NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
September, 1950]
MACDONALD,
IYER
AND
TURKMAN
215
TABLE II
Influence of environment on egg production*
Environment
Good management, feeding
and housing
Good feeding and housing
Good feeding only
Good housing only
Primitive conditions
White Leghorn
Number
of
birds
..
29.6
6.1
39.1
8.6
Average
egg
Produc-
tion
per bird
..
87.1
55.1
35.5
12.9
White Leghorn
× desi
Number
of
birds
2.01
47.4
35.3
37.0
8.4
Average
egg
Produc-
tion
per bird
113.6
75.8
60.1
43.7
29.0
Desi
Number
of
birds
8.4
..
25.7
36.4
32.6
Average
egg
Produc-
tion
per bird
102.0
..
76.1
41.9
44.6
Rhode Island
Red × desi
Number
of
birds
..
17.2
15.7
70.0
46.4
Average
egg
Produc-
tion
per bird
..
79.5
52.5
41.7
37.1
Rhode Island
Number
of
birds.
47.8
18.1
44.9
31.6
12.4
Average
egg
Produc-
tion
per bird
107.8
64.9
54.8
50.3
23.8
NOTES :—Good management—Daily cleaning, use of disinfectants, freedom from vermin, culling of boarders.
Good feeding—Diet containing enough proteins and vitamins and regular feeding. Use of milk products, cooked meat offals
or fish meal according to availability is suggested.
Good housing—Freedom from ticks, protection from sun and rain, dry and well ventilated, no overcrowding.
* Summary of results, 1943-49.
216
POULTRY KEEPING IN INDIAN VILLAGES
[Vol. XX, Part III
TABLE III
Hatchability percentage and losses in rearing up to three months of age
Year
1945
1946
1947
1948
Number
of eggs
set
622
387
394
530
Overall
percentage
of chicks hatched
50.6
71.1
70.0
61.7
Per cent
mortality
among chicks
41.3
51.6
78.0
50.8
The hatchability figures obtained in the villages are not very different from
those obtained from artificial incubation but a rapid expansion of the poultry industry
is not practicable through natural hatching. Due to the difficulty of obtaining
broody hens during the hatching season the villagers are reluctant to produce re-
placement stocks and valuable hatching eggs are, therefore, being consumed in their
household. The introduction of cooperative hatching by artificial methods merits
consideration combined with vigorours propaganda among the people about the
economic value of poultry keeping.
A total of 653 chickens (54.7 per cent) died of different causes. Young chicks
are frequently attacked by wild birds and this can only be prevented by confining
the former in runs which could be constructed at little or no expense from indigenous
materials such as bamboo strips. As cheap production can only be carried out
under free range condition which will reduce feeding costs, it would appear that
the only practical solution is to keep the birds away from jackals, pariah dogs and
wild cats as far as possible. Food consumption being very low during the rearing
period (0-8 weeks) confinement will not cost much as a chicken consumes only
about 4 lb. of mash and grain during this period.
Marketing
With the exception of Bazpur, Champawat and Banbasa which are outlying
areas, there appeared to be no need for cooperative marketing, for most of the other
centres were within the reach of good markets. In the Kicha area hawkers came
regularly to collect the eggs for despatch to hill stations and the price remained
steady throughout the period. In Jeolikote and Sitapur the prices ranged from
Rs. 1-8 to Rs. 2 per dozen. In the Izatnagar area (Bareilly District) egg collectors
came fairly regularly and the price ranged from Re. 1 to Rs. 1-2 per dozen. The
lowest prices in the plains were generally obtained during the period from April
to September when there was a drop in demand owing to poor quality of eggs and
reluctance of people to eating eggs during summer months. On the contrary, the
demand for eggs and poultry on the hills during this period was just the reverse.
September, 1950]
MACDONALD,
IYER
AND
TURKMAN
217
In the villages, cock birds are usually allowed to run with hens all the year
round, as it is erroneously believed that the hen will not lay without the influence of
the cock. During summer months, fertility of the vast bulk of eggs produced in
the villagers adds greatly to the difficulties of marketing. Villagers will be well
advised to keep the male birds separately from the hens during hot periods of the
year which will considerably reduce the number of eggs going bad and inedible on
account of embryonic growth. In cases where this is not possible, the male birds
may be used for table or the eggs produced in the summer and rainy months may be
specially treated (defertilised) by immersing in water at 130°F. for fifteen minutes.
This process is very necessary as the sale of even one bad egg will adversely affect
the consumption figures and the consumer will sooner or later look for other foods.
Conservation of the quality of eggs produced should be the order of the day.
SUMMARY
Though poultry keeping may be more difficult in hot climates than in temperate
zones, sufficient data are, at present, available to show that poultry can be kept any
where, only they should be fed and housed well for satisfactory returns.
Losses due to attacks from wild animals and birds were all too common, and 50
percent of the layers distributed were lost due to causes which could be avoided.
Routine vaccination of birds against the common contagious diseases, ranikhet
disease and fowl pox, is essential for successful poultry keeping in villages.
The high rate of production of the improved breeds was not obtained in the
villages unless the birds were adequately fed.
If feeding was adequate, the role of housing in relation to production was only
secondary, but if the birds were given good feeding and good housing the results
would be proportionately better. Birds housed and fed well under skilled manage-
ment gave the best returns. The crosses gave somewhat better results than the
pure breeds as regards egg production and hence extensive grading up programme
is recommended for increasing the egg production in the villages.
Food consumption being very low, confinement of chickens between 0-8 weeks
is recommended as the losses amongst chickens were mainly due to attacks by
predatory animals.
From the purely developmental aspect it is not much good advising expensive
housing but it is possible to devise cheap improved houses from purely village
materials.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are greatly indebted to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research
for the generous subsidy in connection with this work.
ABSTRACTS
The value of Winter Pasture and Sweet Potato Meal for Lactating Dairy Cows.
JENNINGS, B. FRYE (Jr.) GEORGE E. HAWKINS (Jr.) and HERBERT B. HEDER-
SON
(1948). (J. Dairy Sci.,OCT., 897 (Dairy Dept., Univ. Georgia, Athens))
T HE authors, in this paper, have studied the value of winter grazing versus
dry roughage feeding, and also the possibilities of replacing corn by sweet
potato meal as the main source of the carbohydrate in the ration for lactating dairy
cows. Fifteen cows of the University of Georgia herd were divided in three groups
for these trials. The dry fed group received hay ad lib. and a concentrate mixture
consisting of 30.2 per cent of corn. The pasture group was provided approximately
eight hours grazing each day in addition to the above ration. The third group was
supplied sweet potato meal in place of corn in the concentrate rations.
Cows on pasture consumed approximately 46 per cent less dry roughage and
produced 15.6 per cent more milk and 18 per cent more butter fat than the dry-lot-fed
animals. The flavour of the milk from these cows was also very pleasing to taste,
except when these cows were milked immediately after being removed from pasture.
Cows fed on a concentrate mixture consisting of either corn or sweet potato
meal did not show any significant difference in the amount of milk and butter fat
produced or in the flavour score of milk. The animals relished both the concentrate
mixtures equally. The sweet potato meal did not have any adverse effect upon
the digestive system of the cows. (R.S.)
Dehydrated Sweet Potatoes as a Concentrate Feed for Dairy Cattle. MATHER,
ROBA
E., LINKONS WOODROW N., and EHEART JAMES F. (1948). J. Dairy
Sci., 31, (7), 569-576
S ELECTION of the best quality sweet potatoes for human consumption yields
culls which may be dehydrated and used for animal feed. High yields of
sweet potatoes in some areas may justify growing them specifically for animal feeding.
Dehydrated sweet potatoes, when fed to twelve dairy cows in a 75-day double
change over experiment, were found to have 91.4 per cent of the value of ground
yellow corn on hundred per cent replacement of the corn. When the replacement was
only fifty per cent, they were 94.8 per cent as valuable. In a digestion trial using
four mature cows, the main constituent nigtrogen free extract showed a digestibility
of 90.08 @ 0.43 per cent. On the basis of the digestion coefficients obtained, the
total digestible nutrient value was found to be 70.4 per cent on a 12 per cent moisture
basis.
Dehydrated sweet potatoes were found to excel yellow corn in maintaining
high level of carotene and vitamin A in the blood plasma and milk and these qualities
would counteract their slightly lower milk producing value. (D.N.)
( 219 )
M
September, 1950]
ABSTRACTS
223
The authors conclude that the solution lies only in improving the conditions of
distribution rather than in changing the method of testing. They suggest that
pasteurization and bottling should be carried on at the same premises with adequate
refrigeration of milk until delivery and that churn transport of pasteurized milk
should be minimized and be restricted to short distances only. (V.S.M.)
Some Observations on the Bacterial Flora in Farm Water Supplies. THOMAS, S. B.
and THOMAS, B. S. (1947) Proc. Soc. app. Bact., 2, 65-69
S AMPLES numbering 126 of farm water supplies of Wales (England) were studied
for the distribution of types of bacteria and their possible contaminating
influence in dairy products.
Sixty per cent of the water supplies contained more than 50 coli organisms per
100 ml. which is a standard suggested for small rural water supplies. Furthermore
60 per cent ranged between 1 and 50 coliform bacteria per 100 ml. of the supplies.
The presence of faecal coli organisms is regarded as unsatisfactory in dairy water.
As many as 82 per cent of the water supplies showed the presence of milk souring
organisms in 1 ml. of sample.
Samples of contaminated surface water contained lipolytic and proteolytic
organisms which fermented milk within two days when incubated at 22°C.
The saprophytic organisms detected in water samples included many types.
These acted upon fat and other constituents of dairy products stored even at refri-
gerator temperatures. These types were frequently found in water supplies, and
their presence must be regarded as unsatisfactory.
Thermoduric bacteria were detected in 70 per cent of the water samples and
20 per cent of these were capable of proteolytic or acid producing activity in milk.
The need for the development of some simple but reliable test for indicating
the influence of the bacterial content of water on the keeping quality of milk has
been clearly brought out. (B.N.G.)
Experiments on the Transmission of Streptococcus agalactiae Infection by Milking with
Infected Hands. LANCASTER, J. E and STUART, P. (1949) J. Comp. Path. 59, 19-30
M ILK infected with Streptococcus agalactiae type IIIa was smeared, immediately
before each milking for a period of 15 weeks, on to the teats of 18 cows
comprising 7 first calved heifers, 5 second calvers, both with no previous history
of Streptococcus agalactiae infection, and six older cows, which had previously been
infected and cured.
Bacteriological and other examinations made five times weekly during this
period revealed infection in 27 quarters of 12 cows, i.e., in 2 out of 7 heifers, in four
out of five second calves and in all the older cows. The difference in susceptibility or
resistance was shown in respect of time and the proportions of cows and quarters
infected. By the end of the experiment the clinical picture resembled that of
a severe outbreak of Streptococcus agalactiae mastitis in the field.
224
ABSTRACTS
[Vol. XX, Part III
Results indicated that Streptococcus agalactiae persisted equally well on the
outside of the teats of susceptible and resistant cows.
Greater susceptibility of older cows was attributed to an inherent factor, which
also accounted for the infection in their earlier lactation, rather than their age.
Perhaps damage done by one infection predisposed another.
Data are provided to show the relation between infection and appearance of
clots and the relation between results of direct plating and enrichment.
The association of previous infection with other organisms or of non-specific
abnormalities with susceptibility to subsequent Streptococcus agalactiae infection
is discussed. (M.M.S.)
Factors Modifying Host Resistance to Helminthic Infection. ASA C. CHANDLER
(1948) Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Trop. Med. Malaria 2, 975-981
R ESISTANCE to helminthic infections may be specific or non-specific. Spe-
cific or immunological reactions are brought about by metabolic products of
the worms. Non-specific or environmental forms of resistance include such factors
as age, diet and inherent characteristics. Worms having a parenteral phase may
stimulate general immunity with the production of circulating antibodies. Tissue
dissolving worms located in the intestine may stimulate local immunity. Immunity
leads to resistance to super-infection and often to expulsion of worms. Resistance
to Acanthocephala and adult cestoda is mainly environmental as they can stimulate
little or no immunity.
Diet greatly influences resistance. Deficiency of vitamins A or B may increase
the number of intestinal nematodes by interfering with normal peristalsis. Deficiency
of calcium, phosphorus and iron may lower resistance by directly affecting the host.
A prolonged inadequate diet lowers immunity due to the resulting deficiency of
gamma globulin. Loss of blood, chronic diseases, lactation, pregnancy, etc., are
other factors which lower the host resistance. Resistance increases with age. A
non-specific factor for age resistance is the increase in the number of goblet cells
of the intestine. Age resistance may also be due to increased speed to development
of acquired immunity. The nature of the inherent characteristics modifying resis-
tance is little understood. In case of Acanthocephala and adult cestode infections
host starvation is inimical to parasites and lead to their expulsion due to carbohy-
drate depletion.
Chandler concludes that a poor diet deficient in protein and vitamins is injuri-
ous to the host in all helminthic infections ; in case of the immunity stimulating
group it lowers host resistance while in case of Acanthocephala and adult cestode
it affects the host directly. (S.C.D.)
Some Observations on the Effect of Newcastle Disease upon Laying Fowls. PLATT,
C. S. (1948) Poult. Sci., 27, 201-206
T HE outbreak under study which occurred in Egg Laying Tests was diagnosed
as Newcastle (or Ranikhet) disease by means of serum-egg virus neutralization
tests on the recovered fowls. Neutralization of 100 lethal doses virus was interpretted
as indicating experience with the infection, while neutralization of 1000 or more doses
September, 1950]
ABSTRACTS
227
The results indicate that the threshold dose for follicular response in the goat
is of the order of 600 I.U. Doses below 1000 I.U. often failed to produce oestrous.
Ovulation was obtained with a dose as low as 200-400 I.U. and super ovulations with
higher doses. Out of 139 eggs shed.87 were recovered. There is also an indication
that though there is an equal chance of finding a few medium and large follicles
the ovary during anoestrus, the probability of spontaneous ovulation is small.
In another breeding experiment, heat was induced in 35 out of 44 goats with
a single dose of 1200 I.U. Ten animals from this series conceived and gave birth
to youngs. (S.N.L.)
MGIPC—M—11 AR—2-7-51—850.
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The Plant Diseases and Fungi Recorded from Mauritius, 1948
Fungi of Barbados and Windwards Island, 1948
A List of Plant Diseases of Economic Importance in Tanganyika Territory, 1949
List of Common Tropical Plant Diseases, 1947
Diet in Relation to Reproduction and the Viability of the Young. Part 1. Rats and other Laboratory
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Seed Production of European Vegetables in the Tropics, 1948
Growth Substances and their Practical Importance in Horticulture, 1948
Five Hundred Varities of Herbage and Fodder Plants, 1948.
The Technicque of Breedidg for Drought Resistance in Crops, 1948
New and promising Varieties Recently Described in the Literature, 1948
The Practice of Soil Conversation in the British Colonial Empire, 1949
Bibliography of Soil Science, Fertilizers and General Agronomy, 124T-47
The production and Utilization of Silage
A review of World Litrature in Abstracts, 1950
Recent Advances in Fruit Juce Production by V.Y.L.S. Charle. and others, 1950
The Establishment of Vegetation on Industrial Wast Land, by R. O. Whyte and J. W. S. Sisam
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ORIGINAL ARTICLES
THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF THE INDIGENOUS
GRASSES OF ASSAM
III. THE SEMI-AQUATIC GRASSES AS CATTLE FEEDS
By S. K. TALAPATRA, U. P. College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry,
Mathura
(Received for publication on 19 January 1950)
IN our previous communication [Talapatra, et. al. 1949], we have shown that
the aquatic grasses could be most profitably utilised for feeding cattle in the form
of hay, as green feeding leads to considerable worm trouble. In view of the acute
shortage of fodder in the country, it has been considered desirable to utilise some of
the semi-aquatic grasses. An attempt has been made in the present paper to study
whether these grasses, which grow profusely in most of the low-lying areas, should
find a place in the dietary of cattle in this part of the country.
Of the various semi-aquatic grasses, the Leersia hexandra commonly known as
arali and Arundo donax, Linn., known as nal seem to grow in abundance. Leersia
hexandra is a leafy fodder, 60 to 120 cm. long, slender, leaf blades errect, looks more
or less like Cynodon dactylon (Dub.) ; while nal is a quick growing grass and a prolific
yielder. The latter can be compared with any of the high yielding grasses like Napier
(Peniseutum purpureum), jowar (Sorghum vulgare, Pers.), etc. They are perennial and
flower during the months of November and December. They cannot be destroyed
or eradicated easily once they get set and can be seen from time immemorial in the
various semi-aquatic zones, inspite of rough grazing by wild herbivorous animals.
The grass arali as a cattle feed
Although it is available in large quantities in many parts of the province,
considerable practical difficulty is experienced in cutting the grass from a marshy
place which makes the concern wholly unprofitable at least during the monsoon
months. During the month of November, the fields are dried up, it is possible to
cut any quantity of the grass without difficulty and by January, like most of the
indigenous grasses in Assam, it dies up. The period is therefore, short and if at all
it is to be used as a cattle feed, it should be fed both as a green fodder and as a hay.
Accordingly, a big uniform plot was selected, half the grass was turned into hay by
the well known tripod system, while the rest was fed as a green fodder, which con-
tained on an average about 35 per cent dry matter.
(a) As a green fodder (just flowering)
Adult animals of 500 lb. body weight were taken and exclusively fed for a
sufficiently long period with the grass which was next followed by a 10-day period of
collection. The chemical composition, the dry matter consumption, the digestibility
229
A
230 INDIGENOUS GRASSES OF ASSAM III
[Vol. XX, Part IV,
co-efficients and the calcium phosphorus and nitrogen balances have been shown in
the following tables :
TABLE I
Chemical composition on dry basis
Nutrients
Crude protein
Ether extract
Ash
Crude fibre
N-free extract
Total carbohydrates
Nitrogen
Calcium
Phosphorus
Per cent
5.825
2.1
16.7
28.4
47.0
75.4
0.932
0.190
0.142
The chemical composition shown above indicates that the content of protein is
lesser than that normally recommended for hay making ; yet, it is true
that the hay from the grass should be superior to any straw, if it is properly cured in
the humid climate of Assam, so that the loss in the digestible fraction of the protein
nutrient is the least.
TABLE II
Dry matter consumption of green arali
Animal number
3
4
5
6
Body weight
lb.
470
490
524
456
Consumed
lb.
10.6
12.9
11.2
10.8
Consumed per
100 lb.
weight
lb.
2.3
2.6
2.1
2.4
Average
lb.
..
..
2.35
..
The grass is, therefore, relished very much and the belief that it is not eaten
upto expectation because of its sharp edges is of little consequence. The grass was
relished even when it was not chopped.
TABLE III
Digestibility coefficients of green arali
Animal
number
3
4
5
6
Average
Dry
matter
48
47
47
50
48
Crude
protein
43
36
40
40
40
Ether
extract
23
22
25
22
23
Crude
fibre
63
62
62
64
63
N-free
extract
54
53
54
56
54
Total
carbo-
hydrates
57
56
57
59
57
December, 1950]
S.
K.
TALAPATRA
231
From the average digestibility coefficients, the net energy value of Kellner has
been calculated and shown below along with some of the recommended cultivated
fodder plants.
TABLE III A
Nutritive value of arali compared to other green feeds.
Green fodder.
Arali green
Napier
Guinea
Guinea
Jowar
Maize
Per 100 lb. of green feed
D.P. (lb.)
0.82
0.96
1.11
0.78
0.84
1.17
S. E. (lb.)
11.9
9.6
7.3
7.7
7.2
13.1
It is quite clear that the grass is in no way inferior to any of the cultivated fodder
plants. The nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus balances are shown in Table IV.
TABLE IV
The nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus balances under green arali feeding
Animal number
Excretion
Intake
(gm.)
Faeces
(gm.)
Urine
(gm.)
Total
(gm.)
Balance
(gm.)
Nitrogen
3
4
5
6
44.92
54.76
47.53
45.67
25.79
35.15
28.82
27.24
17.74
18.70
20.65
17.00
43.53
53.85
49.47
44.24
+1.39
+0.91
—1.94
+1.43
Calcium
3
4
5
6
9.16
11.16
9.69
9.31
11.48
11.93
10.54
10.71
0.94
2.26
1.70
1.35
12.42
14.19
12.24
12.06
—3.26
—3.03
—2.55
—2.75
Phosphorus
3
4
5
6
6.84
8.34
7.24
6.96
8.61
9.53
7.48
5.59
0.10
0.15
0.09
0.20
8.71
9.68
7.57
5.79
—1.87
—1.34
—0.33
+1.17
232 INDIGENOUS GRASSES OF ASSAM III
[Vol. XX, Part IV,
On an average intake of about 119 gm. of digestible protein, which provides a little
over 0.5 lb. of D.P. per 1,000 lb. body weight, a positive nitrogen balance is almost
fully assured. The heavier animal that is animal No. 5, however, failed to maintain
the equilibrium. The calcium and phosphorus balances are negative, as is mostly
the case with the indigenous grasses of Assam.
(b) The grass arali as a hay
When turned into hay by the tripod system, it retains an excellent green colour
and is considerably softened. The composition, the dry matter consumption, the
digestibility co-efficients and the calcium, phosphorus and nitrogen balances have
been shown in the following tables :
TABLE V
Composition of hay and green arali on dry basis
Nutrients
Crude protein
Ether extract
Ash
Crude fibre
N-free extract
Total carbohydrates
Nitrogen
Calcium
Phosphorus
Arali hay
6.319
1.5
14.92
31.4
45.86
77.26
1.011
0.146
0.135
Arali green
per cent
5.825
2.1
16.7
28.4
47.0
75.4
0.932
0.19
0.145
The hay is, therefore, almost identical in chemical make up with that of the
green grass. It is slightly richer in protein, as it was made a little earlier.
TABLE VI
Dry matter consumption of hay
Animal number
3
4
5
6
Body weight
lb.
492
482
524
460
Consumed
lb.
10.5
11.5
10.6
10.6
Consumed per
100 lb. body
weight lb.
2.1
2.4
2.0
2.3
Average
lb.
..
2.2
..
..