NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
336 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OP VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ IV, IV.
By applying the summations of these values to equations (2) and (3) we obtain
15964.76=10367.94a—17759.97b . . . . . . (4)
31534.92=17759.97a—35401.02b . . . . . . (5)
By solving equations (4) and (5) we get
a = 0.0989854
b = 0.8411323
The next step is to test the adequacy of fit for which the value of a and b as
now obtained are applied on the 18 individual amounts actually consumed from
paddy straw and linseed cake ; and the expected values (y 1 ) representing the cal-
culated amounts of consumption are worked out as follows :—
_
1 lb.
cake.
2 lb.
cake.
3 lb
cake.
Bullocks
D 1
D 2
D 3
D 6
D 7
D 8
D 1
D 2
D 3
D 6
D 7
D 8
D1
D 2
D 3
D 6
D 7
D 8
Total .
Digested amount
calculated
Straw
x 1 a ( x 1
X.0989854) 2.39
2.42
2.50
2.51
2.19
2.11
2.65
2.50
2.27
2.39
2.14
2.27
2.45
2.38
2.35
2.31
2.39
2.47
...
Cake
x 2 b (x 2
×.8411323)
16.49
16.49
17.63
17.63
17.68
17.68
35.25
35.25
35.35
35.35
32.93
32.93
53.03
53.03
49.42
49.42
52.88
52.88
...
Total
digested
amount
(calculated)
y 1
18.88
18.91
20.13
20.14
19.87
19.79
37.90
37.75
37.62
37.74
35.07
35.20
55.48
55.41
51.77
51.73
55.27
55.35
663.41
Total
digested
amount
(observed)
y
19.14
19.61
21.53
21.21
20.08
16.98
38.09
37.50
36.70
37.93
34.38
32.95
55.75
53.09
52.44
53.78
56.90
55.35
663.41
Difference
(y 1 —y)
—0.26
—0.70
—1.40
—1.07
—0.21
+2.81
—0.19
+0.25
—0.92
—0.19
+0.69
+2.25
—0.27
+2.32
—0.67
—2.05
—1.63
0.0
...
(Difference) 2
(y 1 —y) 2
0.0676
0.4900
1.9600
1.1449
0.0441
7.8961
0.0361
0.0625
0.8464
0.0361
0.4761
5.0625
0.0729
5.3824
0.4489
4.2025
2.6569
0.0000
30.8860
DETERMINATION OF DIGESTIBILITY CO-EFFICIENTS
337
ε
y 2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
(ε y) 2 /n = (663.41) 2 /18 = . . . . . . .
Total variance .
28133.51
24450.72
3682.79
From these data the statistical analysis of variance is obtained as follows :—
Analysis of variance.
Multiple regression . . . .
Residual
.
.
.
.
.
.
Total
Degrees
of
freedom
2
15
17
Sum
of
squares
3,651.90
30.89
3.682.79
Mean
sum of
squares
1,825.95
2.06
..
Observed
ratio
of
variance
886.39
..
..
Expected
ratio of
variance
(Fisher's)
6.351.
..
..
From the analysis of variance the co-relation is also worked out :—
R 2 =
.
.
.
.
.
∴ R = . . . . . .
3,651.9
3,682.79
0.99589
It will be seen that in the case of crude protein (nitrogen) as worked out, the
observed ratio of variance has provided an adequate fit and the co-relation has
been exceptionally high (99.589 per cent). We can therefore take with sufficient
reliability the values of a and b as the nearest approximation of actual
digestibility.
The values of a and b for the other components, viz., dry matter, organic
matter, etc., have all been worked out in the same way (table IX) and their
analysis of variance are shown in Appendix V.
338 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ IV, IV.
APPENDIX V.
Analysis of variance (Figures obtained by multiple regression equation).
Components
1
Dry matter
.{
Organic matter . {
Crude protein . {
Ether extract . {
* Crude fibre . {
Nitrogen
free {
extract.
—
2
Regression .
Residual .
Regression .
Residual .
Regression .
Residual .
Regression .
Residual .
Regression .
Residual .
Regression .
Residual .
Degrees
of
freedom
3
2
15
2
15
2
15
2
15
2
15
2
15
Mean
square
4
542,871.58
9,814.57
485,585.81
8,656.57
l,825.95
2.06
7,006.34
83.99
16,365.37
2,903.34
88,843.67
4,393.22
Observed
ratio
of
variance
5
..
55.31
..
56.09
..
886.39
..
83.41
..
5.64
..
20.22
Expected ratio
of variance
1%
6
..
6.359
..
6.359
..
6.359
..
6.359
..
6.359
..
6.359
5%
7
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
3.683
..
..
Co-relation
R
8
..
0.9384
..
0.9392
..
0.9959
..
0.9941
..
06551
..
0.8541
* Crude fibre has been dealt with separately. See text.
DETERMINATION OF DIGESTIBILITY CO-EFFICIENTS
339
APPENDIX VI.
Paddy straw and 1 lb., 2 lb., and 3 lb., linseed cake. Mean result of each combination.
Treatment
1
1 lb.
Combi-
nation
{
(Mean
of 6)
2 lb.
Combi-
nation
{
(Mean
of 6)
3 lb.
Combi-
nation
{
(Mean
of 6)
—
2
Paddy straw .
Linseed cake
Total .
Voided
in
faeces.
Digested .
% digested .
Paddy straw
Linseed cake
Total .
Voided
in
faeces.
Digested .
% digested .
Paddy straw .
Linseed cake
Total .
Voided
in
faeces.
Digested .
% digested .
Dry
matter
3
3,894.283
400.000
4,294.283
2,250.675
2,043.608
47.197
3,936.800
799.667
4,736.467
2,450.188
2,286.279
48.299
3,963.517
1,199.667
5,163.184
2,557.693
2,605.491
50.470
Organic
matter
4
3,352.312
367.279
3,719.591
1,756.353
1,963.238
52.611
3,382.999
734.252
4,117.251
1,921.693
2,195.612
53.354
3,407.787
1,101.531
4,509.318
2,016.001
2,493.317
55.298
Crude
protein
5
148.577
128.279
276.856
153.375
123.481
44.548
149.677
256.419
406.126
179.511
226.615
55.78
151.016
334.728
535.741
194.785
310.959
63.661
Ether
extract
6
45.157
35.426
80.883
27.171
53.712
66.383
45.738
70.823
116.561
29.106
87.455
75.035
46.096
106.250
152.346
30.433
121.916
80.324
Crude
fibre
7
1,311.237
36.967
1,348.204
530.365
817.839
60.592
1,321.697
73.902
1,395.539
582.499
813.100
58.254
1,330.002
110.869
1,440.871
602.865
838.006
58.153
Nitrogen
free
extract
8
1,847.042
166.607
2,013.649
1,045.442
968.207
48.019
1,869.846
333.078
2,202.924
1,155.992
1,646.932
47.397
1,880.676
499.685
2,380.361
1,187.919
1,192.442
49.983
340 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ IV, IV.
APPENDIX VII.
Digestibility co-efficient of paddy straw obtained by different methods and
different authors.
Source.
1
Bengal . .
Pusa old . .
Pusa new . .
Bangalore . .
Punjab (Kaugra)
American . .
European . .
Number
of
trials
2
18
18
6
6
6
6
12
...
9
3
6
4
Different methods
and authors
3
Graphical method .
Regression equation
method . .
By method of
elimination
with Henry {
& Morrison's
values.
1 lb.
cake.
2 lb.
cake.
3 lb.
cake.
Paddy straw as sole
feed . . .
F. J. Warth . .
„ „ . .
„ „ . .
Lander and Dharmani .
Henry and Morrison .
Kellner .
Dry
matter
4
45.070
45.560
44.278
42.053
41.834
42.446
47.000
52.370
53.540
42.730
...
...
Organic
matter
5
50.734
51.032
49.623
47.390
47.055
47.541
57.100
58.840
60.610
48.590
...
47.000
Crude
protein
6
8.735
9.898
5.905
—1.273
—0.912
—13.322
..
...
11.170
—19.160
22.000
45.000
Ether
extract
7
43.164
43.790
48.598
53.243
59.379
41.456
60.200
41.340
43.410
46.670
23.000
47.000
Crude
fibre
8
61.650
61.894
60.692
58.331
58.251
59.729
72.000
72.960
70.430
60.720
59.000
57.000
Nitro-
gen freo
extract
9
46.172
46.352
45.295
42.152
42.695
41.695
44.100
41.950
57.710
42.400
46.000
32.000
APPENDIX VIII.
Digestibility co-efficients of linseed cake by different methods and different authors.
Source
1
Bengal . .
American . .
European . .
Number
of
trials
2
18
18
3
4
Different methods
and authors
3
Graphical method .
Regression
equation
method . . .
Henry and Morrison .
Kellner . . .
Dry
matter
4
70.100
65.150
79.000
—
Organic
matter
5
72.162
67.069
—
79.000
Crude
protein
6
84.754
84.113
89.000
86.000
Ether
extract
7
96.356
95.600
89.000
92.000
Crude
fibre
8
27.290
7.709
57.000
32.000
Nitro-
gen free
extract
9
67.298
61.345
78.000
78.000
THE ETIOLOGY OF ENZOOTIC BOVINE HAEMATURIA, PART I.
BY
CAPTAIN S. C. A. DATTA, B.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.,
Veterinary Research Officer, In-charge Pathology, Imperial Institute of Veterinary Research,
Muktesar.
(Received for publication on 16th October 1934.)
(With Plates XIX—XXIX and 1 text-fig.)
INTRODUCTION.
Among the animal diseases which have baffled elucidation notwithstanding the
very considerable amount of scientific investigation that has been expended upon
them in most countries of the world, chronic haematuria of cattle would appear to
be one of the most outstanding. Since the articles by Anderson and Hubner were
published in 1842, more and more attention has been devoted to the subject.
Although various types of pathological processes affecting the urino-genital system
can lead to the passage of unbroken red blood corpuscles in the urine, for that is
what the term haematuria signifies, this disease entity has come to be recognised as
a precise and clear cut clinical syndrome. Haematuria has been a serious scourge in
cattle farms in many countries, and the first exhibition of blood in the urine leaves
no other alternative for the owner than the disposal of the affected animals for
slaughter as, from long experience, the futility of treatment has been recognised.
The disease is known to occur in widely separated countries of the world including
Australia, Austria, Bulgaria, Belgium, British Columbia, England (Cornwall),
France, Germany, India, Ireland, Italy, Kenya Colony, New Zealand, Oregon, the
Pacific Islands, Washington, Scotland and Wales. The names under which the
disease has been known in the various countries are as follows:—Red water,
stallrot (stable red), Illawater Red water, Essential Haematuria, Haemorrhagic
cystitis, Hematurie chronique des bovides, Haematuria vesicalis, malignant
haematuria and Urocystis haemorrhagica, etc. In India the term haematuria
seems to have been employed for the first time by Kristnasamiengar as late as 1896,
but from the symptoms described by him it is evident that he was dealing with
haemoglobinuria only. Credit is therefore due to Kerr for drawing attention in 1925
to the occurrence of true haematuria in Indian cattle at Kalimpong in Bengal and
the disease has since then been investigated, also work has been carried out in the
Kumaun Hills in the United Provinces, in the Nilgiris in the Madras Presidency and
( 341 )
F
342 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ IV, IV.
in the Kulu valley in the Punjab. In the last named province, it is reported that
cases of haematuria in man occur in the same areas in which cattle are affected.
It is said that in the Darjeeling District in Bengal, the people dread this disease
more than rinderpest.
Many theories have been advanced to explain the causation of the disease, some
of which are undoubtedly fantastic. Leaving aside such primitive theories as
insufficient feeding (Anacher), poor feeding (Cruzel), periodical compression of the
bladder by the rumen when it is filled unduly with voluminous food (Lienaux), stasis
in the territory of the posterior vena cava (Hink), certain non-specific irritations
mechanical, mycotic or toxic (Gotz), increasing precocity and diminishing resistance
by crossing with a certain breed (Sinoir), the toxic effects of plants, including the
young shoots of oak, ash, privet, hornbean, hazel, dog-berry, pine, fir, coniferae,
[Law, 1901], ferns sedges rushes hellobore, etc. (Galtier), and the trauma due to
filaria or distoma (Lydtin), or that due to pentastomes (Burton and Cleland),
coccidia (Arnold) or bacterial infection (Detroye) have been suggested. Among
those who ascribe the disease to malignant neoplasms, Miyamoto [1927] seems to be
outstanding, since he portrays the development of various types of neoplastic
formation in regular sequence. This disease has also been considered to be an
analogue of what is known in human medicine as acquired angiomata or internal
sarcoids. The possibility of poisonous plants causing haematuria has been tested by
several workers with a negative result in each case. For instance, Cleland [1911]
experimented with Omalanthus populifolius (Euphorbiaceae), Indigofera australis
and Goodia lotifolia (both Papilionaceae), and Hadwen employed in his tests
extracts of dicentra (Bleeding heart), deergrass (Achlys triphylla), bracken (Pteris
aquilina) and the extract of alder. This latter worker remarks that it is very
improbable that one special plant causes the trouble, because vegetations in the
various countries differ so much, and that a group of plants may thus be responsible
rather than one particular species. In the Darjeeling district in Bengal the local
people believe bamboo and fig leaves, which are common fodder there, to be the
cause of the disease. Bamboo leaves (N. O. Gramineae Bambosa, arundinaca) are
used by Indian villagers in cases of retention of the placenta in the cow apparently
with a beneficial irritant action, simulating to a certain extent the effects of mild
abortificients and Garudacher [1930] has reported the presence of hydrocyanic acid
in bamboo leaf extract. Again Mustak Husain [1930] in the United Provinces
incriminates tinpattia grass.
From a knowledge of the toxicology of plants,
however, one would expect a preponderance of constitutional symptoms, and in
violent cases rapid death, if some irritant buds or shoots played a role ; and in any
case the singular localisation of any toxic effects to the bladder exclusively would
not seem probable.
ETIOLOGY OF ENZOOTIC BOVINE HAEMATURIA
343
In regard to the bacterial theory, the available evidence of most workers
recorded in literature conforms to the experience of the author, which shows that
attempts at bacteriological culture from the urine and internal organs invariably
prove abortive in early cases. No bacteria have been seen in stained sections from
internal organs in most cases, but diphtheroids and long chained streptococci have
been seen and also recovered from the urine from clinical cases of old standing.
Hadwen and others have failed to transmit the disease to healthy animals by coha-
bitation with clinical cases, by injecting haematuria urine into the bladder, by giving
it by the mouth and by the injection of the blood and urine under the skin, and it
may be noted that the former employed as many as 17 animals for the purpose.
Durin and Unglas [1931] however consider the disease to be a coli-bacillosis, and
they treated two cases with repeated doses of B. coli anti-virus but the results are
not known.
Of the helminths, the finding by Ichikawa in 1922 of adult Schistosoma japo-
nicum in the bladder tumours of two cases in Formosa indicated a possibility,
which had the support of the existing knowledge of the bilharzial disease of the
intestines and the bladder in man, and also of the experience of Sonsino [1876] who
collected thirty Schistosome worms (S. crassa or S. bovis) from the blood of an ox,
which presented intestinal lesions, and typical lesions of haematuria in the bladder.
However Ichikawa failed to detect any bilharzial worms or ova in five other
cases examined by him, and the experience in every other country has been
similar. In this connection it may be noted that in Egypt Piot Bey [1918]
recorded a case of bilharziosis as the cause of a perforating ulcer of the bladder of a
calf, and in India Rangaswamy [1922] reported a case of haematuria in the Nilgiris,
in the urine of which animal Schistosome ova are stated to have been seen. In the
samples of urine from two other cases of the disease from the same locality, Para-
meswara Ayyar [1922] however records negative findings.
The position of the oxalic acid theory of Hadwen [1914, 1917] differs from the
others mentioned above, since he claimed to have produced the disease experi-
mentally with commercial oxalic acid by (1) injection of calcium oxalate crystals
in aqueous emulsion into the bladder, and (2) by the oral administration of oxalic
acid, in about 5 months and 2½ years respectively. The fact that he failed to
obtain oxalic acid bearing plants in a sufficient amount to feed his animals had
raised doubts regarding his contention, and in the absence of any clue for approach-
ing the investigation of the disease, Datta [1931] pointed out the improbability of
Hadwen's view and elaborated a metabolic theory suggesting an endogenous produc-
tion of oxalic acid due to defective elimination. It seems reasonable to argue that
the cattle suffering from the disease do not feed upon such unnatural forage in
E 2
344 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [ IV, IV.
excess as are known to contain much oxalic acid, e.g., rhubarb, spinach, tomato,
apples, lettuce, grapes, cabbage, and the common Indian sorrel amrul (Oxalis
carinculata). In experimental oxalic acid poisoning, the localisation of the poison
in the various organs has been studied by Servonat and Roubier [1911], and Chieri
and Frohlich [1911] have shown that a nerve excitability results. Further the work
of Craig and Kehoe [1921], Bull [1929] and Steyn [1933] finally disposes of the
oxalic acid theory as untenable, contrary to the statement of the Vety. Bulletin
[1931] to the opposite effect.
With the fall of this theory, however, the trend of opinion in most countries
has been towards a chemical deficiency theory. During a tour in Australia,
Theiler [1929] expressed himself thus. "What is required is a Laboratory in
Mount Gambier itself and preferably on one of the affected farms. The remarkable
coincidence of phosphorous and manganese deficiency in this area should not be
lost sight of. A clue to further research may then be found". The Ottawa
Report [1930] states " Previous investigations show that it (bovine haematuria) is
not an infectious or contagious disease and point to the probability of a nutritional
disturbance and to mineral deficiency, hyperacidity, or to an unknown factor in the
soil and vegetation as the cause of it". Again from the same country Fleming,
Fowler and Clark [1930] report that the results of blood analysis to be within the
normal range. In their experience two remedies have been found to have a
beneficial effect on affected cattle: a change of drinking water from surface to
artesian well water, and administration of ground coral rock. From analyses of the
water and coral rock from affected areas certain possible causes of improvement
have been suggested and field experiments outlined to test the possibility. In
collaboration with Allardyce [1930] these workers again report that the blood esti-
mation of 25 cattle, subjects of Haematuria vesicalis, yielded normal amounts of
cholesterol, sugar, nonprotein nitrogen, urea nitrogen, amino-acid nitrogen, creatine,
creatinine, calcium, inorganic phosphorus, and chlorides. In the latest publication
from Australia, Bull, Dickenson and Dann [1932] state that " the problem is not
an easy one to solve, and it is possible that a successful method of prevention may
be found before the actual cause of the disease is demonstrated ". In their opinion
" it is possible that a deficiency of some dietary constituent is the essential
cause of red water," and from the result of their urine analyses they go on to say
that " there appears to be some possibility of a low protein intake and possibly a
low sulphate intake. From the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine, Ghosh [1933]
records the results of chemical analysis upon the leaves of plants suspected of
causing haematuria, e.g., Schima wallichii, Ficus nimoralis and Indian cherry, and
since saponins were detected in the first two he states that feeding experiments
with the leaves containing saponins are contemplated at the School. Again while
ETIOLOGY OF ENZOOTIC BOVINE HAEMATURIA
345
this article was in preparation a claim has been put forward from the same city in
the columns of a daily newspaper that " Macgregor and his assistants [1934] have
been able to trace the cause of the disease to a protozoan parasite of the genus (?)
Coccidium which, ordinarily, attacks the bowel producing intense anæmia and
dysentery ", reviving thus the unsupported views of Arnold expressed in 1890 in
Germany.
DESCRIPTION OF THE DISEASE.
That this disease is an enzootic one has been observed since the earliest times,
and some places have come to be known as haematuria localities. Attempts have
been made by a process of elimination of factors, to trace any relation of the
environment to the disease, and Hadwen, for one, has travelled extensively in
.America and Europe with this object. It has been stated that haematuria locali-
ties are sloping, mountainous land with a lack of cultivation and good natural
forage, associated with a preponderance of ferns. In these areas the cattle have
to roam in woods or partially cleared grounds, and the impermeable soils on which
the forage grow generally, lack proper sunshine and are moist. As Law [1901]
states, " it is the disease of woods and waste lands, of damp and undrained lands,
of dense clays, of lands underlaid by clay or hard pan, of lands rich in vegetable
humus, or vegetable moulds, the decomposition of which has been hastened by the
application of quick lime ", but " the disease has not been traced to any definite
microbe or toxin". The drinking water in some of these localities is rich in
mica or gravel, and the climate is generally cold. In Germany the disease has been
described as occurring in stall-confined cattle, in France as occurring in low-lying
districts, and again in others it is in the mountainous and sub-mountainous regions
that the disease is seen. The disease has been stated to occur after a dry summer,
during the winter, or in the spring. Moussu and Dollar [1905] however state that
haematuria occurs just as frequently in the winter when the animals are housed, as
in the spring when at pasture. Moussu states that this affection is very rare
in young animals and is exceptional before the age of two and a half or three years.
Both the sexes are attacked equally.
It is a noteworthy fact that irrespective of the country of origin concerned or of
the incriminated cause, the clinical symptoms and histopathology of bovine haema-
turia have been more or less the same. In this disease the occurrence of any sys-
temic disturbance of health is rare and in our experience no rise of temperature
has been noticed prior to or following upon an attack of haematuria. The passing
of blood being the only easily noticeable symptom in the living subject, the disease
has been termed " essential haematuria " and the apparently contradictory term
" symptomless haematuria " in human medicine signifies a similar type of condition.