NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
ABSTRACTS
I. SHOPE, E. E., GRIFFITHS, H. T., and JENKINS, D. L. (1946). Rinderpest. 1. The cultivation
of rinderpest virus in the developing hen's egg. Amer. J. Vet. Res. 7, 133-134
II. JENKINS, D. L. and SHOPE, R. E. (1946). Rinderpest. VII. The attenuation of rinderpest
virus for cattle by cultivation in embryonating eggs. Ibid. 174-178
III. BAKER, J. A. and GREIG, A. S. (1946). Rinderpest. XII. The successful use of young chicks
to measure the concentration of rinderpest virus propagated in eggs. Ibid. 196-198
IV. COOPER, H. K. (1946). Rinderpest. XVI. Complement fixation test for rinderpest. Ibid.
228-237
I.
F ERTILE eggs were incubated at a temperature between 37°-39°C and ten-day embryonated
eggs were inoculated with 0.2 c.c. of a 10 per cent suspension of rinderpest calf spleen tissue in
broth, the inoculum being dropped through a window cut in the egg shell over the region of the
embryo. The window was sealed and the eggs incubated for three days and then opened for serial
passages. The chorio-allantoic membrane and the amniotic membrane were removed aseptically
and ground well with about 3 c.c. of the amnio-allantoic fluid; of this 0.2 c.c. was used for each
passage. In this manner eleven serial passages were made. It was found that the virus was present
in the membranes but not in the fluids and embryos.
II.
S ERIAL passages were made by yolk sac inoculation as well as over the chorio-allantoic membrane.
The authors observed that attenuation was more regular and uniform in virus passaged by yolk
sac inoculation than in virus passaged by membrane inoculation. From the 67th onwards to the
71st passage the virus was found to be attenuated to a degree such that it could be safely used as a
vaccinating agent, inoculated animals showing only a thermal reaction. Immunity was effective
within 4 to 10 days. Vaccinated animals did not transmit infection to in-contact healthy animals.
III.
A NTISERA from chicks were obtained by inoculating intravenously the avianized rinderpest
virus when the chicks were one day old and by bleeding the chicks 21 days later. The sera were
tested in rabbits for neutralizing capacity against rabbit-adapted virus, the rabbits showing no
thermal reaction if the virus was neutralized. Neutralization tests were successfully conducted
and the chicks were good substitutes for calves when it was desired to determine either the presence
of the avianized form of rinderpest virus or its concentration.
IV.
A MNIO-ALLANTOIC fluid collected from an infected egg constituted the antigen. Inactivations
was achieved by heating the antigen at 60°C for one hour. By the use of this test the authors
demonstrated complement-fixing antibodies in the sera of vaccinated animals from 14 days to 5 or
6 months after vaccination. (C.S.)
MAX KLEIBER (1945). DIETARY DEFICIENCIES AND ENERGY METABOLISM. Nut. Abstracts and
Reviews 15(2), 207-222
M OST dietary deficiencies affect the efficiency of energy utilization. This effect is a measurable
quantity and hence a better index of the economic importance of a deficiency rather than
an ill-defined pathological condition in which a deficiency finally manifests itself.
109
K
June 1948.]
Abstract
113
From the results of several tests this solution was found to have excellent possibilities for use as
a spray in the control of cattle ticks. It was not poisonous and did not produce any irritation. For
general eradication of ticks in an infested area each animal may be sprayed with 80 to 150 c.c. per
head of the combined solution every 14 days. It effected a 85 to 99 per cent mortaility of ticks
within 7 days after the application of the spray. If desired, the combined solution may be used with
the same effect diluted with equal quantity of water. The solution could be applied on animals by
use of hand or knap sack sprayers and power sprayers. It is economic and easier to apply and acts
more rapidly in complete eradication of ticks than the control methods hitherto used in tropics. It
averts danger of losses due to overheating, mechanical-injuries and poisoning.
The D.D.T. rotenone combination is superior to the use of either ingredient alone. It works
well under both dry and wet tropical conditions and even a continuous rainfall of eight hours following
the applications of the spray did not reduce its efficacy very much. A fine penetrating spray was
found most efficient and the results depended very much on the spray technique. The progressive
killing action of the combined solution lasted as long as seven days. (P.B.M.)
MGIPC—M—III-1-4—5-11-48—520
SEPTEMBER, 1948 ]
JOHN
B.
POLDING
119
the last decade. Similar results have been obtained in the past by an examination of private gow¬
shalas of this province.
Farm stock 2—Cross-bred. In the cross-bred herds of Government, military and private farms
of this tract the abortion rate, with one or two exceptions, averages between 2½ per cent and 3 per
cent per annum. Moreover, until the beginning of the wartime expansion at least, there is evidence
to show that, co-incident with improvement in animal husbandry, the abortion rate was slowly de-
creasing. It is noticeable, however, that the endemic abortion rate is slightly higher in farms situated
in, or close to, the Himalaya.
The incidence of Brucella reactors in 212 non-aborting cows taken at random from eight herds
of this tract in which abortion is endemic, was approximately 20 per cent; in 118 aborting cows
from the same herds, it was 51 per cent and, in view of the deficiencies of the Brucella test, it is safe
to conclude that some 75 per cent, or more, of all abortions are due to Brucellosis. In this region,
however, there are three exceptionl herds excluded from the above calculations. Here, exacerba-
tions of Brucellosis have been occurring for the last few years and some rates are given in Tables
II-IV.
TABLE II
Abortions at farm I
Year
1940
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1941
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1942 . . . . . . . . . . . .
Herd
strength
129
134
118
No. of
abortions
13
16
7
Percentage
of abortions
10.0
11.9
5.9
Mean =9.0
TABLE III
Abortions at farm 11
Year
1940 . . . . . . . . . . . .
1941
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1942 . . . . . . . . . . . .
Herd
strength
137
124
96
No. of
abortions
17
6
19
Percentage
of abortions
12
5
19
Mean = 12.0
About 50 per cent of the total stock of the above herd were infected with Brucellosis and in one
test 82 per cent of aborting animals were found positive.
TABLE IV
Abortions at farm III
Year
1939 . . . . . . . . . . . .
1940 . . . . . . . . . . . .
1941 . . . . . . . . . . . .
1942 . . . . . . . . . . . .
Herd
strength
26
30
32
36
No. of
abortions
3
3
2
4
Percentage
of abortions
11.6
9.6
6.2
11.1
Mean =9.6
It is clear from these results that endemic Brucellosis may flare up into an epidemic and that
the consequent abortion rate, for a year or two at least, can be as high as 12 per cent of breeding stock.
120
Contagious Abortion of Cattle, Sheep and Goats [ VOL. XVIII, PART III
Farm stock 3 Buffaloes.—Many of the organized farms just discussed carry herds of buffalo,
as well as cows, and Brucellosis appears to be endemic in these animals also. In the eight mildly
endemic farms mentioned in the last sub-head, the abortion rate in buffaloes worked out at about
1 per cent per year, whilst Brucella tests of 162 healthy buffaloes revealed five (3 per cent) reactors
and of 36 aborting buffaloes eight (22 per cent) were positive. This remarkably low occurrence of
Brucella reactors will be discussed on page 153.
As in cross-breds, so in buffaloes this region offers instances of severe epidemic abortion. Two
occurred in farms I and II of the last sub-head, while the third is an entirely separate case. The
records of these outbreaks are shown in Tables V-VII.
TABLE V
Abortions at farm I (buffaloes)
Year
1940
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1941
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1942
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Herd
strength
178
232
397
Total
abortions
3
9
12
Percentage
of abortions
1.7
3.8
3.0
Mean = 2.8
It is to be noted that several Brucella strains were isolated from the buffaloes of this farm during
the period 1940-42.
TABLE VI
Abortions at farm II (buffaloes)
Year
1940
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1941
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1942
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Herd
strength
225
327
432
Total
abortions
6
10
52
Percentage
of abortions
2.5
3.0
12.0
Mean = 5.8
In this herd, about 48 per cent of the total buffalo stock was Brucella positive in 1940, whilst
tests of 32 recently aborting buffaloes in 1942 revealed but 15 (48 per cent) positive. If, however,
doubtful reactors were to be included this figure would rise to 70 per cent.
TABLE VII
Abortions at farm IV (buffaloes)
Year
1940
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1941
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1942
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Herd
strength
(average)
300
300
300
Total
abortions
17
9
3
Percentage
of abortions
5.7
3.0
1.0
Mean = 3.2
SEPTEMBER, 1948 ]
JOHN
B.
POLDING
123
It must be remarked that most of the positive sera collected in Madras reacted to a high titre
and one or two reached to the unusual orders of 1 in 10 and 20 thousand.
Although the diagnostic value of the serum agglutination test for Brucellosis is discussed fully
in the appropriate place, it might not be out of place in view of the peculiarities of village survey
and the large number of positive reactors obtained in this region, to give here a Table showing the
incidence of reactors in relation to the clinical history of the animal, as alleged by the village spokes-
man. Table (VIII).
TABLE VIII
The relation between Brucella reactors and disease in south-Indian village cattle
Serum reaction
Positive
.
.
.
.
.
Doubtful
.
.
.
.
.
Negative
.
.
.
.
.
TOTAL .
Abortion
113
14
59
186
Synovial
enlarge-
ments
38
7
39
84
Retention
of the
placenta
1
4
9
14
Sterility
18
8
92
118
Healthy
32
32
274
338
Totals
202
65
473
740
Percentage of aborters positive . . . . . .
Percentage of synovial enlargement cases positive . . .
Percentage of retention of placenta cases positive . . .
Percentage of steriles positive . . . . . .
Percentage of healthies positive . . . . . .
66 per cent
49 per cent
10 per cent
16 per cent
10 per cent
Doubtful reactors being ignored.
Such a Table is of course a very rough guide, as conditions vary greatly from village to village.
For example, whenever numerous abortions were reported in a small village, several positive reactors
were nearly always found amongst them ; but when only one or two aborters were to be found these
animals would often be negative and such isolated cases make up a large number of the 59 negatives
shown in the Table. It would appear that synovial enlargements are more often than not connected
with Brucellosis, as many of the negative animals included in the Table had passed the active stage
of fluid enlargement and had reached the stage of induration, when animals are less likely to react.
The number of villages considered in the foregoing review was approximately 70.
Reports of abortions in sheep and goats are very unusual throughout the whole of this region
and the over-all incidence of Brucella reactors in these animals was 3.1 per cent, the greatest incidence
being found around Nellore and in Orissa. At Vizagapattam, of 892 sheep and goats, but 15 (less
than 2 per cent) were positive.
Farm stock. In the indigenous stock of Government and jail herds Brucellosis was as a rule
absent. One exception was a government farm on the east coast, where abortions in cows and
buffaloes occasionally occur ; seven out of 55 animals were positive to the Brucella test. At one
time there was an infected military herd of cross-bred cattle near Conoor, which has since been dis-
persed. The remnants of this herd are still to be found at Bangalore, but the disease does not appear
to have spread from them to co-habiting indigenous cattle. A private herd of mixed European and
indigenous cattle at Mysore is also infected.
B
SEPTEMBER, 1948]
JOHN
B.
POLDING
125
SECTION II (EPIDEMIOLOGY).—COMPARATIVE SUSCEPTIBILITY
Cows
To compare the very rare and well cared-for European cattle of India with the more plentiful
cross-bred or the superabundant zebu would be inequitable and in any case there are insufficient
records so to do. Therefore, unless otherwise stated, European and not Indian figures relating to
European-blooded cattle are given in the Tables to follow.
European-zebu cross-breds also form a class apart, in as much as almost all occur on military
farms, where they are benefitted by a scientific husbandry, including an excellent order of housing
and hygiene. In one way, this is a convenience because all can be placed in a single class, but in
another, it is a disadvantage, as it is not possible to estimate their susceptibility when ill-nourished
and badly housed; they must, therefore, be compared cautiously with certain classes of zebu. It
is to be noted also that most cross-breds co-habit * with zebu or buffaloes, or both.
Recorded indigenous cows fall into one very large and one quite small group ; so that here again
comparisons are statistically unfavourable. The larger group consists of zebu living alone or co-
habiting with other indigenous species. The smaller group is composed of zebu co-habiting with
European crosses. The groups are so distinguished because there is evidence to show that the former
acquires Brucellosis less readily than the latter.
A collection of data concerning the comparative susceptibility of the above classes appears in
Tables IX-XIV. In the main, figures have been collected from herds scattered throughout India
and because, as a rule, not more than one visit to each farm was possible, they are derived from a
single random enquiry only.
As far as comparative susceptibility is concerned, Tables XI and XII are not specially informa-
tive ; they are included merely for reference. Tables IX and X, on the other hand, suggest that, in
comparison with European experience, cross-bred are nearly as susceptible as pure Europeans, but
that the non-cohabiting zebu is much more resistant. As might be inferred from their greater
exposure to infection, co-habiting zebu appear to be more resistant than cross-breds, but less so than
zebu living alone.
These conclusions are supported by additional data in Tables XIII and XIV.
TABLE IX
The mean incidence of abortion amongst various classes of cow stock
Class
European-zebu crosses . . . .
Indian zebu, co-habiting with crosses
.
.
.
.
Indian zebu, not co-habiting with crosses
.
.
.
.
No. of
herds
observed
15
13
11
Population
observed
1337
164
4495
No. of
†aborters
observed
273
12
167
Incidence
per cen
20.4
7.3
3.7
* This term is used throughout to mean ' occupy the same premises'.
† Aborters=animals with history of abortion at the time of a single random observation.
B 2
126
Contagious Abortion of Cattle, Sheep and Goats [VOL. XVIII, PART III
TABLE X
The occurrence of repeated abortion amongst various classes of cows
Class
European
.
.
.
.
.
European-zebu, crosses . . .
Indian-zebu, co-habiting with crosses .
Indian-zebu, not co-habiting with
crosses
Population
observed
. .
309
8
134
Abortion
Once
Per cent
68.70
71.2
75.0
94
Twice
Per cent
. .
25.2
12
5
Thrice
Per cent
. .
3.2
1.2
1
Four
times
Per cent
. .
0.4
. .
. .
Mean expectation
of calf loss
(a) *Per
aborting
cow
. .
1.3
1.3
1.07
(b) †Per
lifetime
of 100
random
stock
. .
26.5
9.5
3.9
* Calculated from actual recurrence of abortions in the populations observed.
† The figure obtained in* multiplied by the average incidence of abortion per cent.
TABLE XI
The pregnancy at which abortions occur in various classes of cows
Class
European-zebu
crosses.
Non-co-habiting zebu
Pregnancy
1
34
46
2
27
26
3
12
13
4
9
9
5
8
3
6
2
2
7
8
9
10
11
less than 1 per cent
less than 1 per cent
12
Popula-
tion
observed
228
180
Figures=abortions per cent, occurring at the pregnancy shown.
TABLE XII
The age at which cow-foetus are aborted
Class
European
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
European-zebu crosses . . . . . . . . . . .
Population
observed
95
102
Age of foetus in months
3
5
4
4
6
8
5
14
13
6
15
22
7
24
26
8
31
29
Figures=percentage abortions occurring at the months shown.
SEPTEMBER, 1948]
JOHN
B.
POLDING
127
TABLE XIII
* The relation between the occurrence of cross-bred animals and the incidence of Brucellosis in seven
herds of cattle
Farm
I
.
.
.
.
.
.
II . . . . . .
III . . . . . .
IV
.
.
.
.
.
.
V . . . . . .
VI
.
.
.
.
.
.
Means .
Cross-breds
90
82
80
42
17
1
52
Brucella
reactors
50
45
39
11
24
13
20
Incidence per cent of
Aborters†
all breeds
42
25
30
11
10
10
21
Aborters
cross-breds
45
27
33
9
4
..
20
Aborters
country-breds
20
16
17
12
11
10
14
* Taken from records of the Imperial Veterinary Research Institute on contagious abortion from 1925 to 1935.
†The term ' aborters ' refers to animals with a history of abortion which are present in a herd at the time of a single
random observation.
TABLE XIV
The abortion rate in various grades of cross-breds *
Class of animal
Fresian (Indian records) . . . . . .
7/8 grade . . . . . .
3/4 „
.
.
.
.
.
.
5/8 „ . . . . . .
1/2 „ . . . . . .
1/4 „ . . . . . .
Indigenous . . . . . .
Population
18†
108†
329
152
464
134
275
Number of
aborters
2†
8†
21
9
14
2
4
Abortions
Per cent
11.1
7.3
6.4
5.8
3.0
1.5
1.4
Mean annual abortion rate total population=3.3 per cent.
* Taken from the annual reports of the Northern circle of Military Dairy Farms, 1935 to 1938, by kind permission
of the Director of Military Farms, General Headquarters, Quartermaster General's Branch, Simla.
† Mean of three years ; the remaining figures mean of 4 years.
An attempt has been made to give some comparative measure of susceptibility and in this
connection column 8 of Table X requires some explanation. The figures given here are an expres-
sion of the mean expectation of loss of calves due to abortion, during the working lifetime of 100
SEPTEMBER, 1948]
JOHN
B.
POLDING
129
TABLE XVI
The incidence of repeated abortions during an exceptional Brucella epidemic amongst indigenous cows
—
Actual . . . . . . . .
Per cent . . . . . . . .
Numbers stated to have
aborted
Once
19
49
twice
16
40
thrice
5
12
Mean expectation
of calf loss
Per
aborting
cow
..
1.65
Per
lifetime
of 100
random
animals
..
41.25
In the absence of records, it is impossible to give figures for the comparative susceptibility of
village cows, but it seems probable that they do not differ much from other zebu.
Buffaloes
Abortion figures for buffaloes are given in Tables XVII to XXII and their susceptibility index
works out at 1.5. Thus, on this calculation, they are rather more susceptible than non-cohabiting
zebu (index=1.0), while they are nearly twice as resistant as co-habiting zebu and over 4 times as
resistant as crosses. It is to be noted, however, that the buffaloes to which these figures relate were,
in fact, occupying the same farm, if not always the same sheds, as cross-bred cows ; they are, in effect,
' co-habiting ' buffaloes and it is to be supposed, therefore, that the non-cohabiting buffalo is in
reality less susceptible than the non-cohabiting zebu.
TABLE XVII
The mean incidence of abortion amongst buffaloes
—
Buffaloes . . . . . . . .
Observed
population
1,880
No. of
farms
15
Incidence of aborters
present at a single
random observation
Actual
110
Per cent
5
TABLE XVIII
The occurrence of repeated abortion amongst buffaloes
—
Actual . . . . . . . .
Per cent . . . . . . . .
Observed
population
205
100
Abortion occurring
Once
189
92
Twice
16
8
Thrice
..
..
Mean expectation
of calf loss
Per
aborter
1.08
Per
lifetime
of 100
random
animals
5.4
130
Contagious Abortion of Cattle, Sheep and Goats [VOL. XVIII, PART HI
TABLE XIX
The pregnancies * at which abortions most commonly occur in buffaloes
Pregnancy
Actual
.
.
.
.
.
Per cent . . . .
1
21
16
2
51
39
3
23
17
4
14
10
5
9
6
6
9
6
7
3
2
8
9
10
Less than 1 per cent
Less than 1 per cent
Population
observed
130
100
* As almost all farm-buffaloes are purchased as adults, figures of this Table refer to pregnancies recorded on
the farm. Earlier pregnancies in villages may have occurred.
SB 10
TABLE XX
The age at which buffalo-foetus are aborted
—
Actual . . . . . . . . .
Per cent . . . . . . . . .
Age of foetus in months
3
3
3
4
3
3
5
8
8
6
14
14
7
22
22
8
26
26
9
27
27
Population
observed
103
100
TABLE XXI
The annual abortion rate during an exceptional endemic among buffaloes
Year
1936
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1937
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1938
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1939
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1940
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1941
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Means .
Total
pregnancies
completed
117
127
138
120
155
174
138
Total
abortions
34
22
37
20
39
28
30
Pregnancies
abortions
per cent
29
17
27
17
25
16
21
TABLE XXII
The age at which foetus were aborted in an exceptional epidemic among buffaloes
—
Actual . . .
Per cent . . .
Age of foetus in months
3
10
31.3
4
6
18.1
5
3
9.4
6
7
21.9
7
1
3.1
8
4
12.5
9
1
3.1
Observed
population
32
100
12 per cent of this herd aborted within 6 months.
SEPTEMBER, 1948]
JOHN
B.
POLDING
133
1 : 1.75 : 2.75 : 3.25 : 3.5 for the months five to nine respectively. In each case, therefore, the
aggregate of animals pregnant in each month was multiplied by its respective liability factor,
and the sum of these calculations was taken to be the corrected number of susceptible animals
[Table (XXIII) column 8].
TABLE XXIII
The monthly incidence of abortion in the buffaloes of farm (3)
Month
January . . .
February . . .
March
.
.
.
April . . .
May
.
.
.
June
.
.
.
July
.
.
.
August
.
.
.
September . . .
October . . .
November . . .
December . . .
Term of pregnancy in months and the abortion
liability ratio for each month
9
(3.5)
12
7
11
10
10
46
131
134
116
80
40
21
8
(8.25)
7
11
10
10
46
131
134
116
80
40
21
12
7
(2.75)
11
10
10
46
131
134
116
80
40
21
12
7
6
(1.75)
10
10
46
131
134
116
80
40
21
12
7
11
5
(1.0)
10
46
131
134
116
80
40
21
12
7
11
10
No. of
abortions
aggregate
for 5 years
2
3
4
10
14
17
14
27
36
21
5
1
No. of
sus-
ceptible
animals
124
154
314
567
909
1,021
1,377
1,184
861
517
269
162
Ratio of
column
7 to 8
per cent
1.6
1.9
1.2
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.1
2.3
4.2
4.1
1.8
0.6
Figures in columns 2 to 6=the number of animals pregnant at the term shown, in aggregate for 5 years.
Figures in column 8=the sum of the figures in columns 2 to 6, after application of the abortion liability ratio, plus
the figures in column 7.
The result of this calculation shows that the abortion rate for the months November to July
varied little about a mean figure of 1.4. It is further to be noticed that, although the population of
susceptible animals steadily increases from January to July, there is no corresponding increase in the
abortion rate. In August, however, whilst the number of susceptible animals commences to decrease
the abortion rate suddenly doubles and in September and October it is just thrice the mean for the
normal months of the year. Thereafter, the rate returns to normal. Now as the period of transmis-
sion and incubation of the disease is likely to occupy a period of one to two months, the critical
period of increased infection rate causing the increased abortion rate during August, September
and October, commences in mid-June and lasts up to August. But in this period the abortion rate
and, therefore, presumably the bacterial elimination rate, is constant, whilst the corrected number
of susceptible animals does not vary greatly round a mean of 1200 ; further the absolute number of
abortions in July is the same as in May. In other words donor and receptor influences do not vary
sufficiently during this period to account for the large increase of abortions in August, September
and October, and this increase, must be explained by a change in environment which affects bacterial
survival and transmission. But from June until August the climate changes completely from diurnal
sunlight to total sunlessness and continuous rainfall and this suggests that either the absence of
sunlight, or the presence of moisture, or both, favours the spread of Brucellosis in buffaloes.
c2
SEPTEMBER,
1948]
JOHN
B.
POLDING
137
is disseminated by the sale of dry cattle to the surrounding country, (ii) in south-Indian villages;
here, cattle movements from south to north are probably insufficient to permit a grave extension of
infection, but a possible route has been suggested on page 145.
FIG. 1.The death rate of Brucella stored at 42°C. over CaCl 2 , after having been dried on the 'chryochem' apparatus