NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
March, 1949]
A.
W.
ZUBAIRY
AND
N.
K.
AYYAR
57
SUMMARY
Dry bhurra grass is not eaten by cattle. Alkali treatment makes it palatable.
Cattle consume about 1.4 lb. of alkali treated bhurra grass per 100 lb. live weight
when it is supplemented with suitable amount of concentrate; and they maintain
their live weight and remain in positive nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus balances.
The treated grass contains 58.8 per cent of total digestible nutrients and its starch
equivalent is 32.4 per cent. In its nutritive value the alkali treated bhurra grass
compares well with alkali treated wheat and paddy straws.
REFERENCES
Kehar, N. D. (1944). Indian J. Vet. Sci., 14, 1, 40-48
——
(1938). Indian Coun. Agric. Res. Bull 25, Manager of Publications, Delhi
Sen, K. C., Ray, S. C. and Talpatra, S. K. (1942). Indian J. Vet. Sci. Vol. 12, 4, 263-296
INVESTIGATION INTO THE CAUSES OF GENERAL DETERIO-
RATION OF CATTLE IN MALABAR AND SOUTH KANARA
(MADRAS PRESIDENCY)
BY M. S. RAJENDRAN, G.M.V.C., P.G.(Mukt.), P.G.(Anim. Husb.), Lecturer in Animal
Husbandry, Madras Veterinary College
(A Scheme financed by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, from
1.5.1944 to 31.12.1945)
(Received for publication on 8 December 1947)
I T is well known that the cattle on the West Coast of the Madras Presidency
are small and stunted in growth which is attributed to mineral and vitamin
deficiencies, general malnutrition and parasites, etc. An experiment was conducted
to determine the relative importance of each factor, at Pattambi in South Malabar
District.
There, in the West Coast, the annual rainfall ranges from 75 to 150 inches,
with an average of 100 inches at Pattambi. The soil is poor and laterite in nature
and is known to be deficient in lime and phosphates.
There is no distinct breed of cattle in this area, all being non-descript, the
average lactation yield of cow being 500 to 700 lb. with a daily average of about
2 lb. and a maximum daily yield of 5 to 6 lb. Stall feeding is not practised as a
general rule except in case of a few animals which are fed a little rice gruel and rice
straw or in case of milch cattle which get small quantities of concentrates like cotton
seed, oil cake and rice bran during their lactation period.
METHODS AND MATERIAL
Forty-eight bull-calves, about one year old and locally bred, were purchased.
These were divided into four representative groups of twelve each, keeping in view
their size, height, health and vigour so that all the groups were as similar as possible.
These groups were named as A, B, C & D and given a different type of feed and
treatment. Each group was separately photographed in the beginning of the
experiment and thereafter every six months. Their body weights and measure-
ments were kept to see the variation in growth as the result of different feeds and
treatments. Group A was the control group and fed rations somewhat similar
to that given to the animals of this type normally in this area.
59
N
60
INVESTIGATIONS INTO CAUSES OF GENL. DETERIORATION OF CATTLE [Vol. XIX, Part I,
RATION
—
1 to 11 years
1½ years to 2 years S months
.
.
.
.
.
Boiled rice
(Uncooked)
lb.
½
1
Fodder
(paddy-
straw)
lb.
4
6
Salt
dr.
2
2
The quantity of uncooked par-boiled rice shown above was taken and then cooked before
administration.
In Group B. the animals were fed on the same ration as Group A, but
were dewormed every two months to find the effect of deworming alone on their
condition. In Group C. in addition to the food and treatment given to Group B,
a mineral mixture and common salt were administered to see the combined effect
of deworming and feeding of minerals. Three-quarters of an ounce of salt and
one ounce of mineral mixture consisting of sterilised bone meal and fine shellmeal
in equal proportions were fed to animals 1 to 1½ years and 1 ounce of salt and 1½
ounces of mineral mixture for animals 1½ years to 2 years 8 months old.
The animals in Group D were fed with a balanced ration shown below and
were dewormed every 2 months to see the effects of balanced feeding.
Age of animals
1 to 1½ years .
1½ years to 2
years.
2 years to 2 years
8 months.
Oil Cake
(ground-
nut)
lb.
½
¾
1
Cotton
seed
lb.
½
3/4
1
Rice bran
lb.
½
3/4
1
Common
salt
oz
½
1
1
Mineral
mixture
oz.
1
1
1
Paddy-
straw
lb.
8
8
10
Shark-
liver oil
oz.
½
1
1
Groundnut cake was used throughout.
All the groups were allowed exercise for about three hours a day with
chances of grazing according to the availability of grass.
The food given to the animals was analysed periodically by the Agricultural
Chemist. Agricultural College, Coimbatore, to ensure the same composition through-
out the experiment.
The condition of the calves at the commencement of the experiment was very
poor. Their coats were very rough and the calves had extensive patches of ring-
worm.
62 INVESTIGATIONS INTO CAUSES OF GENL. DETERIORATION OF CATTLE [Vol. XIX, Part I,
In all the groups except the first which was left untreated as a control, treatment
for worms was repeated every three weeks for the first two months and afterwards
every two months.
For the first four months, only one per cent solution of copper sulphate in
doses of 100 c.c. was given and was found to be effective in the removal of stomach
worms. Later on, copper sulphate in combination with nicotine sulphate was given
in the following increasing doses, the interval between treatments being two months.
On 21-9-1944
Copper sulphate
Nicotine sulphate
Aqua ad.
M. Ft. mist.
Cupri sulphas
Nicotine sulphate
Aqua ad.
M. Ft. mist.
Cupri sulphas
Nicotine sulphate
Aqua ad.
M. Ft, mist.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
Sig/one ounce to each caif
On 23-11-1944
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
Sig/one and a half ounce to each calf
From 19-1-1945 onwards
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
Sig/three ounces to each calf
gm.
c.c.
oz.
gm.
c.c.
oz.
gm.
c.c.
07.
10.5
6.6
33.0
24.75
6.6
49.5
33.0
11.0
99.0
Group A (Control group)
All the animals in this group, without exception, lost or gained weight depending
on the availability of green grass in the grazing land.
Three animals in this group died during the course of the experiment, one due
to Haemonchosis. In another the clinical symptoms and post-mortem appearances
were indicative of parasitic gastritis and the dung taken before death and at post-
mortem examination revealed eggs of strongyles but no worms were found. Death
in the 3rd case was due to mechanical bronchitis.
From the general appearances of the animals. the post-mortem findings, as
well as from the statement of daily weights recorded, it may be observed that the
animals in this group were not any more backward than those in Group B, although
the latter group was subjected to periodical deworming.
Group B
This group differed from Group A in that the animals in it were dewormed
periodically, while in the previous one they were not treated at all.
March, 1949]
M.S.
RAJENDRAN
63
TABLE I
Statement showing the average live weights with percentages of increase every month
of the different groups of animals in the scheme for the improvement of cattle in
Malabar and South Kanara (Madras Province) for the period from 1 May 1944 to
31 December 1945
Group
(1)
A1
2
B 1
2
C1
2
D 1
2
May
(2)
81.4
..
79.5
..
82.1
76.9
..
June
1944
(3)
81.6
+0.2
79.0
+0.1
83.1
+1.2
86.5
+12.5
July
1944
(4)
84.0
+3.7
83.0
+4.3
87.0
+4.7
99.4
+14.9
August
1944
(5)
92.9
+9.8
91.9
+10.7
90.8
+11.3
111.9
+12.0
Septem-
ber
1944
(6)
105.6
+13.7
104.2
+13.4
109.9
+13.5
128.4
+14.7
October
1944
(7)
117.2
+11.0
116.0
+11.3
120.7
+9.8
141.6
+10.3
Novem-
ber
1944
(8)
130.5
+11.3
129.8
+11.9
134.6
+11.4
158.3
+11.8
Decem-
ber
1944
(9)
138.6
+6.2
137.8
+6.2
142.9
+6.3
172.8
+9.2
Janu-
ary
1945
(10)
142.7
+3.0
141.3
+2.5
144.2
+0.9
186.2
+7.8
Febru-
ary
1945
(11)
145.0
+2.2
142.0
+0.48
151.7
+5.2
198.3
+6.5
March
1945
(12)
145.4
—0.3
141.6
+0.28
151.2
—0.3
209.0
+5.4
Group
A 1
2
B 1
2
C 1
2
D 1
2
April
1945
(13)
142.4
—2.1
138.5
—2.2
151.2
..
218.4
+4.3
May
1945
(14)
155.7
+93
152.1
+0.8
166.0
+9.8
243.4
+11.4
June
1945
(15)
157.5
+1.2
154.1
+1.3
170.9
+3.0
250.9
+3.1
July
1045
(10)
176.2
+11.0
173.2
+12.4
191.7
+12.2
267.3
+6.5
August
1945
(17)
185.9
+5.5
184.6
+6.6
203.1
+5.9
279.0
+4.0
Septem-
ber
1945
(18)
192.0
+3.6
192.3
+4.2
210.9
+3.8
289.6
+3.6
October
1945
(10)
204.7
+6.3
202.3
+5.2
222.8
+5.6
305.6
+5.5
Novem-
ber
945
(20)
220.5
+7.8
218.C
+8.1
240.0
+7.7
319.7
+4.6
Decem-
ber
1945
(21)
231.8
+5.1
227.3
+4.0
248.4
+3.5
330.2
+3.3
Increase for
the whole period
Actual
increase
(22)
150.4
..
147.8
..
166.3
..
253.3
..
Percentage
of increase
(23)
184.8
..
185.9
202.6
329.4
..
1. Actual weights (average for the group).
2. Average increase for the group as percentage over previous mouth's weight.
From the table of summary of weights (Table I) and from the general appearance
the progress of this group is more or less similar to Group A, and worm infection
does not seem to have materially affected the growth rate or condition of animals.
The explanation for this may be that since all the animals had attained the age of
about one year at the time the experiment was started, they had perhaps developed
a. constitution that could not be markedly upset by any worm.infection. Had
the animals been as young as three to six months, treatment of the infected ones
might have had a pronounced effect as against the untreated ones.
64
INVESTIGATIONS INTO CAUSES OF GENL. DETERIORATION OF CATTLE [Vol. XIX, Part I,
In this group, two animals died showing clinical symptoms and post-mortem
appearances of strongyle infection. The deaths can be attributed to the after-
effects of parasitism and so treatment could not save these animals. To add to it,
there were the factors of lack of pasture and malnutrition to reckon.
Group C
This group differed from Group B in that it was given, in addition, graded
doses of a mineral mixture and common salt as shown before. Though the increase
in the live weights (vide Table I) and shank measurements (vide Table II) were
a little more in this group than in the previous ones, the results achieved are not
very significant.
TABLE II
Statement showing the shank measurements (girth) with percentages of increase every
month of the different groups of animals in the scheme for the improvement of
cattle in Malabar and South Kanara (Madras Province) for the period from 1
May 1944 to 31 December 1945
Group
(1)
A 1
2
B 1
2
C 1
2
D 1
2
May
1944
(2)
June
1944
(3)
July
1944
(4)
Measurements were taken
only from August 1944
August
1944
(5)
3.36
3.30
3.36
3.47
..
Septem-
ber
1944
(6)
3.53
+5.06
3.46
+4.48
3.54
+5.37
3.68
+6.05
October
1044
(7)
3.60
+1.98
3.56
+2.89
3.64
+2.82
3.80
+3.26
Novem-
ber
1944
(8)
3.68
+2.22
3.64
+2.25
3.72
+2.20
3.94
+3.68
Decem
ber
1944
(9)
3.77
+2.45
3.73
+ 2-J7
3.82
+2.69
4.08
+3.55
-----
ary
1945
(10)
3.83
+1.60
3.79
+1.61
3.91
+2.36
4.19
+2.70
Febru-
ary
1945
(11)
3.90
+1.83
3.85
+1.58
3.96
+1.28
4.30
+2.63
March
1945
(12)
3.92
+0.51
3.89
+1.04
4.02
+1.52
4.40
+2.33
Group
A 1.
2
B 1
2
C 1
2
D 1
2
April
1945
(13)
3.96
+1.02
3.93
+1.03
4.07
+1.24
4.50
+2.27
May
1945
(14)
4.00
+1.01
3.98
+1.27
4.13
+ 1.47
4.60
+2.22
June
1945
(15)
4.04
+1.00
4.00
+0.50
4.18
+1.21
4.67
+1.52
July
1045
(16)
4.10
+1.48
4.07
+1.75
4.26
+1.91
4.76
+1.93
August
1945
(17)
4.18
+1.95
4.15
+1.97
4.35
+2.11
4.85
+1.89
Septem-
ber
1945
(18)
4.24
+1.44
4.22
+1.69
4.45
+2.30
4.93
+1.65
October
1045
(19)
4.35
+2.59
4.33
+2.61
4.57
+2.70
4.98
+1.01
Novem-
ber
1945
(20)
4.39
+0.92
4.39
+1.39
4.62
+1.09
5-01
+0.60
December
1945
(21)
Measure-
ments were
not taken
since
the
animals
were
dis-
posed
off
on
23
December
1945
Increase for
the whole
period
Actual
in-
crease
(22)
1.03
..
1.09
1.36
..
1.54
..
Per
cent-
age of
in-
crease
(23)
30.65
..
33.03
37.50
..
44.38
..
1. Actual measurements (girth) of the shank (average for the group)
2. Average increase for the group as percentage over previous month's measurement
March, 1949]
M.
S.
RAJENDRAN
65
There was one death in this group, during the period, suspected to be due to
Babesiosis complicated with pneumonia.
Group D
This group was fed the ration already shown, from the beginning of the experi-
ment until the middle of August 1945, when it was slightly altered on the advice
of the Animal Nutrition Committee of the Indian •Council of Agricultural Research.
This altered diet consisted of a concentrate mixture made up of 7 lb. each of ground-
nut cake, cotton seed and rice bran and was distributed to each of the 11 animals
in the group on the basis of its live weight. Shark liver oil, mineral mixture and
salt were continued to be added to the ration in doses originally proposed.
That this group responded to the improved ration given could be seen from
the general appearance, the glossiness of the coat, size and vigour of the animals
as compared with those of the other groups. The rate of increase of live weight
and shank measurements were also greater (vide Tables I & II). Maturity as
evidenced by sexual desire was noticed earlier in this group than in any other.
There was only one death in this group due to strongyle infection at the beginning
of the experiment.
ECONOMICS
The actual average cost of feeding one animal in each group is given below :—
—
Group A . . . . . . . . .
Group B . . . . . . . . .
Group C . . . . . . . . .
Group D . . . . . . . . .
For
one
Rs.
0
0
0
0
day
a.
5
5
5
8
p.
½
½
2
0
For the
whole period
of 602 days
Rs.
189
189
194
302
a.
11
11
15
0
p.
5
5
0
0
The straw included in the rations laid down was more than what the animals
could consume. The cost of the rations would also be much less in normal times.
The cost of treating one animal at a time for stomach worms with copper sulphate
and nicotine sulphate works out to two pies.
Calculation of live weight of animals from the measurements of length and girth
The very large amount of data of measurements and actual weights of more
than 40 animals for over 19 months (the weights were noted daily and the
measurements once a month) has been utilised to find out the accuracy of the live
weights calculated from the formula.
66 INVESTIGATIONS INTO CAUSES OF GENL. DETERIORATION OF CATTLE [Vol. XIX, Part I,
W=L×G 2 /.300 when W is the live weight in pounds, L is the length of the animal
from the point of shoulder to the point of the buttocks in inches, G is the heart-girth
of the animal in inches.
The weights calculated from the measurements (length and girth) and actual
live weights recorded during a month were averaged. The coefficient of correlation
between the actual and calculated weights were worked out monthwise.
The values of coefficients show that the correlation is fairly high, especially
so, as the age of the calves advanced. It would, therefore, appear that for all
practical purposes the live weight of the animals, when no weighing machine is
available, may be calculated by this formula.
SUMMARY
The cattle of the West Coast of the Madras Presidency (Malabar and South
Kanara) are small and stunted in growth and cows are poor milkers.
This article deals with a nutritional experiment conducted to study the cause
or causes of small and structed growth of cattle and their poor milk-yield in Pattambi
(Malabar), where the rainfall is heavy and the soil is laterite in nature and known
to be deficient in calcium and phosphorous.
The experiment was conducted with four groups of one year old locally bred bull
calves. A. B. C and D. each group consisting of 12 animals. Group A (the control
group) was fed on rice conjee, paddy straw and a little common salt. Group B
received the same ration as above but was dewormed periodically. Group C received
the some treatment as Group B but was given, in addition, graded doses of mineral
mixture and salt. Group D was fed on a balanced ration consisting of cotton seed,
groundnut cake, rice bran, mineral mixture, shark liver oil and salt and was also
dewormed periodically. The animals were kept under observation and fed on
these rations for a period of 20 months.
The greatest trouble encountered was death among young calves below or
nearly one year of age due to strongylosis.
Treatment with copper sulphate alone or in combination with nicotine sulphate
was found to be effective.
The animals in Group A were not any more backward than those in Group B
although the latter were periodically dewormed showing perhaps, that with advanced
age, resistance to the bad effects of helminthic infection also increases.
Rice gruel in quantities given in combination with paddy straw was inadequate
for growing calves. Better results were obtained when the same ration was supple-
mented with green grass.
The rate of growth of the animals became less and less as the age advanced.
March, 1949]
M.
B.
RAJENDRAN
67
The feeding of large doses of mineral mixture and salt did not significantly
improve the condition of the animals and it is not known whether the inadequate
ration or the lack of vitamins A and B or both were responsible for this.
Better results were obtained when an improved balanced ration was given as
for Group D.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is my pleasant duty to express my gratitude to Mr. T. J. Hurley. O.B.E.,
M.R.C.V.S., D.V.S.M., I.V.S., Director of Veterinary services, Madras, for the
facilities and guidance he gave me in regard to this work. Mr. K. S. Nair, G.B.V.C.,
M.R.C.V.S., D.T.V.M., Principal, Madras Veterinary College, had been kind enough
to have the specimens sent to him examined; the Agricultural Chemist, Coimbatore,
had done the periodical analysis of food stuffs used; the Government Entomologist,
Coimbatore, had helped me with an artist for taking the photographs and the staff
of the Agricultural Research Station, Pattambi, were exceedingly hospitable. To
all these officers, I am indebted.
TEMPERATURE CORRECTIONS FOR THE LACTOMETER
READING OF THE MILK OF INDIAN COWS AND BUFFALOES
By ZAL, R. KOTHAVALLA, C. P. ANANTAKRISHNAN, AND T. M. PAUL, Indian Dairy
Research Institute, Bangalore
(Received for publication on 31 March 1947)
(With one text figure)
I N the routine testing of milk, the determination of the lactometer reading is an
essential preliminary test. Seasonal and individual variations in the composition
of milk are large, but the herd milk has a comparatively small range in that respect.
It is, therefore, not easy to adulterate milk with water to any considerable extent
and at the same time keep it within the standard lactometer reading. The simplicity
of the test, the cheapness of the equipment required, and the narrow range within
which the values fall for genuine milk, render the test quite useful in determining
the genuineness of milk.
Ordinarily, to determine the correct specific gravity, the temperature of the
milk sample is raised or lowered, as the case may be, to 60ºF., before the correct
lactometer reading can be taken. This adjustment of temperature is all the more
necessary if the sample is below 50ºF. or above 70°F. Within this narrow range
of 50° to 70°F. fairly accurate values for specific gravity, can be obtained by taking
the lactometer reading at the temperature of observation of the sample and then
applying the correction factor from the Tables prepared by either Vieth [1885] or
Richmond [1899]. These Tables are widely used for finding out the specific gravity
of milk at 60°F. from the lactometer reading taken at some other temperature. The
total solids may then be calculated from the specific gravity and also the precentage
of fat in the milk. The temperature corrections in these Tables, however, range
only from 40 to 75°F. and from 40 to 80°F. respectively. The British Standards
Institution [1937] has published a correction Table, but even this extends only upto
86.0ºF. Hence their use is rather limited in a tropical country like India, where the
maximum temperature is seldom below 80°F. for the major part of the year.
Wright [1913] extended Vieth's Table with a view to make it applicable to lacto-
meter readings taken between 40ºF. and 80ºF. Hutchinson [1940] extended
Richmond's Table to 90°F. But even these extended Tables do not meet the require-
ments of countries like India. It is difficult to cool milk samples to 60°F. for specific
gravity determinations when the room temperature is 100°F. or above, as it is, in
certain seasons. Facilities for cooling milk are seldom available in rural areas.
It has, therefore, become necessary to resort to the method of taking the lactometer
reading at whatever temperature the milk is received and then applying a correction
for the difference in temperatures. The conditions under which this kind of test
is required to be carried out demand that the correction Table should be so wide as
to cover the range of temperatures usually met with in the tropics.
69
P
March, 1949] ZAL, R. KOTHAVALLA, C. P. ANANTA KRISHNAN AND T. M. PAUL 71
Four dozens of samples each of cow and buffalo milk were studied as described
above. Both types of milk are considered together in this paper. The mean of
the results of the variations in the specific gravity with fat and temperature obtained,
is given below in Table I. All these results were tabulated and the difference in
the lactometer reading from that at 60°F. was calculated for every temperature of
observation. These differences in lactometer readings always exceeded the correc-
tion factors given by Richmond.
TABLE I
Fat per cent
0.0
1.0
2.0
Temperature in
degrees
Fahrenheit
50
70
80
90
100
110
50
70
80
90
100
110
50
70
80
90
Difference of
lactometer
reading from
that at
60ºF.
—
1.2
2.5
4.3
6.4
8.4
—
14
2.8
4.5
6.7
9.2
—
14
2.9
4.7
Fat per cent
3.0
4.0
Temperature in
degrees
Fahrenheit
100
110
50
70
80
100
110
50
70
80
90
100
110
—
—
Difference of
lactometer
reading from
that at
60°F.
7.0
9.5
1.3
1.5
3.2
7.2
9.5
1.5
1.5
3.4
5.3
7.5
9.8
—
—
From Table I, it will be seen that the higher the fat percentage, the higher the
variation of the specific gravity, with increase of temperature. As the milk from
the Indian cows and buffaloes has a high and variable fat percentage this factor
assumes great importance. It is, therefore, to be expected that Richmond's Correction
Table would not give the exact correction factors under conditions such as are pre-
vailing in India. This obviously makes the preparation of a fresh correction table,
covering both the temperature ranges and the fat percentage usually met with
in India, very necessary. The temperature range for the Table in question was
P2
72
TEMPERATURE CORRECTION FOR THE LACTOMETER
[Vol. XIX, Part I,
fixed from 50ºF. to 110ºF. The fat percentage was fixed at 3 as the minimum,
since no genuine milk sample is ordinarily below this figure in India. The higher
limit of fat was fixed at 8 as ordinarily the fat percentage does not exceed this.
Preparation of the Correction Table
One hundred and seventy-five samples covering a range of 3.0 to 8.5 per cent
fat were studied. These included approximately equal numbers of both cow and
buffalo milk samples. The temperature range adopted was 50°F. to 110°F. with
readings at intervals of 10°F. The difference in lactometer reading at each tem-
perature interval from the lactometer reading at 60°F. was thus experimentally
obtained for each fat percentage.
These results were all grouped according to the fat percentage and the mean
of all the values was taken in each case as the average difference of lactometer reading
from the lactometer reading at 60°F. at the particular temperature and for that
particular fat percentage. These mean differences for each fat percentage at 50°,
70º, 80º, 90º, 100º, and 110ºF. were plotted and presented in Fig. 1. This graph was
utilized for preparing Table II for correcting the lactometer reading taken at any
temperature between 50ºF. and 110ºF. for milk samples with fat percentage ranging
from 3 to 8.
TABLE II
Table for correcting Lactometer reading to 60º F.
Temperature in degrees
Fahrenheit
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
To be subtracted from
the L.R.
3
Percentage of fat observed
4
5
6
7
8
Corrections to correct L.R. to 60ºF.
1.3
1.2
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.1
1.5
1.3
1.2
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.3
0.2
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.2
1.6
1.4
13
11
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.2
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.1
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2