo
grass called makchari in vernacular, belongs to the tribe Mayideae in the sub-
family of Panicoidaeae of the natural order Gramineae. It is probably of Central
American origin and in the Central Mexican flora it is found solely among maize
plants [Roseveare, 1948]. Possibly, the wild ancestor of maize, it is essentially a
tropcial grass.
Botany. It is a large very succulent strong growing annual grass which tiller
profusely gives rise to a number of shoots (some times even 100) to form thick clumps
which grow up from 30 cm. to 4 metres under favourable conditions. It has long
leaves, which are 5 to 7.5 cm. broad, male spikelets 8 to 9 mm. long crowded in
long spikes in a corymb 12 to 25 cm. long, female spikes in the leaf axils, styles
very long, protruding from the top of the enclosing sheath. The spike of the female
spikelets breaks up at maturity into rhomboidal seed like joints. Nearly allied to
maize and resembling it in its tassel of male flowers and broad leaves, it hybridizes
with maize.
It thrives best under hot humid conditions in rainy tracts on rich soils with
periodic manuring. Teosinte, however, cannot stand drought nor frost. The
crop is cultivated mainly for fodder which is succulent and nutritious. Horses are
fond of it [Blatter and McCann, 1935], while Roberts et al. [1947] note it as relished
by all kinds of cattle.
Cultivation. Piper [1924]. quoted yields of green fodder in the U.S.A. varying
from 9 tons per acre in New Jersey to 50 tons in Lousiana. In spite of this, due to
its demand for richer soils for optimum yield, the cultivation of this fodder in the
U.S.A. has decreased. In soils of moderate fertility, however, it does not yield
so well as jowar. Experience elsewhere showed that it may prove successful in damp
warm regions of high humidity and heavy rainfall. For example, in the West Indies,
(Dominica), it yielded 12 tons of green fodder per acre and was considered suitable
for poor sandy soils ; similarly, in Philippines 26.67 tons per acre was reported.
Mann [1920] noted high yields of green fodder in the Assam Valley too. But, on
the other hand, in drier climate, with lesser rain, even under irrigation, teosinte
gave discouraging performance ; in Rhodesia it was found unsatisfactory, and in
Arizona too, it was not successful.
Experiments conducted in Poona Agricultural College Farm during the latter
part of the 19th century as well as in the first decade of this [1893-1896 and 1913-14],
showed that it yields less than jowar and maize and the crop is obtained more slowly.
As a rain crop, it gave an average of 5¼ tons of dry fodder. At the same time, it
201
202
TEOSINTE
[Vol. XXI, Part III,
was suspected to adversely influence the milk yield of cows. But nothing of this
necessarily applied to teosinte as a fodder crop in moist, warm, rainy tract, where
indeed it may be valuable.
For the cultivation of this crop in Western India, seeds should be sown in alter-
nate plough furrows using 10 to 15 lb. of seeds per acre and the resulting crop
thinned after a month : or it should be dibbled in rows 15 in. apart, both in the
rows and between the plants, when only 3 to 4 lb. of seeds per acre would be
needed. Piper [1924] recommended planting in hills 4 to 5 ft. apart in rows of the
same distance. It should be irrigated if necessary. If grown as a monsoon crop,
it will be ready to cut in three months after sowing and second crop can be
obtained (usually with irrigation 4 to 7 weeks later). Mann [1920] thinks it not
worthwhile keeping the crop for the third and fourth crops, which it may yield.
In Northern India, in all about 32 to 35 lb. of seeds are required per acre, which
are sown either broadcast or ploughed in or dropped behind the plough (kera).
If the crop is sown early in March to April, two to three cuttings, first in May to
June, depending upon sowing time and also under conditions of rich soil and liberal
irrigation, may be obtained. On the other hand, if it is sown late, at the end of
July to August, the crop gives only one cutting which will be ready in 3 to 3½ months
(October to November), when there will be scarcity of green fodder. It gives an
average yield of 400 md. per acre [Londer, 1949]. Teosinte could be cultivated
mixed with legumes (velvet beans or soya beans) which take about the same time
to mature. The fodder is coarse and always fed green and not made hay or silage.
Unlike maize, where a compact cob is produced, the female inflorescence in
the plant consists of a number of strings of seeds covered by glumes and borne at
the nodes. And when the crop is grown for seed, the dry stalks are fed to bullocks
after the removal of the grains. The seeds ripen in November (in the Punjab).
The colour of the ripe seed varies from creamy white to dark brown ; immature
seeds though of normal size are white in colour and much lighter. The harvested
seed is allowed to dry for a fortnight or so, before thrashing. A good crop may
yield 15 md. of seed per acre.
The crop is also grown in Southern India.
Nutritive quality of fodder
In Australia [1910], the green crop completely dried gave the following figures
on analysis.
Ether extract (oil, etc.) . . . . . . . . .
Proteids . . . . . . . . . .
Digestible fibre . . . . . . . . . .
Nitrogen free extract . . . . . . . . .
Woody fibre . . . . . . . . . .
Ash . . . . . . . . . . .
1.39
7.27
42.55
11.2
27.67
7.03
Sen [1946] too has given its constituents. A statement of this along with
yield is given in the following. Data about other common fodders also is given for
comparative evaluation.
September, 1951]
203
TABLE I
Yield and constituents or some of the common fodders
Serial
num-
ber
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Name of the plant
Teosinte (Euchlaena mexicana)
Bihar.
Maize (Zea mays) Bihar.
Elephant or Napier grass (Pen¬
nisetum purpureum) Bihar.
Sudan grass(Andropogen-sorghum
var. swlanensis) (Punjab)
Guinea grass (Panicum maxi¬
mum) (Punjab)
Velvet
Beans.
(Stizolobium
decrinyeanum) (Punjab)
Lucerne
(Medicago
saliva)
(Bihar)
Berseem
(Trifolium alexan¬
drium)
(Bihar)
Sonii
(Melilotus
purviflora)
(Punjab)
Jowar
(Andropogen-sorghum)
Bangalore.
Yield per
acre
md.
400
250
600
600-800
400-600
250
600
1000
400
500-800
Total ash
10.8
8.15
16.04
14.39
12.15
14.93
14.49
20.25
9.5
8.55
Crude
protein
4.47
6.74
6.16
5.68
5.22
15.14
26.71
15.45
15.46
7.75
Organic constituents
Carbohydrate
Fibre
32.2
35.95
28.07
27.03
36.38
19.27
21.54
26.06
31.62
32.26
N free
extract
51.33
47.07
47.47
51.01
44.7
48 53
38.39
35.88
41.95
49.61
Ether
extract
1.2
2.09
2.26
1.89
1.55
2.13
2.87
2.36
1.47
1.73
Mineral Constituents
Ash solu-
tion in HCl
6.09
4.99
10.16
7.49
—
—
12.32
12.09
6.1
4.96
CaO
1.07
0.73
0.7
1.19
—
—
—
2.33
1.89
—
P 3 O 6
0.37
0.63
0.61
1.33
—
—
—
0.75
0.42
—
MgO
0.49
0.74
0.3
0.5
—
—
—
0.77
0.44
—
Na 2 O
—
—
0.68
0.08
—
—
—
—
0.34
—
K 2 O
2.24
1.61
2.09
2.99
—
—
—
4.78
2.21
—
204
TEOSINTE
[Vol. XXI, Part III,
From the above, teosinte seems to be a better yielder of green fodder than
maize and velvet beans, though it does not compare well with the rest. At the
same time, it compares favourably with maize, jowar and senji in total ash content.
Similarly, though it has the lowest crude protein and compares unfavourably with
the rest of the fodders given in the table in ether extracts, buffalo grass stands
in favourable light with maize and guinea grass in fibre content. In mineral
contents, it compares well with jowar, maize and Napier grass in CaO, Napier and
senji in MgO, maize, Sudan grass and senji in K 2 O, while in P 2 O 5 it is comparatively
the poorest.
Breeding. At the Potchefstroom Agricultural College South Africa, several
crosses have been made between maize and teosinte (for high vegetation and yield
specially suitable for ensilage and fodder) and a new type, teomaize with vegetation
potentialities requiring high soil fertility for full expression has been evolved. In
India, selections of a few vigorous types from crosses of teosinte with maize have
also been reported by Kumar [1939].
So far the crop has not been observed to have been attacked by insect or fungus
pests.
CONCLUSION
Teosinte is a moderately yielding coarse fodder grass best suited and responding
well also in rich soils of hot humid regions with heavy rainfall. Comparing with
maize and velvet beans it may be a better yielder, and unlike maize it is less prone
to the attack of insect or fungoid pests. At the same time, in soils of moderate
fertility it does not yield so well as jowar and its nutritive value is only about 83
per cent of that of jowar fodder. However, it could be advantageously sown late in
Northern India, to be ready for fodder in October to November, when there will be
scarcity of green fodder. Thus, in spite of its obvious limitations, the importance of
teosinte in the pastoral set-up of the country both in the heavy humid areas of North
East and South West as well as in the dry North India, could not be overlooked.
REFERENCE
Anonymous, — (1910). Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales. 221, 118
—(1944).
Field Expts. at Potchefstroom. IAB Bull. 32, 23
Blatter, E. and C. McCann [1935]. Bombay Grasses. ICAR Sci. Monograph. No. 5, 4
Kumar, L. S. S. (1939). Annual Report Bombay Dept. of Agric.
Lander, P. E. (1949). The Feeding of Farm Animals in India, 156, Macmillan
Mann, H. H. (1920). Fodder Crops of Western India. Bull. No: 100 of 1920.
P: 101-105.
Dept. of Argiculture, Bombay
Piper, C. V. (1924). Forage Plants and their culture, 304
Roberts et al. (1947). A Text Book of Pubjab Agriculture 471-72, Civil & Military, Gazette Lahore
Roseveare, G. M. (1946). The Grass Lands of Latin America. AB. Bull. 36. III
Sen, K. C. (1946). The Nutritive Values of Indian Cattle Foods and the Feeding of Animals,
ICAR Misc. Bull. No. 25, 10-14