NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
200
ASCORBIC ACID CONTENT OF OVARY, ETC.
[Vol. XX, Part III
TABLE I
Average weight of fresh glands in gm.
Ovaries obtained from animals
1. During early pregnancy*
2. Between 8 to 15 days of oestrous cycle†
3. Containing a number of graffian follicles
4. Anoestrous
5. Freshly ovulated
6. With persistent corpus luteum
Total
number
examined
13
16
26
16
5
4
Corpus
luteum
1.418
1.532
0.767
Ovarian
residue
2.881
2.838
2.479
—2.171
2.513
1.591
Other
ovary
2.880
2.591
2.699
1.713
* Size of the foetus used as criterion of the stage of pregnancy.
† Size and gross appearance of corpus luteum used as criterion of its age and stage of the oestrous
cycle.
TABLE II
Ascorbic acid content of ovaries in mg./100 gm. of fresh gland
Ovaries obtained from
animals
1. During early pregnancy*
2. Between 8 to 15 days of
oestrous cycle†.
3. Containing a number of
graffian follicles
4. Anoestrous
5. Freshly ovulated
6. With persistent corpus
luteum
Ovarian
residue
19.53
±1.76
19.19
±1.17
16.16
±0.65
7.06
±0.93
19.38
±2.35
21.27
±3.73
Other
ovary
17.03
±1.76
17.58
±0.94
15.56
±1.33
19.90
±3.69
Difference
2.50
1.61
3.82
1.3
Value of 't'
100
0.99
2.82
0.30
Significance
NS"
NS"
5 per cent
NS"
September, 1950]
ROY,
LUKTUKE
AND
BHATTACHARYA
201
TABLE III
Ascorbic acid content of corpus luteum in mg./100 gm. of fresh gland
Corpus luteum obtained from animals
1. During early pregnancy* . . . . . . . . .
2. Between 8 to 15 days of oestrous cycle† . . . . . .
3. With persistent corpus luteum . . . . . . . .
145.69±10.03
145.50± 8.01
19.97±1.49
* Size of the foetus used as criterion of the stage of pregnancy.
† Size and gross appearance of corpus luteum used as criterion of its age and stage of the oestrous
cycle.
NS"—Not significant.
DISCUSSION
The concentration of ascorbic acid of the buffalo corpus luteum, as observed
by us is the same as that of cow [Biskind and Glick, 1936] or pig [Huszak, 1933].
Furthermore, no difference was found in the concentration in the fully formed
corpus luteum obtained from nonpregnant animals and that obtained from pregnant
animals at an early stage. In contrast, the ascorbic acid content of persistent
corpus luteum was very much less. It is practically of the same order as determined
by Huszak [1933] in an involuted pig corpus luteum. In agreement with the
finding of Biskind and Glick [1936], ascorbic acid concentration of atrophic persistent
corpus luteum and normal ovarian tissue has also been found in the present investiga-
tion to be of the same order. We have not come across any reference on the relative
concentration of ascorbic acid in the two ovaries from the same animal in one of
which ovulation had occurred very recently. Analyses of five such pairs were
carried out. Freshly ovulated ovary was found to contain 19.38 mg./100 gm.,
while the other contained 15.56 mg./100 gm. ; this higher concentration of ascorbic
acid in the freshly ovulated ovaries was found to be statistically significant.
Biskind and Glick [1935, 1936] first demonstrated that physiologically related
endocrine glands, like pituitary, corpus luteum, interstitial cells of the testis and
adrenal cortex, are all characterized by a high concentration of ascorbic acid. Recent
work has demonstrated that under conditions necessitating an increased output of
the hormones from some of the above glands, a significant decrease in the ascorbic
acid content occurs [Long, 1947]. While investigating the effect of administration
of adrenocorticotrophic hormone on the cholesterol and ascorbic acid content of
adrenal gland [Sayers et al, 1944, 1946], it was observed that very soon after its
administration ascorbic acid as well as cholesterol contents decrease. Indirect,
evidence show that this depletion is suggestive of an increased secretion of the
adrenal cortical hormones [Sayers et al., 1944]. Zwemer and Lowenstein [1946]
claim to have isolated a new steroid from an aqueous extract of adrenal glands
which contains a molecule of ascorbic acid. This observation points, therefore
to the possibility that the hormones are secreted from the endocrine glands as a
complex entity of which ascorbic acid is one of the components. In other words
ascorbic acid, it appears, is connected with the synthesis of the hormones. Deficiency
202
ASCORBIC ACID CONTENT OF OVARY, ETC.
[Vol. XX, Part III
of ascorbic acid is, therefore, expected to interfere with the production of normal
amount of progesterone and other hormones. The importance of ascorbic acid, in
relation to progesterone or any other hormone on reproductive processes must be
viewed against this background. The observations that deficiency of ascorbic acid
has been followed by failure of pregnancy, premature birth or still birth [Kramer
et al., 1933] are presumably due to the decreased synthesis of the hormone which
is primarily responsible for the implantation of the fertilized ova and the main-
tenance of pregnancy, i.e. progesterone. It also makes intelligible why fertility
is restored in certain impotent bulls and 'hard to settle cows' following ascorbic acid
therapy [Phillips et al., 1940, 1941].
SUMMARY
The ascorbic acid content of the ovaries obtained from buffalo cows at various
stages of the oestrous cycle has been estimated. The two ovaries from the same
animal, in one of which ovulation had occurred very recently, were found to contain
19.38 mg./100 gm. in the freshly ovulated ovary and 15.56 mg. in the other. The
higher concentration in the former was found to be statistically significant. The
ascorbic acid content of the ovaries in various other conditions studied were found
to be of the same order.
Persistant corpus luteum, compared to normal corpus luteum, is characterized
by a very low concentration of ascorbic acid.
Ascorbic acid content of corpus luteum obtained from animals in early preg-
nancy does not differ from those obtained from nonpregnant animals.
The importance of ascorbic acid in relation to reproductive processes has been
discussed in the light of the recent findings that ascorbic acid is concerned in the
synthesis of hormones.
REFERENCES
Bessy, O. A. and King, C. G. (1933). J. Biol. Chem. 103, 687
Biskind, G. R. and Glick, D. (1936). 113, 27
Glick, D. and Biskind, G. R. (1935). J. Biol. Chem. 110, 583
Huszak, S. (1933). Z. Physiol. Chem. 219, 275
Israel, S. L. and Meranze, A. D. (1941). Endocrinology, 29, 210
Joel, C. A. (1941). Schweiz. Med. Wschr. 71, 1286
Korenchevsky, V. and Hall, K. (1945). J. Path. Bact. 57, 141
Kramer, M. M., Harmon, M. T. and Brill, A. K. (1933). Am. J. Physiol. 106, 611
Long, C. N. H. (1947). Fed. Proc. 6, 461
Phillips. P. H., Lardy, H. A., Boyer, P. D. and Warner, G. M. (1941). J. Dairy Sci., 24, 153
—
Heizer, E. E. and Rupel. I. W. (1940). J. Dairy Sci. 23, 873
Pratt, P. C. (1943). Endocrinology, 32, 92
Sayers, G., Sayers, M. A., Fry, E. G., White, A. and Long, C. N. H. (1944). Yale J. Biol. Med.
16, 361
—
Liang, T. Y. and Long, C. N. H. (1946). Endocrinology, 38, 1
Zwemer, L. and Lowenstein, B. (1946). Endocrinology, 39, 63
BLOOD PICTURE IN RANIKHET DISEASE OF FOWLS*
By G. L. SHARMA and C. SEETHARAMAN, Indian Veterinary Research Institute,
Mukteswar
(Received for publication on 2 February 1950.)
T HE literature extant on the subject reveals very meagre information about
the blood picture of fowls suffering from Ranikhet disease. This, coupled
with the availability of fowls, which are frequently employed to maintain
virulent strain of the virus, induced us to study the blood of these birds during the
pre- and post-infection periods. This paper records the results of examination of
their blood during health and after infection.
The altitude of Mukteswar-Kumaun is about 7,500 ft. above the sea-level ; the
climate of the place is, for the most part of the year cold, the extreme temperatures
ranging between 17.9°F. and 87.4°F. The annual rainfall is 52.28 in. and the baro-
metric reading varies from 22 to 23 in.
HISTORICAL
Blain [1928] and Shaw [1930] expressed difficulty in counting leucocytes of
fowls because the treatment of erythrocytes with diluents containing acetic acid
liberated their nuclei which were indistinguishable from small lymphocytes. To
overcome the difficulty, both of them advocated the use of diluting fluids by which
red blood as well as white blood cells are preserved and thus could be counted simul-
taneously Shaw [1933], while studying the leucocytes of pigeons, demonstrated
appreciable variation in the number of leucocytes at different parts of the day.
Biely and Palmer [1934] having employed the technique of Shaw [1930] gave the total
blood count of healthy White Leghorns as follows : erythrocytes 21.4 to 38.4
millions per cubic millimetre and leucocytes 18.33 to 49.0 thousands per cubic
millimetre. Olson [1935] recommended Toison's fluid as a diluent for the direct
count of leucocytes of fowl's blood and mentioned the formula of Dukes and Sch-
wart for correcting readings of haemoglobin obtained on Sahli's haemoglobino-
meter. Palmer and Biely [1935] showed a rise in erythrocyte count and a fall in
leucocyte count of fowls as a result of starvation for 48 hours. Olson [1937] des-
cribed the morphology of various cellular elements in the blood of fowls and showed
that certain normal variations in these elements were associated with factors like
sex, season, keeping the birds indoors or outdoors, etc. Cook [1937] reported that
the total erythrocyte and leucocyte counts of healthy chicks were 25.0 millions and
30.0 thousands per c.mm. respectively while the differential count was : lympho-
cytes 74.3 per cent., polymorphonuclears 16 per cent, basophiles 20.6 per cent and
monocytes 6.3 per cent. He further showed that the average haemoglobin con-
centration on Sahli's scale was 60. He used Toison's fluid for making total count
*Paper read at the Indian Science Congress (Section of Medical and Veterinary Sciences), Patna,
1948.
( 203 ) K
September, 1950] G. L. SHARMA AND C. SEETHARAMAN 207
TABLE I
Mean values of the blood constituents of 15 fowls before and after the disease
Fowl
num-
ber
1}
2}
3}
4}
5}
6}
7}
8}
9}
10}
11}
Observation
made
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
R. B. C.
Per c.mm.
24.3
16.7
28.7
16.0
29.9
18.8
23.9
12.3
15.9
10.1
22.5
18.5
29.4
16.0
20.9
15.7
20.4
15.3
23.5
14.4
25.8
16.5
Corpuscular
volume and
time of
sedimentation
3.1, 30.0
2.5, 25.0
3.5, 35.0
2.9, 30.0
3.2, 30.0
2.9, 30.0
3.5, 30.0
3.1, 25.0
3.0, 32.5
2.8, 30.0
3.0, 27.5
2.5, 25.0
3.2, 30.0
2.9, 30.0
3.3, 30.0
2.9, 30.0
3.3, 30.0
2.5, 25.0
3.2, 27.5
3.0, 30.0
3.3, 30.0
2.9. 25.0
Leucocytes
per c.mm
24.5
13.0
27.8
14.0
21.3
13.8
27.3
16.0
21.5
12.3
26.5
10.3
22.5
13.5
36.3
24.3
36.0
27.0
31.3
18.8
20.8
11.8
Heterophiles
per cent
30.2
58.4
35.7
61.4
31.3
57.9
26.1
61.1
44.4
66.4
32.3
46.8
26.4
56.0
21.7
47.2
22.0
71.3
24.7
60.3
28.8
61.3
Eosinophiles
per cent
1.2
1.0
2.2
2.1
2.7
3.0
2.1
3.3
0.8
1.6
2.6
2.8
3.4
1.7
3.6
2.7
3.8
3.9
1.9
1.8
0.8
4.2
Lymphocytes
per cent
60.2
31.0
57.4
27.2
61.3
33.3
65.8
28.2
51.8
29.6
58.7
47.6
61.5
36.9
68.7
43.5
61.9
18.4
61.3
26.3
67.7
29.4
Monocytes
per cent
6.6
7.5
4.4
6.7
5.0
8.3
4.8
4.8
3.0
1.8
6.8
2.8
6.5
5.0
4.2
5.3
7.8
3.8
5.8
10.1
3.8
3.8
Basophiles
per cent
1.9
1.0
1.0
2.8
0.5
2.5
1.3
2.2
0.0
1.0
0.5
0.3
2.8
0.5
2.1
1.5
4.4
2.8
1.8
1.9
1.3
1.3
Haemoglobin
per cent
9.9
6.5
10.2
6.5
10.7
7.2
11.5
6.7
7.6
5.1
9.0
5.8
10.4
7.3
7.0
5.2
6.3
3.9
6.4
4.7
8.7
6.7
208
BLOOD PICTURE IN RANIKHET DISEASE OF FOWLS [Vol. XX, Part III
TABLE 1—contd.
Mean values of the blood constituents of 15 fowls before and after the disease—contd.
Fowl
num-
ber
12}
13}
14}
15}
Observation
made
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
R. B. C.
per c.mm.
23.2
13.7
33.3
24.5
21.3
11.1
29.9
15.9
Corpuscular
volume and
time of
sedimentation
3.1, 30.0
2.9, 25.0
3.5, 30.0
3.0, 30.0
3.0, 27.5
2.5, 25.0
3.2, 30.0
3.0, 30.0
Leucocytes
per c.mm.
20.5
11.8
17.3
11.3
30.3
20.5
24.8
16.3
Heterophiles
per cent
25.0
68.5
30.8
61.5
25.5
54.0
17.9
45.9
Eosinophiles
per cent
0.9
1.8
1.6
1.3
1.9
1.6
0.9
1.7
Lymphocytes
per cent
70.9
25.0
56.5
28.6
58.4
27.3
73.8
40.9
Monocytes
per cent
3.5
3.5
9.8
7.1
12.6
14.4
7.1
10.4
Basophiles
per cent
0.3
1.0
1.3
1.3
1.8
2.0
0.8
1.5
Haemoglobin
per cent
9.3
7.1
9.5
6.0
8.3
4.9
8.7
5.1
b : before infection.
a : after infection.
TABLE II
Significance of differences between the means of the blood constituents before and after the disease
Mean before the disease
Mean after the disease
Mean difference
Critical difference for significance
R. B. C. for
c.mm.
24.9
15.7
**9.2
}
1.735 / 2.408
Corpuscular
volume, time of
sedimentation
(minutes)
3.2, 30.0
2.8, 27.7
**0.4, **2.3
0.099 / 0.137, 1.431 / 1.986
Leucocytes
for c.m.
25.9
15.6
**10.3
1.450 / 2.012
Heterophiles
per cent
28.2
58.5
**30.3
4.477 / 6.213
Eosinophiles
per cent
2.0
2.3
0.3
0.622 / 0.863
Lymphocytes
per cent
62.4
31.6
**30.8
4.836 / 6.713
Monocytes
per cent
6.1
6.4
0.3
1.427 / 1.980
Basophiles
per cent
1.5
1.6
0.1
0.644 / 0.896
Haemoglo-
bin
per cent
8.9
5.9
**3.0
0.491 / 0.682
** These differences are highly significant, others are not significant.
Figures of the numerator indicate the critical differences for P=0.05 and those of the denominator for P=001.
September, 1950] G. L. SHARMA AND C. SEETHARAMAN 209
As regards eosinophiles, monocytes and basophiles, it may be mentioned that
during usual examination of blood films, the number of the respective cells counted
is very small due to their low percentages. Variations in the number of these
cells, even if present during the disease, may, therefore, escape detection. It
is, therefore, felt that in order to have a clearer picture about the position of these
cells total number of leucocytes counted for differential count should be much more,
say about a thousand, than what is actually done.
During examination of blood smears for differential counts it was observed
that the results obtained were quite different in different parts of the smear. Though
a study of this problem was not within the purview of this work, our experience
agrees with that of MacGregor, Richards and Loh [1940] as far as the possibility
of getting different figures by examining different parts of the smear is concerned.
It was in the light of these preliminary observations that combination of ' edge '
and ' cross section ' method was followed throughout.
In almost every smear there occurred roundish, rose-red bodies. Their margin
was often broken. On closer examination a relatively darker but similarly stained
round structure could be detected in the centre of these bodies. Similar bodies
were observed too by DeVillers [1938] who considered them to be ruptured
erythrocytes.
Toison's fluid was found quite satisfactory for diluting blood for direct count
of leucocytes and erythrocytes. Thrombocytes because of their being the smallest
cellular constituent of blood, could be distinguished from the red blood and white
cells, with difficulty.
SUMMARY
Heart blood of fifteen adult Rhode Island Red male fowls was examined during
health and after the onset of Ranikhet disease induced artificially.
Toison's fluid was used as diluent for the counting of erythrocytes and leu-
cocytes. For differential counts blood smears were examined by the combination
of ' edge ' and ' cross section ' methods of examining smears.
During the disease there occurred a marked leucopenia associated with a dis-
tinct rise and fall in the percentages of heterophiles and lymphocytes respectively.
The number of erythrocytes and haemoglobin concentration dropped markedly
and the corpuscular volume was reduced. There was a significant reduction in
the time taken for the complete sedimentation of cells.
Percentages of eosinophiles, monocytes and basophiles did not undergo any
appreciable variation during the disease.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our thanks are due to Dr H. N. Ray for valuable advice and Mr. S. Sen for
statistical analysis of the results.
210
BLOOD PICTURE IN RANIKHET DISEASE OF FOWLS [Vol. XX, Part III
REFERENCES
Biely, J. and Palmer, E. I. (1934). Poult. Sci. 13, 296-98
Blain, D. (1928). Proc. Soc. exp. Bio. 28, 594-96
Cook, S. F. (1937). Poult. Sci. 16, 291-96
DeVilliers, O. T. (1938). Onders. poort. J. vet. Sci. 11, 419-504
Hammon, W. D. and Enders, J. F. (1939). J. exp. Med. 69, 327-52
Kernkamp, H. C. H. (1939). J. Amer. vet. med. Ass. 95, 525-29
Kirk, R. J. and Collins, H. C. (1945). Canad. J. Comp. Med. 9, 123-25
Klotz, L. J. (1940). J. Lab. clin. Med. 25, 424-34
Lewis. P. A. and Shope, R. E. (1928-29). J. Amer. vet. med. Ass. 74, 145-52
MacGregor, R. G. S., Richards. W. and Loh, G. L. (1940). J. Path. Bact. 51, 337-68
McCarthy, E. F. (1943). Brit. med. J. 4315, 362-63
Napier, L. E. and Das Gupta, C. H. (1940). Indian med. Gaze. 75, 99, 165, etc.
Olson, C. (1927). J. Amer. vet. med. Ass. 86, 474-87
— (1937). Cornell Vet. 27, 235-63
Palmer, E. I. and Biely, J. (1935). J. Amer. vet. med. Ass. 86, 594-99
Shaw, A. F. B. (1930). J. Path Bact. 33, 833-35
— (1933). J. Path. Bact. 37, 411-30
Twisselmann, N. M. (1939). Poult. Sci. 18, 151-59
Verma, N. S. (1947). Indian vet. J. 24, 95-103
Whitby, L. E. H. and Britton, C. J. C. (1937). Disorders of the blood. Second edition. J. & A.
Churchill, London
POULTRY KEEPING IN INDIAN VILLAGES
BY A. J. MACDONALD, S. G.IYER and I. B. TURKMAN, Poultry Research Section,
Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh.
(Received for publication on 1 June 1949)
T HE total poultry population in India in comparison with human population
is very small indeed and the backward state of the poultry industry may be
due to various factors such as, poor quality of the stock, lack of knowledge in regard
to the value of eggs in the diet, prejudice and taboo to keeping fowls, prevalence
of diseases, etc. The desi (or indigenous) hen lays, on an average, 53 eggs in a
year while 150 is the average figure in the case of certain exotic breeds. In recent
years, improvement has been mainly confined to running Government Farms and
the distribution of exotic breeds. Till the second world war, production even on
Government Farms was not profitable, for the prices of poultry products were too
low to meet the cost of production. That is why commercial farms were unknown
in this country. The demand for poultry and eggs from the Defence Services shot
up during the war and the village flocks were being depleted as attractive prices were
being offered. The problem of increasing the egg production in the
country, therefore, received serious consideration of the Government of India
and 16 military poultry farms in all were organized in the country in order to aug-
ment the supplies.
In the villages actually no expenditure is incurred for labour, housing and
equipment and birds are generally allowed to find their own food. Still bulk of the
poultry products in India comes from the villages. To investigate the economics
of village poultry keeping and to suggest methods of improvement, a scheme of the
Indian Council of Agricultural Research was undertaken by the Poultry Research
Section, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar for a period of five years
(1943-48), and was initiated by the late Mr. A. J. Macdonald, Officer-in-Charge of
the Section.
OUTLINE AND WORKING OF THE SCHEME
Purebred birds of White Leghorn, Rhode Island Red, desi and their crosses,
hatched and reared up to six months of age on the Institute farm, Izatnagar, were
distributed in selected villages of Uttar Pradesh. Ten pullets and one cock were
given free to each of the villagers on the distinct under standing that the birds
would be kept pure for a full period of twelve months, thereby affording facilities
to the staff for collection of data regarding egg production, mortality, fertility,
hatchability and marketing of eggs, etc. At the end of this period of twelve month's
the birds were given away to the villagers.
( 211 )
L
212
POULTRY KEEPING IN INDIAN VILLAGES
[Vol. XX, Part III
Site
Suitability of different areas. A total of 48 villages in Uttar Pradesh both in
the plains as well as hills in the districts of Bareilly, Pilibhit, Nainital including
T. & B. Estate, Almora and Sitapur were selected.
The conditions in the villages, close to the Institute farm in the district of
Bareilly, are typical of most parts of the Northern India having a maximum shade
temperature of 117°F. The selected villages were fairly large and there was a fairly
good market only five miles away in Bareilly.
Banbasa in the Pilibhit district is an undeveloped area lying near the head-
quarters of the Sarda canal. There is, however, a good market for eggs from the
employees of the Irrigation Department.
Jeolikote, a hill station of Nainital district about twelve miles from Kathgodam,
has no extremes of climates, snow fall is quite rare and has good markets in the
vicinity. Kicha, in the same district lying 20 miles from the foot hills of the Hima-
layas, is rather a backward area on account of the heavy incidence of malaria, with
fairly heavy rainfall. There is a great demand for poultry and eggs from the Moham-
medan population in this area. It is close to Nainital where eggs fetch a good price,
say rupees three per dozen. Bazpur, ten miles from the foot hills in the Nainital
district, also has heavy rainfall. The presence of nearby jungle is, however, a
menace to poultry stock on account of its being exposed to frequent attacks by
wild animals.
Champawat, 6000 ft. above sea-level in the Almora district, is quite cool all
the year round with snow fall during winter. The rainfall is fairly high and compares
favourably with that of Kicha, Bazpur and Banbasa. No marketing facilities
are available and the eggs produced in this area are consumed by the local inhabitants,
who are mostly literate and well-to-do.
The villages selected in the district of Sitapur have extremes of weather. As
most of the inhabitants are non-vegetarians there is considerable scope for poultry
development in this area.
The data on the average annual egg production and losses due to mortality
in the different areas are given in Table I.
Better results were obtained from the villages around Izatnagar in the Bareilly
district due largely to the human factor, for in this area it was possible to select a
large number of keen villagers who had long experience of poultry keeping and who
came into fairly close touch with the Institute farm.
The egg production figures for the birds distributed to a large number of educated
classes in the Kicha and Banbasa areas rank second. On the other hand low egg
production obtained in Sitapur and Jeolikote was due to tick infestation and paucity
of animal protein supplements.
A total of 436 pullets out of 896 distributed, died. Losses from contagious
diseases such as Ranikhet disease were experienced in the first year of the scheme,
In the subsequent year, however it was possible to vaccinate the birds against
this disease prior to distribution by using the chick embryo vaccine. The birds
were also protected against fowl pox. Tick troubles were all too common in the
September, 1950]
MACDONALD,
IYER
AND
TURKMAN
213
TABLE I
Average annual egg production per bird and mortality data in different areas
District
Bareilly
„
Pilibhit
Nainital
„
„
Almora
Sitapur
Area of
centre.
Pir Bahora
Bhindaulia
Banbasa
Kicha (Plains)
Bazpur
„
Jeolikote (Hills)
Champawat
Ambarpur
Total
number of
pullets
distributed
62
84
35
234
142
81
118
90
Average
number of
eggs
per bird
88.3
=68.3
69.5
70.7
56.9
45.1
59.8
40.0
Mortality due to
Ranikhet
disease
..
..
..
5
..
..
..
..
Tick
fever
..
..
..
2
..
..
..
..
Non-conta-
gious
disease
22
25
10
42
22
27
11
37
Wild
animals
17 or 27.4 per cent
29 „ 34.5 per cent
4 „ 11.4 per cent
63 „ 22.1 per cent
51 „ 35.9 per cent
13 „ 16.05 per cent
30 „ 25.0 per cent
26 „ 28.9 per cent
Total
39 or 62.9 per cent
54 „ 63.1 per cent
14 „ 40.0 per cent
112 „ 39.4 per cent
73 „ 51.4 per cent
40 „ 49.4 per cent
41 „ 34.6 per cent
63 „ 70.0 per cent