NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
58 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ IV, I.
duals, but the large majority in all the breeds attain it between the 3rd and the
6th week after calving, that is, roughly in the second month of lactation. The
maximum and the rate of decline are as follows:—
Breed.
Cross-bred . . . . . . .
Pedigree Sahiwal
.
.
.
.
.
.
Ordinary Sahiwal
.
.
.
.
.
.
Buffaloes
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Maximum yield
per month
in lb.
980.9
791.1
492.0
570.9
Rate of decline
per 100 lb. per
month.
9.215
7.450
11.010
9.281
How this information may be made use of for computing whole or part of a lac-
tation is illustrated.
Barring minor variations, the yield for any month bears a constant ratio
to that of the preceding month. This property enables the dairyman to test if
environmental conditions like feeding and management in the herd are normal or
not. The ratios for the different breeds are tabulated, and examples are given
showing how the lactation curve (i,e., the curve showing the change in the rate
of milk secretion as lactation advances) may be drawn for a herd and how the
existence of normal conditions may be tested. Examples are also given showing
how the best values of the maximum and the rate of decline may be determined
from a given set of data.
A table is appended showing the importance of the rate of decline as a
factor in the economical production of milk. Here the total lactation yields cor-
responding to the different values of the rates of decline are recorded,
The writer wishes to acknowledge his deep indebtedness to Captain C. E.
Macguckin, M.B.E., Assistant Director of Dairy Farms, Northern Circle, Lahore
Cantonment, for the valuable advice and guidance he has received from him in
the preparation of this paper.
REFERENCES.
Fisher, R. A. (1930) Statistical Methods for Research Workers.
Gaines & Davidson (1926). Rate of milk secretion as affected. by advance in lactation and
gestation. Ill Agri. Exp. St. Bul, 272.
Gaines, W. L. (1927) Persistency of lactation in dairy cows. Ill. Agri. Exp. St, Bul, 288.
RATE OF DECLINE IN MILK YIELD OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CATTLE 59
Mills, F. C.(l924) Statistical Method.
Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural Science and Practice—May 1932.
Ross, Hall and Rhodes. (1923) Study of the feed cost of milk and fat production as related to
yields, Ill. Agri. Exp. St. Bul. 244.
Running, T. R. Empirical Formulas.
Yule, G. U. (1929) An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics.
APPENDIX.
CALCULATION OF THE RATE OF DECLINE.
In calculating the monthly rate of decline it was mentioned in the text that
the yield for the first fortnight was omitted. The monthly yields tabulated are,
therefore, successively yields for .5 to 1.5 months after calving, 1.5 to 2.5 months
after calving, etc., the mid-points of these periods being 1, 2, 3, etc., months
after calving. Thus if time is measured to the middle of the month, we have
yields per month at 1, 2, 3, etc., months after calving. As maximum rate of
secretion is almost invariably reached between the 3rd and the 6th week of
lactation, the yield per month at one month after calving represents the maximum
rate of secretion. As the equation made use of represents the lactation curve only
from the maximum it would be more convenient to measure time from maximum
than from the date of calving.
The attached table shows the details of calculation. Column 1 shows time
in months (measured to the middle of the month) from maximum, column 2 shows
yields for months given in column 1, the logarithms of the yields are entered in
3; figures in 1 and 3 are multiplied and the product is given in 4. Column 5 is
added as a check on the arithmetic, and the figures therein are obtained by
multiplying the logarithms in 3 successively by 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. If the arithmetic
is correct the totals of columns 3 and 4 when added would give the total of
column 5.
In working out the results we are concerned only with the totals of columns
3 and 4. We shall designate these by a and b. In the attached table there are
seven observations, from 0 to 6 months. With seven observations, twice the total
of column 4 is subtracted from six times the total of column 3, and the difference
is divided by 56 and .4343. The quotient gives the rate of decline per lb. per
month. Symbolically this may be expressed as 6a—2b/56×.4343 To find the maximum,
three times the difference has to be divided by 8, the quotient added to total
of column 3. One-seventh of this sum is the logarithm of the maximum. From
logarithmic tables the antilogarithm of this can easily be found out.
60 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ IV, I.
Illustration of the method of computation of the rate of decline and maximum.
(Data : Ordinary Sahiwal, N. Circle.
1
Time in. months from maximum
t
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Total
2
Milk
yield per month
in lb.
y
495.7
443.2
390.4
351.2
314.7
287.7
253.9
...
3
Logarithm
of
yields
Log y.
2.6952
2.6461
2.5915
2.5455
2.4979
2.4590
2.4046
17.8398
4
Product
of (1) and (3)
t × log y.
...
2.6461
5.1830
7.6365
9.9916
12.2950
14.4276
52.1798
5
(t + 1) x log y.
2.6952
5.2922
7.7745
10.1820
12.4895
14.7540
16.8322
70.0196
Symbol
a
Rate of decline.
6 times total of column 3 (=6a)
.
.
.
2 times total of column 4
(=2b)
.
.
.
Difference
.
This difference divided by 56 × .4343 gives
b
=6×17.8398 =
=2×52.1798 =
=
...
107.0388
104.3596
2.6792
.1101
which is the rate of decline 5 per lb per
month.
Maximum.
3/8 of difference
.
.
.
.
.
.
Total of column 3 . . . . . .
Sum .
= 2.6792×3/8 =
...
...
1.0047
17.8398
18.8445
This sum divided by 7 gives 2.6921, which is the logarithm of maximum. The
maximum is, therefore, 492.0 lb., which is read from a table of antilogarithms.
With the exception of the last step the details of calculation are the same,
whatever the number of observations. In the last step also there is some uniformity;
for finding out the difference of the totals of the columns it is always twice the
total of column 4 that is to be subtracted, and always the difference has to be
divided by .4343. Thus with six observations (0 to 5 months from maximum) the
formula for rate of decline would be
5a—2b/35
×.4343
With 8, 9 and 10 observations the formulae are respectively,
7a—2b / 84 ×.4343 8a—2b / 120 × .4343 and 9a—2b / 165 × .4343.
RATE OF DECLINE IN MILK YIELD OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CATTLE
61
These formulae can be generalised. Thus if n observations are available (0 to n—1
months) the rate of decline is
(n—1) a—2b / .4343 × n(n 2 —1)/6.
A general formula may be given for finding the maximum as well. With seven
months we took 3/8 of the difference, with 8, 3/9 would have to be taken, and with
n observations we have to take 3/(n+1) of the difference. This when added to a and
divided by the number of observations gives the logarithm of the maximum.
Graphical Computation.
Data of yields are collected as before. That is, yields are found between '5 and
1.5, 1.5 and 2.5, etc., months after calving. Their logarithms are then found and
plotted as shown in Fig. 5, against time in months as abscissa. A straight
line is then drawn to pass as closely as possible to all the points. Very great
judgment should be used in drawing this line to see that it is the best fit to the data.
Let this line cut the X-axis at B and Y-axis at A as shown in Fig. 5. Measure
Months after reaching maximum.
FIG. 5.
NOTE: (1) OA/OB × 4343 = Rate of decline per lb. per month.
(2) Antilog of OA is maximum.
62 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ IV, I.
OA and OB, and divide the ratio OA/OB by .4343. The quotient gives the rate of
decline per month per lb. The working is shown at the foot of the graph. Care
should be taken to see that the distances OA and OB in inches are reduced to
logarithms and months respectively before finding the ratio.
The logarithm of the maximum is given by OA. Though this method is much
simpler, it is less accurate, for a good deal of the accuracy depends upon the care
and judgment of the fitter of the line.
How to draw a lactation curve for a herd.
Yields are generally available for each calendar month of lactation. The yields
of the months of calving are omitted, and the average yields for the first, second, third,
etc., full calendar month of record are found. These are plotted against time, first
observation representing first month, 2nd observation 2nd month and so on. A
smooth curve is then drawn passing as closely as possible through all these points.
As anything from 0 to 30 days may have elapsed between the date of calving
and the beginning of the first full calendar month of record, the average of the
omitted period would tend to be 15 days in a herd, when the herd is not very small.
The observed yields are, therefore, yields for the first, second, third, etc., month of
lactation when time is measured to the middle of the month; and this agrees with all
the foregoing calculations.
CALOTROPIS PROCERA AND CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA.
BY
G. K. SHARMA G.P.V.C.,
Clinical Assistant,
Department of Medicine, Punjab Veterinary College, Lahore.
(Received for publication on the 25th July 1933.)
(With Plates VI—XV.)
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION
....
NOMENCLATURE. BOTANICAL, SANSDRIT AND VERNACULAR NAMES . .
HISTORY
....
HABITAT ...........
BOTANICAL
AND
SENSORY
CHARACTERS
........
PARTS
USED
IN
MEDICINE
...
COLLECTION
...
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION ....
PREPARATION .........
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF THE DRUG ON ANIMALS ....
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON THE ACTION OF THE DRUG ON THE
VARIOUS ORGANS .........
TOXICOLOGY .......
DOSES AND REFERENCES .........
PAGE
63
65
65
65
65
65
65
66
66
67
67
71
74
INTRODUCTION.
Few books have been written on indigenous drugs by medical men in India and
fewer still on the drugs used in veterinary medicine. Even in these, most of the
matter is either a translation of old literature or hearsay evidence about the uses of
the drugs obtained from natives and quacks. In certain cases medical practitioners
have described the actions of the drugs which, in their experience, have been found
useful in practice and there are just a few which have been investigated on modern
scientific lines. Observations based on a few clinical cases are, however, not reliable,
as some diseases are cured by nature, independent of the administration of any
( 63 )
F
64 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [IV, I.
medicine, and the particular drug used may be given credit which is unjustified by
fact. Moreover if a new drug is administered without experimental knowledge
of its actions, it may prove harmful or even fatal in certain cases. In India such
effects are not uncommon both amongst human beings and animals in the hands of
quacks.
Experimental pharmacology helps to overcome these difficulties. The physiolo-
gical action of a drug is first studied on healthy animals. Its actions are further
studied on various organs on small animals like the dog, cat, etc., with the help of
delicate apparatus such as the kymograph.
In the light of the tracings thus recorded and other experimental data similarly
obtained a drug can be used with safety and confidence in the treatment of certain
diseases. In this way many indigenous drugs having a false reputation may be
discarded and useful ones introduced in medicine.
Research work on indigenous drugs is a necessity especially in the veterinary
profession for the following reasons:—
Firstly, economy is a great consideration in these days of financial depression
and especially in veterinary practice, where the medicines used in the treatment of
animals are given in ounces and pounds. Research work on indigenous drugs not
only eliminates waste but allows of efficacious country drugs being procurable at the
mere cost of collection or at a nominal cost from the bazar.
Secondly, in the villages where allopathic drugs are not available, cheap country
medicines can easily be used in the treatment of animals.
Thirdly, in the outbreak of epizootic diseases hundreds of animals get affected
at a time and treatment with allopathic drugs is very expensive. There the use of
efficacious indigenous drugs helps to slove the economic difficulty. They are likely
to be less expensive and easily available.
Fourthly, the results of original research in pharmacology performed on animals
may prove unreliable, when applied to human beings but in veterinary work the very
animals to be treated are those used in experimental work and the experimental
results obtained are thus much more real and reliable.
There is no doubt that the methods of collecting drugs, their storage and
preservation in the hands of shopkeepers are defective and render many of them
useless for medicinal purposes. This can be immensely improved by collecting the
drugs at their proper season and time, and preserving them as tinctures, extracts, etc.,
which delays deterioration of the drugs and preserves the active properties for a
considerable time,
CALOTROPIS PROCERA AND CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA 65
NOMENCLATURE.
Syn. Sanskrit.—Arka, Alarka, Surya-putra.—(The leaves of the plant were used
in sun worship in Vedic times, hence it is called Surya-puttra or sun-leaf). Sanskrit
writers mentioned two varieties founded upon the colour of the flowers, namely,
white called Alarka and red called Arka.
Ver.—Madar (1) Hindi, Akanda Bengali, Mandara Bombay, Āk Punjabi,
Erruku Tarn., Mandaramu Tel., Bijelosha Sind.
HISTORY.
The ancient name of the plant occurs in Vedic literature as Arka. From one of
the sanskrit names of the plant, namely, Mandara, Madar is a corruption (2).
Catotropis Gigantea was first described and figured by Rheeds (2) and an
accurate and detailed description was given by Roxburgh at the beginning of the
19th century under the name Asclepias Gigantea.
Robert Brown subsequently showed that it was incorrect to describe this plant
as Asclepias, and he founded the genus Calotropis. Calotropis Procera was first
described from a specimen collected in Egypt by Prosper Alpinus and figured by
him on his return to Italy (2).
BOTANICAL AND SENSORY CHARACTERS.
A middle sized shrub, young parts covered with a pressed white tomentum ;
bark pale. Leaves subsessile, opposite, broad, obovate or oblong, acute or acumi
nate, base cordate, cottony beneath. Flowers medium sized simple or compound
arranged in axillary or subterminal pedunculate, corolla ½ to 1 inch across, dull-purple
or purplish-lilac, or white in colour (1).
Root-bark.—The outer surface is yellowish grey soft and corky, fissured longi
tudinally and can be easily separated from the middle cortical layer, which is white
and friable. The taste is mucilaginous bitter and acrid and the odour peculiar.
Seeds. Ovate ¼ inch long with a bright, silk white coma.
PARTS USED IN THE MEDICINE.
Root-bark, flowers, milky juice and leaves. The part mostly used is the root-
bark.
COLLECTION.
The roots should be collected in the month of April and May from sandy soil.
The older plants should be selected for the collection of the roots, as the older the
Calotropis procera is believed by some to be a different variety from the Gigantea, but the medicinal
properties are the same.
F 2
66 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ IV, 1.
plant the more active is the bark in its effects. The roots thus collected should be
washed to remove particles of sand and dirt and dried in the open air without ex-
posure to sun, until the milky juice contained in them becomes so far dried that it
ceases to flow on incisions being made. The bark is carefully removed, dried and
reduced to a fine powder.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.
Dr. Warden [1885], analysing the root-bark at Berlin, obtained white masses of
crystals and a yellow resin which were found to agree, as regards their melting point
and behaviour, with solvents with Alban and Fluavil respectively obtained from
Gutta-percha by Payen, and they were accordingly named Madar-Alban and Madar¬
Fluavil. He also separated from the drug a yellow bitter resin which is probably
the active principle. Dr. E. G. Hill and A. R. Sarkar [1915] analysed the root-bark
and have published, the result in the Journal of Chemical Society.
The following is the summary of the results obtained from the quantitative
analysis of the powdered bark :—
—
Moisture
.......
Spirit extract
.......
Soluble in water
......
Resins
.....
Total ash
......
Sand
.....
Pure ash
......
Young plant.
12.1
15.0
7.2
7.8
7.0
2.8
4.2
Old plant.
10.2
16.2
7.6
8.7
12.2
7.2
5.0
It is clear from the above-mentioned analysis that the root-bark from the older
plants has a higher percentage of acrid and bitter resinous matter than that from
the younger plants. No alkaloid could be isolated so far from the plant.
PREPARATIONS.
The roots collected from a sandy soil in the month of May and the bark peeled
off and dried according to the instructions mentioned above.
PLATE VI.
(a) Showing the movements of the stomach of a dog weighing 14 kgms. under chloralose anaesthesia. Note
the persistent increase in the tone of the stomach.
(b) Showing the movements of the intestines of a bitch weighing 11 kgms.
under chloralose anæsthesia.
PLATE VII.
(c) Showing the effect of a bigger dose (0.75 c.c.) of tincture calotropis on the intestines. Note the violent contraction
produced under the effect of the drug.
(d) Showing the action of the drug on an isolated segment of rabbits' intestine. Note the marked contraction
of the intestinal segment.
CALOTROPIS PROCERA AND CALOTROPIS
GIGANTEA
67
The dried bark reduced to powder No. 20 and the following preparations pre-
pared :—
1.
2.
Calotropis root-bark No. 20 . . .
Alcohol 90 per cent. sufficient to produce .
Prepared by the process of percolation.
Calotropis root-bark No. 20 . . .
Alcohol 90 per cent. sufficient to produce .
Tincture.
..
..
. .
. .
. 100 gms.
. 1000 c. c.
. 100 gms.
. 1000 c. c.
Prepared by the process of maceration. (Macerated for a week).
3. Alcoholic saturated solution of calotropis juice.
Mix alcohol 90 per cent. to the equal volume of Calotropis juice and shake
thoroughly well. Keep on shaking four or five times a day for a week. Allow-it to
stand for a few hours and decant the saturated solution of the juice.
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF THE DRUG ON ANIMALS.
A rana frog weighing 36 gms. was injected with an alcoholic saturated solution
of the juice into the anterior lymph sac and the frog showed the following symp-
toms :—
The respirations became infrequent 20 minutes after the injection. The frog
was disinclined to move and there were occasional convulsions in the hind legs. It
laid motionless and died an hour after the injection. The heart stopped in systole
and was irritable to mechanical and electrical stimuli. Pithing of the spinal cord
was followed by convulsions and twitching of the hind limbs.
Tincture calotropis drachm one and alcoholic solution of the juice minims
30 were given to healthy dogs to study their actions.
The symptoms observed on administration are nausea, salivation, vomiting.
slowing of the heart and infrequent pulse. The saturated solution of the juice
proved very irritant and toxic. It produced an acute gastro enteritis, restiessness
and pain, etc., in addition to the symptoms mentioned above, and the death occur-
red about an hour after the administration of the drug.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION IN THE ACTION OF THE DRUG.
Externally,—When the juice is applied on the unbroken skin or mucous mem.
brane it, acts as a powerful irritant and caustic. Applied to a scarified part or to a
cut surface of skin, the juice is a strong irritant and causes a swelling of the sur-
rounding tissues, which is hot and painful.
68 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ IV, I.
Internally.—In a dog weighing 14 kgms. under chloralose anaesthesia, the
tracings were recorded with the help of an enterograph. A stomach tube was
passed and left in the œsophagus. 30 c.c. of water administered per stomach tube,
as a control, did not produce a marked change, one c.c. of the tincture in 30 c.c. of
water given per stomach tube produced a persistent increase in the tone of the
stomach. The same dose repeated again gave similar results. (PI. VI, Pig. a).
Note the persistent increase in the tone of the stomach in Pig. a at A and B.
The drug increases the tone of the stomach. When given in the form of pow-
der, the calotropis root-bark increases the secretion of the gastric juice by virtue
of its being a bitter and thus improves the digestion and increases the appetite.
It is therefore a bitter tonic and stomachic. In larger doses it causes nausea and
excites the flow of saliva and increases the bronchial secretion. In still larger doses
it produces vomiting followed by depression and exhaustion.
Intestines.—In a bitch weighing 11 kgms. the movements of the small intestines
were recorded with the help of an enterograph. The intravenous injection of the
tincture in small doses varying from 0.2 to 0.3 c. c. produced an increase in the tone
of the intestines and a decrease in the peristalsis. A slightly larger dose 0.4 c. c. of
the tincture produced a little relaxation followed by violent contraction of the
intestines. There is a relaxation again followed by contraction. (PI. VI Fig. b).
A still bigger dose of the tincture 0.75 c. c. injected in the femoral vein produced a
violent contraction. (PI. VII, Fig. c.)
Isolated segment of intestine.—An isolated segment of duodenum of a rabbit
placed in a bath containing 100 c. c. of Tyrodes' solution being oxygenated. The
temperature was kept uniform at 37 C. throughout the experiment. Tineture
calotropis 0.1 c. c. added to the bath, where the segment of the intestine was held
suspended produced a marked increase in tone. (PI VII, Fig. d). The vagal
nerve endings of another segment of rabbits' intestine were paralysed in a bath
containing 100 c. c. of Tyrodes' solution at 37 C. with atropine. The atropine
produced relaxation of the intestinal segment due to vagal paralysis. Atropine
solution added to the bath again to ensure complete paralysis of the vagal nerve
endings. This failed to produce any further relaxation. The bath washed out
and filled again with 100 c. c. of Tyrodes' solution at 37 C. 0.1 c. c. of the tincture
added to the bath produced an increase in tone. (PI. VIII, Fig. f.)
In another experiment a segment of a rabbits' duodenum was kept suspended
in a bath containing atropine in Tyrodes' solution for 15 minutes to ensure complete
paralysis of the vagal terminations. The solution was allowed to run and to the
bath containing 100 c. c. fresh Tyrodes' solution, 0.2 c. c. of the tincture was added.
This produced a marked increase in tone which persisted for about 8 minutes.
(Pl. IX, Fig. g.)
PLATE VIII.
(e) Showing the action of tincture calotropis on the intestinal volume.
(f)
Showing the action of the drug on an isolated segment of intestine after paralysing the vagal nerve endings with atropine.
PLATE IX.
(g) Showing the action of the drug on an isolated segment of rabbits' intestine suspended in Tyrodes' solution containing atropine, for
15 minutes, to insure the complete paralysis of vagal endings. Note the increase in tone on addition of tincture calotropis after
vagal paralysis.
(h)
Showing the action of the drug on blood pressure of a dog weighing 17 kgms. under chloretone anæsthesia.
PLATE X.
(i) Showing the action of the drug on blood pressure of a dog weighing 12 kgms. under chloretone anæsthesia
with vagi cut.
(j) Showing the action of the drug on an isolated segment of rabbits' intestine. Note the contrac-
tion of the intestine produced by tincture calotropis and atropine added into the bath at
B and C failed to antagonize its action,
PLATE XL
(a) Showing the action of the drug on auricle and ventricle of a bitch weighing
11 kgms. under paraldehyde anæsthesia. The levers move upward during
systole, and during diastole downward.
PLATE XII.
(b) Showing heart volume in an atropinized clog weighing 8 kgms. under paraldehyde anæsthesia.