NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
DRIED COW MANURE IN THE RATION OF GROWING
CHICKENS
By D. PARTHASARATHY AND S. G. IYER, Poultry Research Section, Indian Veterinary
Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh
(Received for publication on 27 September 1950)
S INCE Bechdel et al [1928] demonstrated that synthesis of vitamin B took
place in the rumen, a series of experiments have been reported confirming
their observation and also about the quantities of several members of the vitamin
B complex. McElroy and Goss have studied about the synthesis of riboflavin and
vitamin K [1940, a], pyridoxine [1940, b], thiamin [1941, a] and pantothenic acid
[1941, b] in the rumen of sheep and cows fed diets low in these vitamins. Wegner et al
[1941] studied the synthesis of thiamin, riboflavin, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid,
nicotinic acid and biotin in the rumen of cows on rations of natural feeds. Similar
observations have been made by Hunt et al. [1941, 1943] and Lardinois et al. [1944].
Recently it has been demonstrated that a part of the B-vitamins synthesised
in the rumen and also in the digestive tract pass through the digestive system,
Lampen et al. [1942] and Hammond [1942] made the interesting observation
that cow manure exerted a beneficial effect on growth in chicks when added to a
diet deficient in riboflavin. Later Hammond [1944] found that the growth of
chicks was increased when cow manure was substituted for alfalfa meal, at a level
of eight per cent.
Rubin and Bird [1946] presented evidence that the growth factor of the cow
manure was different from the growth factors previously described and they [1946, b]
also reported a method of extracting and concentrating the growth factor. The
factor was found to stimulate the growth of chicks fed a practical diet free of animal
protein. In addition to the presence of growth stimulating factors, cow manure
was also found to contain male and female sex hormones, Riley and Hammond
[1942]. The male sex hormone increases comb growth in chickens. This is an
undesirable factor in the case of a pullet grown for egg production.
"Whitson et al. [1946] claimed that the androgenic potency of cow manure could
be destroyed by drying the manure at 80°C. for 24 hours, and then this manure
exerted no effect on egg production, while the manure which was not subjected to the
above treatment impaired egg production significantly. To investigate if dried
cow manure would stimulate the growth of chickens when incorporated in a ration
of vegetable origin, without giving rise to any undesirable effects due to the andro-
genic hormone, the present experiment was undertaken.
EXPERIMENTAL
The cow manure obtained from lactating cows of the Institute Dairy was first
dried in the sun spread in a thin layer for about two days. During this period the
107
108
DRIED COW MANURE OF GROWING CHICKENS
[Vol. XXI, Part II,
maximum air temperature was about 80°F. and much of the moisture was lost.
The dried product was roughly crushed and again dried in an electric oven at 80°C.
for 24 hours. It was then ground finely in a grinding mill and resembled ground
lucerne (dried) in appearance.
A basal mash of the following composition was made.
Wheat bran . . . . . . . . . . . .
Yellow maize meal . . . . . .
Ground oats . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ground jower (millet) . . . . . . .
Salt . . . . . . . . . . . .
35 parts by weight.
39.25
do.
10.00
do.
15.00
do.
0.75
do.
The chicks, all of the same hatch were divided into three groups. Each group
consisted of both White Leghorn and Rhode Island Red breeds in about equal
number. The chicks were so divided that the average weight in each of the groups
for the same breed was about the same and they were wing banded individually.
The three groups were fed on the following rations, and the experiment was of 8
weeks duration. The chemical composition of the ration is given in Table I.
TABLE I
Percentage chemical composition of the mashes used
Group
Group 1
„ 2
„ 3
Moisture
12.96
13.40
13.11
Crude
protein
16.44
17.25
17.56
Ether
extract
2.54
2.41
2.22
Crude
fibre
7.85
8.00
8.80
Ash
4.32
4.38
5.10
Nitrogen-free
extract
55.89
54.60
53.21
Group I. (Positive control)
Basal mash
......
Earthnut meal
....
Milk
Group 2 (Negative control)
Basal mash
......
Earthnut meal
.....
Group 3 (Test)
Basal mash
....
Cow dung
......
Earthnut meal
.....
75 parts
15 do.
10 do.
79 do.
21 do.
69 do.
10 do.
21 do.
The separated milk was reckoned on the dry matter basis as the other mash.
The milk was analysed daily and the requisite quantity of milk was given to the
chicks to drink. If any milk was left over this was mixed with the mash fed to the
chicks. The quantity of milk was so adjusted that the protein content of the ration
of the positive control group was the same as in the other two groups which was
kept at 20.0 per cent. The chickens were fed on the above mashes. In groups
2 and 3 only water was given to drink. In group I, however, necessary quantity
of milk was given and when this was exhausted water was given. Limestone grit
was always available before the chicks. From second week onward greens were
given ad lib. for the chicks.
June, 1951]
D.
PARTHASARATHY
AND
S.
G.
IYER
109
RESULTS
Body weight. The chicks were weighted individually every week and at the
age of 8 weeks they were sexed and weighed. The average body weights of the
chickens are given in Table II.
TABLE II
Average body weight in oz.—dr. per chick at weekly intervals
Week
1st week .
2nd week
3rd week
4th week .
5th week .
6th week .
7th week .
8th week .
W.L.
R.I.R.
W.L.
R.I.R.
W.L.
R.I.R.
W.L.
R.I.R.
W.L.
R.I.R.
W.L.
R.I.R.
W.L.
R.I.R.
W.L.
R.I.R.
Group 1 (Positive
control)
Male
1—14
1—14
3—0
3—4
4—10
5—0
7—0
7—0
9—7
9—0
12—4
12—8
16—0
16—10
19—15
20—4
Female
1—15
2—0
2—14
3—0
4—10
4—12
6—8
6—4
8—8
8—8
11—4
11—0
13—2
13—0
16—0
15—10
Group 2 (Negative
control)
Male
1—8
1—11
2—2
2—3
3—12
4—10
5—10
6—12
7—0
7—14
8—4
9—4
9—7
11—0
12—2
13—13
Female
1—9
1—13
2—3
2—5
3—10
4—4
5—7
6—8
6—8
7—4
7—12
8—14
8—12
10—3
11—13
13—3
Group 3 (Cow manure)
Male
1—9
1—10
2—3
2—1
3—8
4—8
5—0
6—2
5—12
7—4
6—14
8—4
7—13
9—8
9—14
12—4
Female
1—3
1—14
2—4
2—5
3—4
4—6
5—0
5—14
5—8
7—0
6—9
8—0
7—5
8—12
9—3
12—0
W.L.=White Leghorn
R.I.R.=Rnode Island Red
It would be seen that the maximum body weights in both male and female
chickens were obtained in group 1 (positive control). Group 3 fed on a ration con-
taining cow dung had the lowest average body weight while in group 2 fed on basal
mash and groundnut cake the average body weight in either sex was higher than
that in group 3.
110
DRIED COW MANURE OF GROWING CHICKENS
[Vol. XXI, Part II,
TABLE III
Average food consumption per chick per week (oz.)
Week
1st week
2nd week
3rd week
4th week
5th week
6th week
7th week
8th week
Total
Group 1
1—7
3—8
5—6
7—4
8—4
11—2
13—4
11—5
61—8
Group 2
1—5
2—10
3—5
5—0
6—5
9-10
10—7
10—0
48—10
Group 3
1—6
2—8
3—14
4—8
6—6
8—4
10—7
10—0
47—5
Food consumption. The average food consumption in oz. for each bird for
each of the groups is given in Table III. For comparative purposes the milk was
reckoned on the same dry matter basis as the mash. It is seen that in the cow
manure group and the earthnut group the food consumption is nearly the same. In
the group getting milk, however, the food consumption was more.
Secondary sexual character. From the fourth week onwards it was observed
that there was abnormal comb growth in the group getting cow manure. This
was noticed in the male and female chickens of both the Rhode Island Red and White
Leghorn breeds although it was more prominent in the case of the latter.
TABLE IV
Percentage mortality
Group
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Number of
chicks at
beginning
144
56
68
Number of
chicks at end
of 8 weeks
130
50
61
Mortality
9.6
10.8
10.0
Mortality. Table IV given the mortality percentage in the different groups.
It is seen that mortality is about the same in all the groups mostly due to chilling.
112
DRIED COW MANURE OF GROWING CHICKENS
[Vol. XXI, Part II,
REFERENCES
Bechdel, S. I., Honeywell, H. E., Dutcher, R. A. and Knutsen, M. H. (1928). J. Biol. Chem. 80,
231
Hammond, J. C. (1942). Poult. Sci. 21, 554
—(1944).
Ibid 23, 471
Hunt, C. H., Kick C. H., Burroughs, E. W., Bethke, R. M., Schalk, A. F., and Gerlargh, P,
(1941). J. Nutr. 21, 85
Hunt, C. H., Burroughs, E. W., Bethke, R. M., Schalk, A. F. and Gerlargh, P. (1943). J. Nutr.
25, 207
Lampsen, J. O., Babler, G. P. and Peterson, W. H. (1942). J. Nutr. 23, 11
Lardinois, C. C., Mills, R. C., Elvehjem, C. A. and Hart, E. B. (1944). J. Dairy Sci. 27, 579
McElroy, L. W. and Goss, H. (1940, 1941). J. Nutr. 20, 527 and 541; 21, 163 and 405
Riley, G. M. and Hammond, J. C. (1942). Endocrinology, 31, 653
Rubin, M. and Bird, H. R. (1946). J. Biol. Chem. 163, 387 and 393
Turner, C. W. (1947). Poult. Sci. 26, 143
Wegner, M. I., Booth, A. N., Elvehjem, C. A. and Hart, E. B. (1941). Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. and
Med. 47, 90
Whitson, D., Titus, H. W. and Bird, H. R. (1946). Poul. Sci. 25, 143
ABSTRACTS
An inactivated vaccine against Newcastle disease. DOYLE, T. M., AND WRIGHT E. C.
(1950). B. Vet. J. 106, No. 4. 139-161
T HE author describes an inactivated tissue vaccine against Newcastle disease.
Tén-day old fertile hens' eggs are inoculated with virus into the allantoic cavity ;
and those embryos that die within 72 hours and have extensive hæmorrhages of
the feather follicles are used for vaccine production. Such chick embryos are
finally minced and suspended in crystal violet-ethylene glycol (1 : 400) and the
mixture is incubated for 36 days at 37.5° C. This is diluted till the dye content
is not greater than 0.00005 per cent. The crystal violet acts with some unknown
mechanism as the vaccine without its addition fails to confer protection. ' Herts'
egg passage virus or 'Turkey' virus have been used for vaccine preparation.
The vaccine retains its potency for about five months at 2° C, to 4° C.; immunity
is established by about the 7th day after I/M injection of the vaccine and persists
for at least 12 months ; can be successfully used on chicks from six weeks onwards
without any reaction or after effects. Turkeys have been successfully immunized
with it.
The vaccine does not cause any reaction, paralysis or check in growth. (B. N. G.)
I. Vaccination against Bovine Brucellosis. BUDDLE M. B. (1948). Aust. Vet. J. 24,
171-176, (Refs. 6).
II. Experimental investigation of calf hood vaccination with Br. abortus strain 19.
Resistance of vaccinated calves against natural infection. CAMP HELL, A. D. AND
RODWELA. W. (1949). Aust.vet.J. 25, 46—52 (Tables 2, Refs. 10)
T HESE articles deal with the progress achieved in Brucellosis control with strain
19 vaccination, its modifications and other methods. A review of the achieve-
ments in the U. S. A. has been given and it has been shown that the results of large
scale field trials were promising. Prior to 1941 no effort was made to control
Brucellosis in New Zealand and the incidence of abortion was estimated to about
five per cent. Stimulated by the successes in America, calf-hood vaccination was
given a trial under New Zealand conditions. Preliminary small scale experiments
showed strain 19 to be superior to strains 45 and 20 in both calf-hood and adult
immunization. Therefore field trials were directed solely with strain 19 and
essential data as to its value under a wide range of environmental conditions collec-
ted. On farms previously experiencing a total abortion rate of 20 per cent calf-
hood vaccination reduced the abortion rate to less than 3 per cent. The immunity
from calf-hood vaccination was shown to last up to 3 pregnancies. For this an
annual saving of £320,000 was calculated.
Natural infection has been found to reinforce immunity in vaccinated animals
at least up to three pregnancies. It may be possible that for want of a stimulus
113
114
ABSTRACTS
immunity in vaccinated animals not exposed to infection subsequently wanes off
more quickly than in those getting natural infection. In such cases it is advisable
to revaccinate soon after first parturition.
The tail tip method of vaccination with 1 ml. dose was experimentally com-
pared with 5 ml. subcutaneously. The group of animals vaccinated subcutaneously
have been shown to exhibit a lower infection rate, a lower abortion rate, a longer
mean gestation period and a higher percentage of living calves than the intracaudal
group.
Lyophilized vaccine, reported to be successful in America was not given a trial
in New Zealand. Dead vaccines have been shown to be of no avail as immunizing
agents.
In the second article a summary of Australian trials with calf-hood vaccination
has been given. King at Glenfield Veterinary Research Station (N. S. W.) found
that immunity conferred by calf-hood vaccination with strain 19 was negligible
when challenged with an artificial source of infection through the conjunctival sae,
the break-down in immunity being shown to be due to the heavy infecting dose
used for assessing the degree of immunity. The authors vaccinated 27 heifers and
these and 29 unvaccinated control heifers were exposed during pregnancy to Brucella
abortus infection by running them in a poddock with pregnant heifers which were
caused to abort at intervals by inoculating them with a virulent strain of Br. abortus.
Only one of the vaccinated heifers (3.7 per cent) showed evidence of infection as
judged by the agglutination reaction. Of the unvaccinated 18 (62 per cent) became
infected. (K. P. B.)
THE VALUE OF REFUSE SCREENINGS AS A FEED
FOR LIVESTOCK
SCOTT, J. R. G. W., BLOSSER, T. H. SHAW A. O. and ASHWORTH, U.S. (1950). J.
Anim. Sci. 9, 7—12
R EFUSE screenings are a combination of materials obtained in the process of
cleaning grain such as light or broken grain seed, hulls, chaff, joints, straw, ele-
vator dust and floor sweepings. Literature cited by the authors shows that the
best grades of screenings resemble oats in composition and may nearly equal grain
in feeding value while some of the poor quality screenings more nearly resemble
straw in composition and feeding value.
In the present study metabolism experiment was conducted on three ewes
weighing approximately 180 lb. each. Three ten-day feces collections were made,
first with chopped alfalfa alone, second with 55 per cent alfalfa and 45 per cent
refuse screenings and third with refuse screenings alone.
The chemical composition of the refuse screenings was found to be : dry matter
90.4 per cent; ash, 8.7 per cent; ether extract, 6.8 per cent; crude protein, 14.5
per cent; crude fibre, 15.6 per cent; and nitrogen-free extract, 45.1 per cent. The
refuse screenings had a T. D. N. content of 58.4 when fed alone and 61.6 when fed
with alfalfa hay.
ABSTRACTS
117
Mineral supplements fed for two months prepartum did not clicit perceptible
effects upon the levels of calcium and inorganic phosphorus in the plasma of the
new born calves or of their dams. Of a number of whole blood and plasma cons-
tituents studied, the outstanding group differences found were the lower levels of
reduced and total glutathione in both the cows and calves of group III than in those
of the other three groups. Greater concentrations of reduced and total glutathione,
calcium, inorganic phosphorus, acid and alkaline phosphatase and ascrobic acid and
a greater number of erythrocytes were found in the blood of new born calves than
in that of their dams ; a greater corpuscular haemoglobin content, corpuscular
volume, and a higher plasma level of total proteins, globulin and albumin were
found in cows than in their calves immediately following parturition and before the
calf had access to colostrum.
Similar concentrations of the various blood constituents studied were found,
regardless of the sex of the new born calf. Seven calves which received colostrum
prior to the procurement of blood for analyses at an average age of 4.5 hours had
strikingly higher plasma levels of total protein, globulin and albumin than those
which had not. been nursed by their dams. The blood of the calves which had
ingested colostrum contained slightly less haemoglobin, smaller numbers of erythro-
cytes and a smaller proportion of the whole blood volume consisting of erythrocyte
than the other calves, which may have been due to dilution of the blood. Small
quantities of globulin were demonstrable in the plasma of newborn calves prior to
the ingestion of colostrum. (K. P.)
Farm Dairy Buildings Bacteriological Aspects. THOMAS, S. B. (1949). Soc. Dairy
Tech. 2, 127
I N Wales, the dominant change during recent years has been from stock rearing
and butter making to milk production, which has necessitated the change in the
lay out of farm buildings. About 60 per cent of milk-selling farms in Wales,
have less than 10 cows ; the number of such farms have increased from 9,327 to
26,100 during 1934-1947 and hence due regard has been given to small size milking
herds. In discussing the bacteriological aspects of a problem of this kind, it is
better to confine the attention towards. (1) characteristics of good dairy buildings,
(2) condition of cow houses and dairies, (3) contamination of milk from cow house
air, (4) fly control and water supply factors.
The bacteriological criteria that are needed for assessing the suitability of farm
dairy buildings for the production of safe milk with low bacterial count and good
keeping quality are, (a) healthy clean cows, (b) milking under hygienic conditions,
(c) relatively sterile utensils and (d) prompt and efficient milk cooling, which should
be applied in consideration of details regarding site, surroundings, drainage,
light, ventilation and facilities for easy cleaning of the cow house and dairy.
Contamination of milk from the air of the byre is negligible, when compared with
other sources, unless under abnormal conditions, where much dust may be raised
during feedling or cleaning operations.
120
ABSTRACTS
Only 9.38 per cent of 32 experimental Holstien calves had blood plasma vitamin
A values below 7.00 micrograms per 100 ml. of plasma whereas 25.0 per cent of the
36 controls were in level of 9 micrograms and over per 100 ml. Blood
plasma vitamin D values on 4 composite samples were approximately 2.5 times
higher in experimental calves as compared to control calves. (D. N.)
The Relationship of Production of Heifers Milked Prepartum to the Composition
of Colostrum. VANLANDTNGHAM, A. H. WEAKLEY JR. C. E. ACKERMAN R.A. AND
GEORGE HYATT JR. (1949). J. Dairy Sci. XXXII (6) 559-564
I N this study the total nitrogen, casein nitrogen and the non-casein nitrogen
have been used to compare the composition of colostrum with that of normal
milk.
Only 16 Ayrshire heifers were divided into two equal groups upon the basis of
expected dates of parturition, every other animal being assigned to each group. One
group was handled in the usual way while the other group was milked for a period
of 3 to 18 days averaging 10 days prepartum.
Total production before calving for prepartum milked heifers varied from 2 to
142 lb. and on the day before parturition ranged from 0.1 to 24.3 lb. with an average
of 10.2 lb.
The total nitrogen and non-casein nitrogen of the milk produced on the day of
parturition for the heifers not milked prepartum averaged 2.34 and 1.34 gm. per
100 ml. respectively whereas from the heifers milked prepartum averaged 1.13
and 0.50 gm. per 100 ml respectively. The non-casein nitrogen amounted to 57.3
per cent of the total. Nitrogen for the first group of heifers but only 39.1 per cent
for the second group of heifers milked prepartum. The total nitrogen and non-
casein nitrogen in the heifers prepartum-milked on the day of calving were depen-
dent on the level of production and the total amount produced before parturition.
Heifers producing appreciable quantities of prepartum colostrum produced
normal-appearing milk at the time of parturition. (R. S.)
Developments in the Heat-treatment of Milk Aspects. ROWLANDS A. (1950). J.
Seol. Dairy. Tech. 3. 213. 224
T HE bacteriological principles involved in the heat-treatment of milk are dis-
cussed under the heads (i) milk as an agent in the spread of disease to humans
(ii) time-temperature relationship in pasteurisation (iii) H.T.S.T. pasteurisation and
destruction of pathogens (iv) thermoduric bacteria in pasteurised milk (v) pasteuri-
sation and keeping quality and (vi) thermophilic organisms.
The pathogenic bacteria present in milk have been broadly classified into
two groups, viz., whether they are of bovine or of human origin. According to the
author the former group of organisms are those present in milk at the time of
drawing while the latter is made up of organisms contaminating milk at different
stages of handling. Apart from the usually occurring pathogenic bacteria of bovine
origin mention is made of Rickellsia birneti the caustive organism for a new disease
known as Q-fever.
122
ABSTRACTS
to level off at about 4 to 5 per gm. The carotenoids of milk closely followed the
carotenoid level of pasture herbage and this was especially true when the pasture
carotenoid level was below 250 per gm. The steady level of milk vitamin A and its
lesser dependence on pasture carotenoids is attributed to the influence of the liver
stores and the conversion of carotene to vitamin A. (A. K.)
Sterilised Milk. KEELING P. G. (1950). J. Soc. Dairy Tech. 3, 264-71
T HE paper includes the official description of the product, a brief history of the
development of the sterilised milk industry and a detailed discussion on the
individual steps involved in the manufacture of product. The principles under-
lying the technique of manufacture are outlined as :
(i) Supply of good quality milk that has not been previously heat-treated.
(ii) Correct timing of arrival of milk to be related to the processing periods.
(iii) Processing of milk in the order.
(a) Removal of all foreign matter by centrifugations at a temperature of
80 to 110°F.
(b) Flash heating to 170°±5°F to ensure the elimination of coliforms and to
prepare for homogenisation.
(c) Filling the homogenised milk into hot sterile bottles.
(d) In-bottle sterilisation either by manually operated outfit or in continuous
auto-sterilisers.
The modern designs of tubular or plate flash heaters vis-a-vis the sterilised milk
industry have been discussed and the need for bearing in mind the importance of
complete accessability for cleaning while chosing the right type of flash heaters and
homogenisers is stressed. The bacteriological aspects involved in the storage and
distribution of sterilised milk with special reference to thermoduric organisms has
been briefly discussed. The author has also assessed the conflicting medical opinion
on the nutritive value of the product. Sterilisation is pointed out to cause a slight
lowering of the biological value of protein together with a reduction in the vitamins
B 1 and C. Notwithstanding these losses in nutritive quality the value of sterilised
milk as a food can not be questioned owing to other exigent grounds such as its
bacteriological purity and long keeping quality. (M.R.S.)