NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
September, 1951]
AMRITAMOY
MUKHERJI
163
TABLE XXI
Statistical results
Constituents
Hb
R.B.C.
C.V. per cent
Ca
P
Mg
Body wt.
Shade group
Significance of the
difference between
the means of the
constituents obtained
before vaccination
and after reaction period
Difference highly significant
Difference not significant
Difference highly significant
do.
Difference significant
Difference not significant
Difference significant
Remarks
*
..
*
*
*
..
*
Sun group
Significance of the
difference between
the means of the
constituents obtained
before vaccination
and after reaction period
Difference not significant .
Difference highly significant
Difference not significant .
do.
do.
Difference highly significant
do.
Remarks
*
*
..
..
..
*
*
* In favour of the group before vaccination
Discussion and application of results
Histologists and immunologists have shown that the various dyes and suspen-
sions, when injected into the body, are stored in the form of granules or in the intra
cellular vacuoles by certain cells that have a characteristic distribution throughout
the body. The common character of dye storage possessed by cells of this type
has led many observers and particularly Aschoff [1924], to regard them as an inte-
grated system of cells fulfilling a particular bodily function. He has termed this as
' reticulo-endothelial system '. Topley and Wilson [1936] observed 'The avail-
able evidence indicates that the cells of the ' reticulo-endothelial system', which
are known to remove injected antigenic material from the blood and tissue fluids
play an essential part in the production of anti-bodies. Whether these cells them-
selves produce the antibodies in their final and complete form, or whether their
role is confined to the temporary retention of antigen and its subsequent liberation
in an altered or unaltered state, the actual synthesis of antibodies occurring else-
where, cannot yet be determined. The present indications are that the part played
by the ' reticulo-endothelial system ' is not confined to the retention and release of
unaltered antigens'. Various hypotheses have been put forward from time to time
with regard to the conception of antibodies and the method of their formation.
Ehrich's conception of antibodies was that they were shed 'cell receptors'. The
antigen gained effective contact with the cell by becoming anchored, through
specific chemical groupings of its own to specific chemical groupings on 'side-
chains' carried by the tissue cells. Breinl and Haurowitz [1930] and Mudd [1932]
put forward another hypothesis of the method of antibody formation. This hypo-
thesis assumes that all antibodies are globulins which get synthesized under the
September, 1951]
AMRITAMOY
MUKHERJI
169
with hill-bulls was vary low, as revealed by the serum tests). The immunity tests
on buffaloes and goats revealed that they were all immune at the end of 3 months
after vaccination. (The percentage of potency of the immune sera of buffaloes and
goats was higher in both the groups.)
Some of the blood constituents, e.g.—Hb, R.B.C., C.V. per cent, Ca, P and Mg, of
both the groups were estimated once before vaccination and again after reaction
period and the influence of solar radiation on these constituents was studied. Efforts
were also made to find out the co-relation of some of these constituents with the
antibody formation. It was found that in both the groups, the first three consti-
tuents were decreased after the reaction period, but this decrease was more marked
in case of the 'Sun group' than in the 'Shade group'. In the majority of the
experiments, calcium and inorganic phosphorus contents of the blood of the 'Sun
group'
they were found to be either same or increased after the reaction period. There
was not much difference in the magnesium constituents of the blood of both the
groups before and after vaccination. The decrease in the blood constituents of
the 'Sun group' after the reaction period was associated with the lower potency of
serum and comparatively higher level of the blood constituents of the 'Shade
group' after the reaction period was associated with higher potency of serum.
In view of the above indications, it is desirable that further work on this line
with larger number of animals and with different antigens should be undertaken.
The ideal season for immunization is winter. If immunization is undertaken
during summer, then the immunized animals should be kept indoors in a cooler
environment for the period covering the antibody formation.
REFERENCES
Aschoff, L.(1924). Ergebn. inn. Med. Kinderheilk, 26, 1, Quoted by Topley, W. W. C, and
Wilson, G. S. (1936). The Principles of Bacteriology and Immunity. 2nd, 814. Original
not seen
Brienl, F. and Haurowitz, F. (1930). J. Phys. Chem. 192, 45
Chase, J. H., Abraham White and Thomas F. Dougherty (1946). J. Immunol. 52, No. 2, 101
Cannon, Paul R. (1944). J. Amer. Dict. Ass. 20. Quoted by Smith H. C. (1947) -Vet. med.
XLII, No. 3. Original not seen
Chapman, J. and Hardy, M. (1931). Amer. J. Hyg. 11, 404
Ehrich, W. E. and Harris, T. N. (1942). J. exp. Med. 335
Harris, T. N., Grimm, E., Nortens, E. and Ehrich, W. E. (1945). J. exp. Med. 81, 73
Hill, L., Greenwood, M. and Topley, W. W. C. (1930). Brit. J. exp. Path. 11, 182
Mudd, S. (1932). J. Immunol., 23, 423
Topley, W. W. C. and Wilson, G. S. (1936). The Principles of Bacteriilogy and Immunity, 2nd
edn. 884
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION IN SHEEP AND GOATS AT
IZATNAGAR*
By S. GUHA, M. L. KOHLI AND P. BHATTACHARYA,
Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar
(Received for publication on 27 June 1950)
I N India, there are about 41 million sheep and 50 million goats. Of the large
farm animals, they are perhaps the thriftiest and least expensive to rear and
maintain. Their distribution is mostly amongst the poorer class of people and their
major sustenance comes from stray grazing. Extensive grazing areas are required
to provide sufficient pasturage for maintaining these large numbers. These animals
supply a large variety of readily marketable products, viz., milk, meat, wool, 'mohair'
hair, manure and leather, etc. But the production capacity of Indian sheep and
goats is very low and the scope and need for improvement are being increasingly
appreciated. Improvement in their productive capacity will yield not only more
profit to those engaged in their husbandry but will also reduce pressure on land by
making economic retention of smaller number possible.
Improvement in sheep and goats is being carried out in many parts of the
country by selective breeding within the breed, grading with indigenous superior
breeds and also to some extent by crossing and grading indigenous stock with foreign
breeds. Of the foreign breeds of sheep, Merino has been more extensively used than
others and Angora amongst goats. Considerable difficulty is, however, encountered
in importing a large number of Meriono rams and Angora bucks. There is also a
great paucity of good quality sires of the indigenous breeds, and the economic use
of semen of sires of superior genetic make up has become an urgent necessity. This
can best be achieved through an extensive use of artificial insemination which has
already become an accepted method of breeding in many countries. In Russia, for
example, 14,500,000 ewes were inseminated in 1939 with the semen collected from
41,274 rams, giving an average of one ram for every 280 ewes [Ozin, 1939]. By
natural service only 50 ewes could be served by one ram. In this* paper are pre-
sented the results and experiences obtained from preliminary investigations into the
artificial insemination work with sheep and goats carried out at the Indian Veterinary
Research Institute, Izatnagar, under a scheme of the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research.
Training of rams and bucks
The use of artificial vagina for collecting semen for artificial insemination in
sheep and goats has met with the same success as in large farm animals. In sheep,
* This paper was read at the 34th Session of the Indian Science Congress, 1947
171
September, 1951] S. GUHA, M. L. KOHLI AND P. BHATTACHARYA 173
TABLE I
Result of insemination of ewes and goats with different fractions of ejaculum
Fraction of
total ejaculum
Whole
1/2
1/3
1/4
1/5
1/6
1/7
1/8
1/9
1/10
1/11
1/12
1/13
1/14
1/15
1/16
1/20
1/25
1/26
1/30
1/32
1/35
1/40
Number of animals
inseminated
Ewes
2
2
1
1
1
4
7
8
7
63
1
2
..
6
28
1
45
..
..
9
..
5
5
Does
5
8
5
14
17
11
9
12
4
13
3
5
2
..
11
9
1
1
2
..
1
1
..
Number of animals
examined for pregnancy
Ewes
1
2
1
1
1
4
7
7
7
62
..
2
..
4
9
1
40
..
..
9
..
5
5
Does
5
8
4
13
15
9
8
9
3
11
3
5
2
..
9
6
..
1
2
..
1
..
1
Number of animals
found pregnant
Ewes
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
4
1
56
..
2
..
4
5
1
9
..
..
3
..
..
5
Does
5
7
3
12
14
8
7
8
2
9
2
4
1
..
6
4
..
..
1
..
1
..
..
Fresh semen either neat or diluted was used for inseminating a large number
of sheep and goats and in a number of cases semen preserved for various periods
was also used. Of the animals inseminated with diluted semen the group in which
E.Y.P. diluent [Lardy and Phillips, 1939] was used was the largest. Winters,
174
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION IN SHEEP AND GOATS
[Vol. XXI, Part III,
dilutor [Winters et al. 1938] and E.Y.C. [Salisbury, Fuller and Willet, 1941] were also
tried in a number of cases. Semen preserved upto seven days had given success
in ewes and in goats successful impregnations were obtained with semen stored upto
four days. Winters [1936] obtained successful impregnation with ram semen stored
for a maximum period of six days.
TABLE II
Results of insemination of ewes and goats with preserved semen
Period of preservation
(in hours)
0 (or fresh)
Up to 24
Between 24-48
Between 48-72
Between 72-96
Between 98-120
Between 120-144
Between 144-168
Total
Number of animals
inseminated
Ewes
77
40
35
12
11
9
9
5
198
Goats
79
17
31
4
2
—
—
1
134
Number of animals
examined for
pregnancy
Ewes
52 (47)
38 (18)
35 (14)
10(4)
11(5)
9(4)
8(4)
5(2)
168 (98)
Goats
66 (58)
16(12)
26(20)
4(2)
2(1)
—
—
1(—)
115 (93)
Pregnancy
percentage
Ewes
90.4
47.4
40.0
40.0
45.5
—
—
—
58.3
Goats
87.8
75.0
44.4
—*
—
—
—
—
80.8
* Figures in brackets denote numbers found pregnant
† Percentage of pregnancy not worked out in cases where less than ten animals were examined
Pregnancy results
The results of pregnancy have been deducted mostly from actual lambing and
kidding data. It was not possible to obtain all the results from the private owned
animals and the result of the insemination of the flock of sheep at Hissar in 1946
was not available at the time of writing this paper. The overall percentages of
pregnancy, including all animals for which pregnancy results were available, were
58.3 in ewes and 80.8 in goats. The exceptionally low figure in the sheep was due
to the vast majority of the animals being from Hissar Farm in 1944-45 (125) and the
percentage of fertility in this flock was as low as 48 per cent. This was possibly
due to the insemination not synchronizing with the time of ovulation in a number
of ewes. The time of ovulation is generally related to the end of heat. The opti-
mum time for insemination depends on the length of the oestrous period which
varies in different breeds and under different conditions. It, therefore, seems
September, 1951] S. GUHA, M. L. KOHLI AND P. BHATTACHARYA 175
probable that in a large number of cases in this flock the optimum time for insemina-
tion was missed. It was also found difficult to spot out the ewes on heat at the right
time as no vasectomised ram was available. The percentage of pregnancy in the
experimental flock of sheep at Izatnagar, however, was 86.37. A very great varia-
tion in the percentage of conception in ewes has been observed by workers in other
countries. In Russia, where by far the largest number of ewes have been insemi-
nated, even as high an average conception rate as 97 per cent has been obtained
[Kersin, 1937]. In Kenya colony, the lambing percentage varied from 47 to 79
in different years [Anderson, 1943]. He ascribed the low conception rate to certain
equipmental procedure and lack of knowledge of the optimum season of breeding.
In South Africa, Quinlan, Mare and Claassens [1936] obtained 33 to 56 per cent
fertility by a single insemination into the cervix of the ewe at one heat period.
Poorer results than this have been obtained by Gunn [1936] and Kelley [1937] in
Australia. The inseminations carried out by Gunn were under rather unfavour-
able conditions. It may be mentioned here that the inseminations at Hissar were
performed in the open field under very unfavourable atmospheric conditions, the
days being very hot and windy.
The number of inseminations required per conception as worked out from the
animals found pregnant showed that 86.7 per cent of the ewes conceived by the first
insemination, 7.1 per cent by the second insemination, and 6.1 per cent by the third
or subsequent insemination. The figures for goat were 78.4, 11.8 and 9.6 per cent
respectively. In Argentina, out of 108 ewes inseminated [Ross, 1942], 52 became
pregnant at the first insemination, 29 at the second, 21 at the third and 6 not at
all.
TABLE III
Number of animals pregnant by the first, second, third or subsequent insemination
Species
Ewe
Goats
Total number of
pregnant animals
98
93
Number of animals
pregnant by one
insemination
85(86.7 per cent)
73(78.4 per cent)
Number of animals
pregnant by two
inseminations
7(7.1 per cent)
11(11.8 per cent)
Number of animals
pregnant by three
or more insemi-
nations
6(6.1 per cent)
9(9.6 per cent)
From the experience gained, it has been found that sheep and goats of Indian
breeds do not always show clear signs of heat. Examination of the reproductive
organs often revealed cases of silent heat. In the flocks of sheep and goat at Izat-
nagar vasectomised males were used to detect heat in females with better result.
In conclusion, it may be emphasised that an extensive utilization of artificial
insemination in sheep and goat breeding, if introduced in India, would greatly
benefit the livestock industry. As already mentioned, there is a great scarcity of
high quality sires, to make up which, inferior males have to be used to a large extent.
There is, therefore, immense scope for the adoption of artificial insemination in
sheep and goat production. The results obtained in these experiments have given
encouraging indications regarding its applicability on an extensive scale.
176
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION IN SHEEP AND GOATS
[Vol. XXI, Part III,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks are due to Messrs. G. W. Vaidya and D. B. Mukherjee for the help
rendered during the period they were connected with the scheme.
REFERENCES
Anderson, J. (1943). Vet. Rec. 55, 5, 62
Anderson, J. (1945). I. A. B. Technical Communication, Semen of animals and its use for Art.
Ins., 116
Gunn, R. M. C. (1936). Bull. Coun. Sci., Indust. Res. Aust., 94
Kelley, R. B. (1937). Ibid, 112
Kersin, I. A. (1937). Probl. Zivotn. Sci., 3, 7 Abstract in A. B. A. 1937, 5, 252
Kirillov, V. S. (1938). Probl. Zivotn., 8/9, 39 Abstract in A. B. A. 1940 ; 8, 50
Lardy, H. A., Phillips P. H. (1939). Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod. Proc., 219-E
Lopyrin, A. I. and Loginova, N. V. (1939). Trud. Inst. Ovcevod. Kozovod, 10, 5 Abstract
in A. B. A. 1941, 9, 325
Salisbury, G. W., Fuller, H. K., and Willet, E. L. (1941). J. Dairy, Sci., 24, 905.
Ozin, F. (1939). Socialist, Zivotn., 7, 90 Abstract in A. B. A. 1941, 9, 224
Quinlan, J., Mare, G. S., and Claassens, C. C. (1936). J. South Afr. Vet. Med. Ass. 7, 86
Ross, D. G., (1942). Pastoral Rev. 52, 96
Walton, A. (1938). Notes on A. I. of sheep, cattle and horses; London Halborn Surgical Instru-
ment Co., Ltd. (2nd Edition)
Winters, L. M. (1936). Proc. Conc. of A. I. in Chicago, 27, 1936
Winters, L. M., Comstock, R. E., Cole, E. L., Green, W. W. and Bulik, J. J. (1938). Bull.
Minn. Agric. Expt. Sta., 336
AN APPRAISAL OF FACTORS AFFECTING FERTILITY IN
SHEEP*
By R. N. DESAI, Assistant Professor, Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Banaras
Hindu University and L. M. Winters, Professor of Animal Husbandry,
University of Minnesota
(Received for publication on 9 January 1951)
(With Plate XIII)
A NY temporary or permanent loss in fertility in live-stock is not only a liability
to the present day farmer but also a loss of the genetic material. It affects
the efficiency of selection, because the proportion of the animals available for breed-
ing purpose is reduced. Satisfactory reproduction is the basic requirement for the
progress in animal breeding as it gives a larger population from which a given
number of animals with a desirable combination of different characters can be
selected.
It is well recognized that fertility has a hereditary basis but it is highly influenced
by factors other than heredity. There is a great variability in fertility in sheep.
A large portion of this is due to the complex phenomena with which these non-
hereditary factors act on fertility. If the proportion of this variability could be
measured and the relative importance of these factors could be established, the
selection for the twinning tendency in sheep would be more effective.
In general, a breeding female gradually increases in fertility from her first
breeding and usually reaches the peak early in her full maturity. Asdell and
Willman [1941] suggested that fecundity is low during the early life of the female
animal, rises to its peak and then declines with increasing age. Hammond
[1941] pointed out that the submaximal fertility corresponds to the time during
which the skeleton is completing its full growth, suggested that the frequency of
the multiple births in sheep increases with age up to maturity and then declines.
Marshall and Potts [1921] stated that to get the largest number of twins, ewes
should gain at least seven pounds during breeding seasons. Clark [1934] was of
the same opinion by saying that there is a definite relationship between the increase
in body weight and the number of ova liberated in sheep. Terril and Stoeher [1939]
found in range sheep that the condition of the ewes during breeding, has a close
relationship with the percentage of lambs born.
Kiser and Christagau [1940] reported that twin born ewes consistently give
higher percentage of lambs than the single born ewes.
An attempt was made in this study to identify factors affecting fertility and to
determine the proportion of the total variance for which they are responsible.
*Paper No. 2690 Scientific Journal Series of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tions. This paper is condensed from Part I of a thesis submitted by the senior author to the
Graduate Faculty of the University of Minnesota in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
177
178 AN APPRAISAL OF FACTORS AFFECTING FERTILITY IN SHEEP [Vol. XXI, Part III,
Sources of data and methods of analysis
The data used for this study were gathered at four branch stations of the
University of Minnesota Experiment Station. The breeds of sheep at the different
branch stations and the crossed lines were treated as separate lines for this study.
The system of management and feeding at these stations was more or less
similar. Most of the selection for fertility was based on the twin born lambs and
on the consistency of performance of the ewes from year to year.
For the study of the factors affecting the lambing percentage, the problem was
broken down into different analyses, depending upon the available records. They
were as follows:
1. An analysis of the effects of age of the ewes.
2. An analysis of the effects of sires and the type of birth, etc.
3. The estimation of the relative importance of the different factors, by esti-
mating the proportions of the variations due to these factors to the total variation.
The first analysis was made by using covariance method as outlined by
Snedecor [1946]. The second and third analyses were made by the analysis of
variance method according to Snedecor.
The phrase 'lambing average' has been frequently used in this paper with the
meaning—number of lambs born alive per lambing. Similarly 'lambing percent-
age.' has been used to indicate the number of lambs born per one hundred lambings.
Factors affecting fertility
Age of ewe. Since the reproductive functions reach perfection at maturity it is
logical to expect an increase in lambing percentage as the age increases up to
maturity.
To analyse these effects of age on lambing average, the records of 2,696 lambings
from 962 ewes were taken for analysis. The summary of lambing percentages by
lines and age is given in Table I.
TABLE I
Lambing averages by lines and age
Line
S. E. Crossed
S. E. Shrop
W. C. Columbia
W. C. Shrop
W. C. Hamp
N. C. Shrop
N. C. Western
N. C. Crossed
N. W. Hamp
N. W. Shrop
N. W. Crossed
Average
2 year
Mean
1.36
1.09
1.39
1.49
1.00
1.21
1.00
1.20
1.32
1.42
1.20
1.25
3 year
Mean
1.25
1.31
1.54
1.54
1.38
1.43
1.10
1.36
151
1.50
1.71
142
4 year
Mean
1.40
1.44
1.65
1.70
1.47
1.47
1.59
1.57
1.55
1.70
1.38
1.58
5 year
Mean
1.00
1.48
1.65
1.53
1.50
1.71
1.26
1.66
1.54
1.59
—
1.58
6 year
Mean
1.43
1.56
1.60
2.00
1.75
1.70
1.63
1.60
1.64
—
1.62
7 year
Mean
1.26
1.95
1.83
—
1.55
1.43
2.00
1.75
1.62
—
1.59
Overall
Mean
1.31
1.31
1.55
1.57
1.37
1.44
1.19
1.38
1.50
1.55
1.40
1.44
Difference
.17
±.02**
.16
±.02**
.00
±.02
.04
±.03
.03
±.05
** Highly significant
PLATE XIII
Indian J. Vet. Sci., Vol. XXI, Part III