NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
66
ABSTRACTS
parturition may also affect the reacting capacity till four to six weeks. Cases of
tuberculous animals not reacting and non tuberculous animals reacting have been
dealt with. The first category includes open or spreader cases and N.V.L. reactors
in the second category. The accuracy in diagnosis has not been shown to be
increased with the complement fixation test used in conjunction. The C.S.I.R
supplementary short thermal tuberculin test is a very useful addition, as the number
of N.V.L. reactors on presumably tuberculosis free herds, was lower. Also the
Stormont test was far more accurate than the single intradermal and comparative
single intradermal tests, as judged from data on 300 heads of cattle tested. (M.S.J.)
Prophylactic and Therapeutic Use of Sulfaquinoxaline against Coccidia of Chickens
(Eimeria tenella and Eimeria necatrix) under field conditions. GRUMBLES,
L. C., DELAPLANE, K. P. and HIGGINS, T. C. (1948). Poult. Sci. XXVII, (4),
411.
T HE experiment was done to study the efficacy of sulfaquinoxaline both in the
prophylactic and therapeutic treatment of young growing chickens under field
conditions. The diagnosis of coccidiosis was based on gross lesions; caecal cocci-
diosis indicated by caecal lesions being attributed to the species E. tenella, and.
intestinal coccidiosis, marked by lesions along the wall of the intestine, being attributed
to E. necatrix, the most prevalent species in this form of coccidiosis.
In the prophylactic treatment, mash containing 0.05 per cent sulfaquinoxaline
was fed with various intermittent feeding schedules e.g. 2—3, 1—3, 1—4, 4—4, etc.
i.e. two days feeding of medicated mash in five days and so on. It has been found
that two to three feeding schedule gives good results, the loss due to coccidiosis in
17,699 chickens being only 1.73 per cent compared to 17.43 per cent in the untreated
controls. In some cases, the drug was administered after the outbreaks occured,
bringing them under control, demonstrating the therapeutic value of the drug.
No evidence of adverse symptoms of the drug when used at 0.05 per cent level
in the feed were observed either on growth, or on the tissues of chickens, as judged
by histological examination. (D.P.)
The Effect of Vitamin A Deficiency on Semen Quality and the Effect of Testosterone
and Pregnant Mare Serum on Vitamin A Deficient Rams. LINDLEY, C. E.,
BRUGMAN, H. H., CUNHA, T. J. and WARWICK, E. J. (1949). J. Anim. Sci., 8,
590-602.
T HIRTYFIVE rams (31 Hampshire, 2 Hampshire-Columbia Cross, and 2
Columbia) between three to five months of age were fed on a basal ration of
natural feedstuffs almost devoid of carotene but having ample digestible nutrients,
with a view to studying the effect of vitamin A deficiency on the rate of body growth
haemoglobin content of blood, blood plasma vitamin A and C levels, histological
characteristics of pituitary glands and testicles, and semen production. Thirty
rams out of these received vitamin and hormone supplements in the form of (1)
vitamin A (2) ten members of the vitamin B-Complex (3) testosterone propionate
or (4) pregnant mare serum in various lots.
68
ABSTRACTS
In the tropics, the animals should be able to walk long distances with ease to
reach their feed and watering places as owing to irregular rainfall, high temperature,
natural grazing is deficient. Effective and adequate nutrition afford a partial
solution to the problem of adaptation in the tropics. Breeds developed in cool
temperature regions become hyperthermic as a result of lack of adaptability to
higher environmental temperatures. Animals which can thrive well on coarse
fodder should be preferred. The reproductive ability of a poorly adapted animal
is low and selection on a fecundity basis is an effective method of breeding for adap-
tability. Afrikaner bulls gave an average serviceable life of eight years and ten
months while in the bulls of the exotic beef breeds it was only three years and
three months.
With reference to heart water disease the author opines that animals well adopted
to the environment being tick-resistant remain comparatively free from the disease
and even when they are affected they recover and the mortality rate is low in them.
Regarding eye diseases, it was observed that in herds none of the pigmented eyes
were sore, while 7.6 per cent of the slightly pigmented and 38.5 per cent of the non-
pigmented eyes were affected. The author thinks that epithelioma of the eyelids is
due to the effect of solar radiation and occurs in the conjunctiva and the hairless
unpigmented rim of the eyelids. (M.P.J.)
MGIPC—M—40 A.R.—30.11.51—850.
ORIGINAL ARTICLES
STUDIES ON GESTATION PERIODS IN THARPARKAR
CATTLE
By A. C. CHAUDHURI, B.Sc., PH.D. (EDIN.), Professor of Hygiene, Dietetics and
Animal Husbandry, C. SINHA, I.D.D., Assistant in Professor, Bihar Veterinary
College, Patna.
(Received for publication on 19 May 1949)
(With two text—figures)
It is quite well known that the gestation period varies considerably in different
species of animal and even to some extent, in individuals of the same species
or breed. According to Craig the differences in the duration of pregnancy
in individuals of the same breed or species may be partly accounted for by variations
in the interval between copulation and fecundation of the ovum. The spermato-
zoon may meet the ovum in different portions of the Fallopian tubes or uterus,
and that would depend to some extend on the relation between copulation and ovu-
lation. This variation cannot extent to more than a few days. In some animals
the foetus may remain for a number of days in the uterus after it is ready for birth
without inconvenience to the mother or itself, or it may be born several days before
the ordinary period without compromising its safety.
Out of 1,062 calvings in cattle, Craig found the mean gestation period to be
283 days. According to authorities as cited by Craig, Colin found the average
gestation period varying from 280 to 285 days. Dieterichs recorded the average
gestation period to be 286 days. He found the shortest period as 210 days and the
longest period as 353 days. Baumeister and Rueff found the shortest period as
240 days; the longest period as 330 days; and the average period as 285 days. The
average gestation period of the Bernese Simmenthaler breeds at Hohenheim was
280½ days while the average for the male calves it was 283 days and that for the
female calves it was 278 days. Earl Spencer found an average period of 284 to
285 days out of 760 observations made. Whilnelms found the average gestation
period of the Hungarian cows to be ten days longer than that of the Dutch cows.
From the observations made by different authorities it is evident that there
is a certain amount of variations in the average as well as in the minimum and
maximum gestation periods in cattle. These variations are probably due to the
different breeds of cattle on which the observations were made; the climatic and
other environmental conditions of the country where the observations were made
and probably to certain extent on the number of animals on which the observa-
tions were made.
As no proper records of mean gestation period are available of Indian cattle,
it is with the object of collecting some data of the mean gestation period of Indian
cattle and of studying the variations, if any, that the present study was undertaken.
69
70 STUDIES ON GESTATION PERIODS IN THARPARKAR CATTLE [Vol. XXI, Part II,
MATERIAL
The material used for this study is the herd records of the Tharparkar Cattle
at the Government Cattle Farm, Patna.
The foundation stock of Tharparkar Cattle at the Government Cattle Farm,
Patna, was built up by purchase of selected Tharparkar cows from Karachi and
breeding bulls were obtained from the farm of the Government of India at Karnal.
The animals are fairly uniform in size and type. Any progeny retained in the
herd is selected for type, size and quality. The management and feeding is more
or less the same since the farm was started.
As the climatic conditions appear to have certain effect on the physiological
activities of the animals hence a brief account of the climatic conditions of Patna
is recorded so that it may be known from under what climatic conditions the materials
came.
In Patna district the cold weather commences early in November and comes
to an end in the middle of March. The hot weather then sets in and lasts till about
the middle of June. Soon after this the rainy season commences and continues
till the end of September; the commencement of the monsoon may be as early as
the last week of May or as late as the first or second week of July. The climate
in the cold weather is pleasant. In the hot weather, the heat is aggravated by
hot porching winds and clouds of dust. In the rains the heat is moist and ener-
vating and the nights are oppressive.
Owing to the hot and dry Westerly winds which prevail in March and April,
humidity is much lower at this season than at any other time of the year. With
the approach of the monsoon season, the air slowly becomes more charged with
moisture.
From October until May the prevailing direction of wind is from the West
with the commencement of the Monsoon Easterly winds set in. The average annual
rainfall is 46.69 inches.
METHODS
The first step in this study was to determine the mean gestation period. In
order to do this all the available gestation periods of different cows were collected
from the herd records. The gestation periods were calculated in days from the
date of the last service to the date of parturition; the number of days in each month
was taken into account. All cases of abortion have been excluded from this study.
The study is based on 1146 gestation periods spread over 14 years. After the com-
pilation of the initial records of gestation periods it was found that the shortest
gestation period recorded is 231 days and the longest period is 402 days.
In Table I the total number of calvings under different gestation periods is
given. From Table I it will be seen that the highest number of gestation periods
come under 285 days and about 81 per cent of the gestation periods come between
275 and 298 days.
June, l951]
A.
C.
CHAUDHURI
AND
C.
SINHA
71
TABLE I
Number of calvings under different gestation periods
Gesta-
tion
period
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
Number
of
calvings
1
..
..
..
..
2
..
..
..
..
..
2
..
..
3
3
..
1
1
1
2
1
..
1
..
..
..
1
..
..
Gesta-
tion
period
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
Number
of
calvings
2
4
2
2
2
1
2
3
2
..
2
..
6
7
14
10
9
19
22
32
43
42
59
57
85
75
69
68
71
60
Gesta-
tion
period
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
Number
of
calvings
41
42
44
20
15
12
13
10
7
6
6
6
7
7
4
6
2
4
6
3
2
6
7
2
..
3
4
2
4
3
Gesta-
tion
period
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
Number
of
calvings
2
2
2
2
3
..
1
3
2
5
2
2
..
2
2
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
..
1
..
2
3
2
1
Gesta-
tion
period
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
Number
of
calvings
2
..
1
1
..
..
..
..
1
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
1
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
1
1
..
Gesta-
tion
period
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
380
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
..
..
..
..
..
Number
of
calvings
..
1
1
..
1
1
..
..
..
..
..
1
..
..
..
1
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
Mean gestation period. In order to determine the mean gestation period, all
the calvings have been grouped according to gestation periods of seven days class
intervals which has been tabulated in Table II. In compiling this table any calving
showing the days of pregnancy less than a particular class intervals was included
in the previous group. The mean gestation period was worked out from this table
along with the standard deviation and probable error.
72
STUDIES ON GESTATION PERIODS IN THARPARKAR CATTLE [Vol. XXI, Part II,
Thus the mean gestation period of 1146 calvings of 594 male and 552 female
calves spread over 14 years is 287.15±34 days.
TABLE II
Number of calvings according to class intervals of seven days
Gestation periods of class
intervals of 7 days
231
238
245
252
259
266
273
280
287
294
301
308
315
322
329
336
343
350
357
364
371
378
385
392
399
Total
Number of
male calves
2
..
7
2
8
5
25
172
229
61
19
17
12
6
10
8
5
2
1
..
..
2
..
..
1
594
Number of
female calves
1
2
4
1
4
5
62
221
166
22
19
13
6
7
5
1
4
3
..
1
..
2
1
2
..
552
Total number of both
male and female calves
3
2
11
3
12
10
87
393
395
83
38
30
18
13
15
9
9
5
1
1
..
4
1
2
1
1,146
June, 1951]
A. C. CHAUDHURI AND C. SINHA
73
TABLE III
Gestation period in case of male and female calves born
Mean gestation period in all calves
Mean gestation period in male calves
Mean gestation period in female calves
287.15 ± .34 days
288.50 ± .46 days
285.80 ± .48 days
From Table III it is apparent that the mean gestation period when male calves
are born is higher than that when female calves are born. The difference is 2.7 ± .65.
As the difference is more than three times its own probable error hence the difference
is considered significant.
Seasonal variation of the mean gestation periods
In order to find out whether the climatic conditions have any effect on the ges-
tation periods, the gestation periods of calves calving in different months of the
year were studied in relation to the mean temperature, rainfall and humidity of
those months.
TABLE IV
Variation of gestation period according to the month of calving with mean temperature
rainfall and humidity
Serial
num-
ber
1
2
3
4
6
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Name of months
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Mean gestation
period in
days
Male
calves
284.41
280.17
287.70
286.72
287.35
292.46
293.16
289.14
287.42
287.84
287.00
290.36
Female
calves
286.30
285.47
283.08
284.48
286.09
285.32
290.22
285.81
285.95
284.76
295.05
288.68
Daily temperature
in °F.
Mean
daily
Maximum
73.0
77.8
89.8
98.9
100.3
96.2
90.7
89.1
89.7
88.6
82.1
74.6
Mean
daily
Minimum
51.1
54.8
64.3
73.5
78.1
79.9
79.9
79.9
78.9
72.8
61.0
52.3
Average
monthly
rainfall in
inches
0.59
0.74
0.42
0.27
1.40
7.14
11.58
13.01
8.60
2.30
0.34
0.22
Mean relative
humidity
per cent
at 8
hours
I.S.T.
74
66
49
47
61
75
84
85
82
72
68
73
at 17
hours
I.S.T.
47
47
28
19
41
60
74
79
73
60
51
52
74
STUDIES ON GESTATION PERIODS IN THARPARKAR CATTLE [Vol. XXI, Part II,
FIG. 1. Average gestation period
June, 1951]
A.
C.
CHAUDHURI
AND
C.
SINHA
75
In Table IV the mean gestation periods of male and female calves born have
been tabulated according to the month of calving along with mean temperature,
rainfall and relative humidity.
In the Fig. 1 prepared from this table it appears there is a tendency for the
gestation period to be lower during the period between the end of winter and begin-
ning of summer and between the end of rainy season and beginning of winter, i.e.,
when the climatic conditions are mild. The duration of the gestation period both
in the case of the male and female calves has a tendency to be longer when calving
is due in rainy season.
From the graph of Fig. 1 it is found that the average gestation period in the
case of female calves born is longest in the month of November and in general the
graph for the female calves differs from that of the male calves on this point. A
reference to the original data reveals the fact that this is due to abnormally longer
gestation period of 343 days in that month in case of 2 female calves born.
Variation of gestation period according to the stage of calving
In order to study whether the age of the cow at the time of calving had any
effect either of shortening or prolonging the gestation periods, the mean gestation
periods were worked out according to the stage of calving and the result tabulated
in Table V.
TABLE V
Variation of gestation period according to the stage of calving
Serial
number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Stage of calving
1st calving
2nd
„
3rd „
4th „
5th
„
6th „
7th „
8th „
9th „
10th „
11th „
12th „
Number of
male
calving
129
104
90
77
64
55
34
20
9
6
1
nil
Gestation period in days
For
male
286.79
287.14
286.30
291.13
289.45
285.88
293.16
289.45
288.54
284.69
273.00
..
For
female
285.32
286.30
284.06
287.56
286.23
285.88
287.91
281.33
275.76
292.25
297.60
287.00
Number of
female
calves
121
107
91
84
49
50
45
16
8
4
2
1
76
STDUIES ON GESTATION PERIODS IN THARPARKAR CATTLE [Vol. XXI, Part II,
FIG. 2. Mean gestation period
June, 1951]
A.
C.
CHAUDHURI
AND
C.
SINHA
77
The mean gestation periods given in Table V have been plotted in the graph
(Fig. 2). From this it appears that there is a tendency of slightly longer gestation
period upto the 7th calving, i.e., about 10 to 12 years of age and after that the ten-
dency is for shorter gestation period.
As the number of calvings available from the 10th calving are very few, the record
from that stage is not significant.
Birth weights of calves in relation to gestation period
In order to see whether longer gestation periods are in any way connected
with higher birth weights, the birth weights of calves were classified according
to the gestation periods. As it was not the practice of recording the birth weights
of calves from the beginning when the farm was started but introduced in later
years; the birth weights of only 171 calves are available. The result has been tabu-
lated in Table VI.
TABLE VI
Birth weights of calves in relation to gestation period
Birth weights
lb.
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Average gestation period of different birth weights
For male calves
280 days
..
..
..
280
„
315
„
306.25 „
287
„
284.25 „
280
„
294.41 „
290.5 „
286.41 „
. .
285
„
..
289.8 „
280
„
297.5 „
..
292.6 „
..
283.5 „
(1)
(7)
(2)
(8)
(3)
(16)
(1)
(18)
(4)
(12)
(7)
(5)
(1)
(4)
(5)
(2)
For female calves
276.5 days
..
273.0
„
..
301.0 „
280.0 „
285.44 „
..
298.84 „
280
„
285.56 „
305.66 „
280
„
..
285.6 „
..
284.66 „
..
297.5 „
..
259
„
..
..
(2)
(3)
(4)
(1)
(9)
(13)
(1)
(16)
(3)
(12)
(5)
(3)
(2)
(1)
The figures within brackets indicate number of calvings
From Table VI it appears that there is no tendency for higher birth weights
to be associated with longer gestation periods. There is no doubt that many factors
such as heredity size of the dam and physiological condition of the dam during
the gestation period have influence on the birth weight of calves, but if longer gesta-
tion period had any influence on the birth weights, then this tendency would have
been noticed.
78
STUDIES ON GESTATION PERIODS IN THARPARKAR CATTLE [Vol. XXI, Part II,
Variation of the birth weights of the calves according to sex
With a view to find out whether there was any difference in birth weights of
male and female calves born at the time of birth, the number of male and female
calves born of different weights in pound have been tabulated in Table VII.
TABLE VII
Birth weights of calves according to sex
Birth weight in lb.
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Number of male calves
1
..
..
..
7
2
8
3
16
1
18
4
12
..
7
..
5
1
4
..
5
..
2
Number of female calves
2
..
3
..
4
1
9
..
13
1
16
3
12
..
5
..
3
. .
2
..
1
..
..
It will be seen from Table VII that the minimum birth weights is 38 lb. and
maximum birth weights is 60 lb. The mean birth weight of male calves is 48.7 lb.,
and that for female calves is 47.5 lb.
June, 1951]
A.
C.
CHAUDHURI
AND
C.
SINHA
79
SUMMARY
In Tharparkar cattle 1146 gestation periods were studied. The mean gestation
period is 287.15± 34 days. The mean gestation period when male calves are born
is 288.50± 46 days. The mean gestation period when female calves are born is
285.80± 48 days.
There is a slight variation in the gestation period according to the season of
calving. The gestation period appears to be slightly affected by the age of the cow
at the time of calving. The mean birth weight of the male calves is slightly more
than that of the female calves.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Our thanks are due to the Deputy Director General of Observation for kindly
supplying necessary information regarding temperature, humidity and rainfall for
Patna district used in this paper.
REFERENCE
Craig, J. F. (1918). Fleming's Veterinary Obstetrics, 105
CERTAIN ASPECTS OF FERTILITY IN THE COW*
By C. KRISHNA RAO, G. M. V. C., B.V.Sc., M.S.(CALIF.), Lecturer in Animal Husban-
dry, Madras Veterinary College
(Received for publication on 7 March 1950)
F OR the breeder of livestock, there is no more important economic problem
than the fertility of his animals. Animals are simply natural machines
utilised by man for turning feed into power, meat, milk, wool and eggs, all these
qualities being very much dependent on their reproductive efficiency. Every
animal that either temporarily or permanently loses its fertility is plainly a liability
to its owner. Dairy cattle that fail to conceive within three to four months follow-
ing their last calving are also apt to be liabilities for at least part of that year. For
maximum breeding efficiency, every dairy cow should give a calf each year. Animals
that do not conceive when young show an increasing tendency towards sterility.
There is undoubtedly a small annual loss in every herd owing to their breeding effi-
ciency not reaching the maximum.
Fertility as applied to the female is its ability to produce viable ova and to
provide a suitable environment for the fertilization and subsequent development
and finally give birth to the fully developed foetus capable of separate existence.
The term fertile is only relative and fertility is a quantitative characteristic, there
being various gradations in fertility. The grades high and low fertility are often
used to describe differences between individuals. A large number of factors are
involved in the problem of fertility and these are very closely interrelated. Age
of the animal, its physical condition, the plane of nutrition, heredity and manage-
ment are by far the most important controlling factors. The fertility of the herd
as a whole is a matter of greater importance than the fertility of any individual
cow. According to Lush [1945] this is something like 1.8 to 2.5 services for concep-
tion in herds of dairy cattle not complicated by the presence of contagious abortion.
This is very well brought out by the study of Miller and Graves [1932] who found
that both heifers and cows which were positive for contagious abortion required
more services per conception than those belonging to the abortion-negative groups.
These workers showed that while abortion-positive cows required 3.03 services per
conception abortion-negative cows required 2.51 services for conception. Similarly
abortion-positive heifers needed 3.92 services per conception as against 3.31 services
for abortion-negative heifers.
It is generally felt that heifers require more services for the first conception than
for the succeeding ones. Eckles [1932] studied the breeding records of 311 two-year
old heifers, 23 of which proved to be non-breeders and of the remaining 288 fertile
* This work was completed in December 1946, when the author was a graduate student in the
Department of Animal Husbandry, University of California. The kind cooperation and encourage-
ment of Dr G. H. Hart, Head of the Department of Animal Husbandry and Prof. F. W. Mead, Asso-
ciate Professor of dairy Husbandry are very deeply appreciated.
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