NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
I. P. SINGH VERMA, T. M. PAUL, ETC. 239
(3) Composition of the butterfat. Feeding of groundnut vanaspathi to buffaloes decreased the
R. M. and Polenske values, increased the Iodine value and very slightly increased the B. R. reading.
The decrease in R. M. value was by 13.1 units in one particular case ; in another case the iodine value
increased by 11.4 units, and Polenske value went down by 1.1 unit. In one case the B. R. reading
increased by 3 units, other cases showing changes of 1.6 and 1.7 respectively. Even here the values
showed a definite tendency to return to normal in the case of the experimental animals after the feeding
was stopped and the control animals gave butterfat of uniform composition throughout the experi-
mental period. The composition of the butterfat of buffaloes during groundnut vanaspathi feeding
is given in Table V.
TABLE V
Composition of the butterfat of buffaloes during groundnut vanaspathi feeding
Buffalo No.
57 . . . . . . . . .
58 . . . . . . . . .
93 . . . . . . . . .
Control (average) . . . . . . . . .
Sample
No.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
R. M.
value
35.0
29.6
27.3
25.5
29.7
36.1
33.6
26.8
23.0
29.7
34.5
29.7
29.3
22.2
29.9
34.4
34.5
34.5
34.1
34.2
lodine
value
24.0
28.3
30.1
33.6
30.7
22.8
23.1
28.7
34.2
30.7
21.9
26.7
29.3
32.8
31.5
27.3
27.8
27.5
27.8
27.4
Polenske
value
1.7
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.9
1.3
1.2
1.1
0.7
0.9
1.3
1.2
1.0
0.9
1.1
2.0
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.8
B. R.
reading
42.2
43.7
43.6
43.8
42.6
40.5
41.3
42.8
43.5
42.6
42.0
43.7
43.4
43.4
41.9
41.8
41.9
41.9
41.8
41.8
II. FEEDING OF COCONUT VANASPATHI TO MILCH ANIMALS
A. Cows
(1) Milk yield. Cows fed on a supplement of coconut vanaspathi recorded a fall in milk yield
even within five days of the feeding. The maximum fall in milk yield at the end of a fortnight's
coconut vanaspathi feeding was nearly 3 lb. in one case. Even after stopping the vanaspathi feeding
the fall in milk yield continued for a week. The milk yield remained fairly steady in the case of the
control animals.
(2) Fat output. There was a slight increase in the fat percentage of the milk in the case of the
experimental animals, the maximum being 0.6 per cent in one individual case, the increase in others
being 0.3 per cent and 0.4 per cent respectively. In spite of this increase in the fat percentage of
milk, the average daily fat output decreased due to the fall in the milk vield. The fat output of the
control animals remained fairly steady as also the fat percentage of their milk. The average daily
milk yield and fat output are given in Table VI.
G
240
Influence of Dietary Fat on yield and Composition of Butterfat
TABLE VI
Average daily milk yield and fat output of cows in gm. during coconut vanaspathi feeding
Time of taking the sample
One week before feeding
5 days after vanaspathi
feeding
10 days after vanaspathi
feeding
15 days after vanaspathi
feeding
One week after stopping
the feeding.
Cow No. 290
M. Y.
6,810
6,129
5,895
5,448
5,108
F.
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.5
F. Y.
313.2
287.6
282.7
266.5
229.5
Cow No. 304
M. Y.
5,789
5,489
5,074
4,764
4,313
F.
3.9
4.3
4.4
4.5
3.9
F. Y.
225.4
235.6
223.0
214.2
168.0
Cow No. 346
M. Y.
6,810
6,264
6,078
5,902
5,450
F.
4.8
4.9
5.0
5.2
4.9
P. Y.
326.8
306.7
303.5
306.8
267.0
Control (average)
M. Y.
6,029
6,062
6,057
6,062
6,016
F.
4.6
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.7
F. Y.
276.9
284.8
278.3
272.7
2824
M. Y. = Milk yield. F. Y. = Average daily fat yield. F. = percentage of fat.
(3) Composition of the milk fat. During the experimental period the analytical constants of
the butterfat were changed considerably but not so much as in the case of groundnut vanaspathi.
The maximum change observed in R. M. value was a fall of 7.0 units in one case ; iodine value, unlike
in other cases, showed a decrease up to a maximum fall of 5.3 ; Polenske value increased sligthly
in all cases and B. R. reading remained almost steady all the time except for a slight fall at the end.
After the stopping of the vanaspathi feeding, the values showed a tendency to come back to the normal
in a week's time. In the case of the control animals there was no considerable change in the analytical
constants of ghee. The composition of the butterfat is presented in Table VII.
TABLE VII
The composition of butterfat
Cow No.
290 . . . . . . . . . .
304 . . . . . . . . . .
346 . . . . . . . . . .
Control (average)
.
.
.
.
.
.
Sample
No.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
R. M.
value
32.1
30.2
27.7
25.1
26.1
26.4
25.9
25.3
24.6
25.9
26.4
25.9
25.6
24.8
26.8
26.4
26.6
26.8
26.7
26.7
Iodine
value
29.0
28.2
27.7
25.1
26.1
30.9
29.5
29.0
28.9
28.8
33.5
33.1
32.3
28.2
30.1
33.5
33.2
33.5
33.4
32.5
Polenske
value
1.8
1.9
1.9
2.2
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.7
2.2
1.7
1.4
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.8
B. R.
reading
42.7
42.6
42.3
41.6
41.7
42.5
42.4
42.3
42.4
42.5
43.6
43.6
42.7
43.6
43.7
43.8
43.2
43.8
43.8
43.4
I. P. SINGH VERMA, T. M. PAUL, ETC. 241
B. Buffaloes
(1) Milk yield. The milk yield was considerably increased even within 5 days of the feeding of
the coconut vanaspathi to buffaloes, but later on the rate of increase was not kept up so much, so that
after reaching the peak figure on the 5th day, the average daily milk yield began to fall. It remained
well above the average daily milk yield at the end of the 15 days feeding period. The maximum
increase recorded is a pound in the average daily milk yield. After the stopping of the feeding of
the vanaspathi the yield returned to almost normal in a week's time.
(2) Fat output. There was a small but definite increase in the fat percentage of milk during the
vanaspathi feeding, the maximum increase observed being 14. Unlike the other cases here the
milk yield also had increased resulting in a net increase in the average daily output of fat, the increase
observed being 120 gm. per day in one particular case. Here again the fat percentage and daily
fat output returned almost to normal a week after the stopping of the supplementary feeding of
vanaspathi. In the case of the control animals the fat percentage of milk as well as the daily output
of fat remained almost stationary. The average daily milk vield and fat output are given in Table
VIII.
TABLE VIII
Average daily milk yield and fat output of buffaloes in gms. during coconut vanaspathi feeding
Time of taking sample
One week before starting
feeding
5th day of feeding . .
10th day of feeding. .
15th day of feeding .
One week after stopping
vanaspathi
Buffalo No. 42
M. Y.
7,264
7,718
7,491
7,491
7,264
F.
6.7
7.0
7.1
8.1
7.3
F. Y.
486.4
539.7
531.7
606.6
430.0
Buffalo No. 65
M. Y.
4,994
5,448
4,994
4,994
5,048
F.
5.7
6.1
6.5
6.6
6.1
F. Y.
284.4
331.8
324.3
329.3
307.4
Buffalo No. 88
M. Y.
5,075
0,129
5,802
5,756
5,743
F.
7.9
9.1
9.2
9.1
8.7
F. Y.
448.0
556.9
533.6
523.2
489.3
Control (average)
M. Y.
9,080
8,953
8,912
8,853
8,840
F.
6.0
6.1
6.0
6.1
6.1
F. Y.
544.8
545.9
534.6
541.6
540.4
M. Y. = Milk yield. F. Y. = Average daily fat yield. F. = Percentage of fat.
(3) Composition of the butterfat. The change in the composition of the butterfat of buffaloes
during coconut vanaspathi feeding were almost the same as those of the butterfat of cows during the
coconut vanaspathi feeding. The R. M. value and Iodine values decreased slightly, the Polenske
value increased and the B. R. reading remained almost stationary. After stopping the supplemen-
tary feed of the vanaspathi, the composition came back to very near the normal within a week and
in the case of the control animals there was no considerable change in any of the analytical constants
throughout the period under observation. The composition of the butterfat is given in Table IX.
G2
242
Influence of Dietary Fat on yield and Composition of Butterfat
TABLE IX
Composition of the butterfat of buffaloes fed on a supplementary ration of coconut vanaspathi
Buffalo No.
42 . . . . . . . . . .
65 . . . . . . . . . .
88 . . . . . . . . . .
Control (average) . . . . . .
Sample
No.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
R. M.
value
30.9
26.9
26.5
24.5
27.7
32.4
29.2
27.3
25.6
28.3
33.4
29.2
26.5
25.4
28.4
33.7
33.5
33.9
33.8
33.5
Iodine
value
29.5
28.9
27.3
25.6
28.8
26.9
25.9
25.7
24.6
26.4
25.4
23.6
22.5
21.7
26.0
24.2
23.8
23.8
24.0
23.9
Polenske
value
12
15
1.5
1.6
1.1
1.2
1.4
1.8
1.4
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.3
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.4
B. R.
reading
42.0
41.6
41.9
41.8
42.0
41.4
41.4
41.3
41.3
41.5
41.4
41.3
41.3
41.2
41.4
41.4
41.3
41.5
41.4
41.6
The general condition of the animals in all the four experimental groups remained quite satis-
factory throughout the experiment. The animals did not show any reluctance to take 1½ lb. of
the oil along with their concentrate ration. No digestive disturbance nor any laxative effect was
observed during the experimental period.
DISCUSSION
Neither of the vanaspathi had any favourable action on the milk yield of cows, but on the con-
trary, there was considerable depression in the milk yield in the case of cows which received a supple-
mentary feed of groundnut vanaspathi. In the case of coconut vanaspathi too there was a decrease
in the milk yield of the cows but it was less marked than in the groundnut vanaspathi group. Moghul
et al [1945 unpublished] have reported that feeding of untreated oils like coconut, groundnut or sesame
maintained the milk yield and cottonseed oil increased the milk yield of cows. Therefore the findings
of the present investigation leads to the conclusion that hydrogenation lowers the quality of the oils
as far as their suitability as feed for milch cattle is concerned. Probably this has to be attributed to
the saturation and consequent rise in the melting point of vanaspathi.
In the case of buffaloes, groundnut vanaspathi showed the same effect as in the case of cows,
viz., a depression in the milk yield but it was not so marked as in the case of cows. The effect of the
supplementary feed of coconut vanaspathi on buffaloes was, however, different from that on cows.
Buffaloes recorded an increase in the average daily milk yield on being fed with coconut vanaspathi.
The finding of the previous workers who fed untreated coconut oil is also the same with the difference
that there was a slight depression in the yield in the beginning, which later on increased considerably
even after stopping the feeding of the untreated oil. In the case of the hydrogenated coconut oil
the increase is more pronounced in the first few days, and on stopping the feeding the yield comes
almost to the normal in a week's time.
244
Influence of Dietary Fat on yield and Composition of Butterfat
(2) Milk yield of cows decreased in both cases but buffaloes gave slightly increased milk yield
with coconut vanaspathi and slightly, decreased yield on groundnut vanaspathi.
(3) The fat percentage of the milk of cows fed on groundnut vanaspathi went down and that of
cows fed on coconut increased a little but both the vanaspathis increased the fat percentage of the
milk of buffaloes.
(4) Due to the fall in both the milk yield and fat percentage, the daily output of the fat of cows
decreased when either of the vanaspathis was fed. But buffaloes showed an increase in the daily
output of fat when receiving either of the vanaspathis due to the increase in both the yield of milk
and the fat percentage of milk.
(5) The composition of the butterfat was altered considerably in both cows and buffaloes due to
the feeding of either of the vanaspathis. Hence in both the cases the butter could easily be suspected
to be adulterated.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Our thanks are due to Dr. Zal R. Kothavalla for his keen interest and helpful suggestions in this
work.
REFERENCES
Dustmal et al. (1941). Dairy Science, 24, 265-275
Hilditch and Jasperson. (1943). Biochem. 37, 238
Moghul el al. (1945, unpublished)
248
Investigations on Resazurin Test
attaining a fading pink or colourless stage show methylene blue reduction times below two hours,
while 72 per cent of the samples with reduction times below two hours have attained the fading pink
or colourless stage with 20 per cent reaching the pink stage.
Samples with reduction times between two and four hours ('average') are found to be fairly
distributed over all the stages from blue to pink in a decreasing order while the samples attaining
the pink mauve or purple pink stages are distributed evenly between the 'good' and 'average'
categories and those attaining the pink stage between the 'average' and 'poor' categories on the
methylene blue scale. It was also found that several samples in the pink stage were associated with
heavy leucocyte counts and long-chained streptococci and staphylococci (possibly due to mastitis
infection). The pink mauve and purple pink stages, therefore, appear to correspond with the 'average'
category on the methylene blue scale while the pink stage agrees with a grade inferior to this.
On the basis of the above results, the following standards for grading milks according to the
one hour resazurin readings appear to be satisfactory.
One hour resazurin reading
1. Blue, lilac or mauve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Pink mauve or purple pink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Pink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Fading pink or colourless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grade
Good
Average
Poor
Bad
These standards are more or less in agreement with the. foreign standards referred to above
except in the case of the intermediate grades—pink mauve, purple pink and pink—to a slight extent.
In the light of the experimental evidence discussed above, this slight modification would appear to
be justifiable. Accordingly, these standards have been used for comparing the results of the different
tests in the present study.
(ii) Comparative grading efficiency of the resazurin test. The one hour resazurin readings, methy
lene blue reduction times and plate counts for the different types of milk, viz., cow, buffalo and mixed
(cow and buffalo) milks, are classified in Tables II and III below for purposes of comparing their
relative grading efficiencies.
TABLE II
Comparison, of the one hour resazurin reduction with methylene blue reduction time
One hour resazurin reading
Blue, lilac and mauve . . . . . . . .
Pink mauve and purple pink . . . . . . . .
Colourless . . . . . . . .
Blue, lilac and mauve . . . . . . . .
Pink mauve and purple pink . . . . . . . .
Colourless . . . . . . . .
Blue, lilac and mauve . . . . . . . .
Pink mauve and purple pink . . . . . . . .
Pink . . . . . . . .
Colourless . . . . . . . .
Methylene blue reduction time
Over 4
hours
2 to 4
hours
Below 2
hours
TOTAL
Cow milk samples
71
59
1
..
12
30
12
3
..
1
11
34
83
90
24
37
Buffalo milk samples
102
18
..
..
46
25
1
2
5
12
26
150
48
13
26
Mixed milk samples
46
9
1
..
30
35
12
1
..
4
6
43
76
48
19
44
250
Investigations on Resazurin Test
TABLE III
Comparison of the one hour resazurin reduction with plate counts
Plate counts
0—200,000 . . .
200,000—500,000 . .
500,000—1,000,000 .
Over 1,000,000 . .
0—200,000 . . .
200,000—500,000 . .
500,000—1,000,000 . .
Over 1,000,000 . .
0—200,000 . . .
200,000—500,000 . .
500,000—1,000,000 .
Over 1,000,000 . .
One hour resazurin readings Methylene blue reduction times
Total
No. of
samples
Blue to
mauve
pink
Pink
mauve and
purple
Pink
Colourless
Over
4 hours
2 to 4
hours
Below
2 hours
Cow milk samples
113
42
23
56
58
19
5
1
55
20
11
4
..
3
5
16
..
..
2
35
105
19
6
1
8
23
15
11
..
..
2
44
Buffalo milk samples
81
53
39
64
71
44
27
8
10
9
12
17
..
..
..
13
..
..
..
26
78
29
11
2
2
24
27
19
1
..
1
43
Mixed milk samples
4
46
49
81
3
35
23
10
1
11
21
15
..
..
5
13
..
..
..
43
2
28
16
7
1
17
31
27
1
1
2
47
As regards plate counts, the results of both the reduction tests are distributed over all levels of
plate counts thus indicating a poor correlation [Ramsdell et al. 1935 and others]. This is to be
expected when the principles underlying the plate count and the dye reduction tests are taken into
consideration. It is, however, found that the resazurin test is fairly comparable with the methylene
blue test as regards its general relationship with the plate counts.
Out of the samples showing colony counts below 200,000 per ml., 92 per cent of cow milks have
passed the methylene blue test while 51 per cent have passed the resazurin test with 48 per cent down-
graded to the 'average' category. The latter discrepancy may again be due to the selective action
of leucocytes on the reduction of the two dyes. About 90 per cent of buffalo milks have passed both
H. LAXMINARAYANA 253
condemned by the methylene blue test, in the intermediate categories ('average' and 'poor') have
been brought out. It has also been observed that the reduction of resazurin in the case of buffalo
milks is generally slower up to the mauve or pink mauve stage.
5. Most of the samples with colony counts over one million per ml. have failed both the reduc-
tion tests and the reliability of resazurin test in detecting high count milks has been indicated. In
the case of samples with plate counts below 200,000 per mil. about 90 per cent have passed the
methylene blue test with only 70 per cent passing the resazurin test. A higher degree of correlation
between the methylene blue test and plate count has thus been shown. The causes for this have been
attributed to the higher sensitiveness of resazurin to the influence of leucocytes as also the shorter
period of its incubation (one hour compared to four hours or longer in the case of methylene blue
test).
6. The resazurin test has been found to be useful in picking out milk produced under insanitary
conditions while in the case of carefully produced milks, it may give misleading results due to the
influence of cellular activity on resazurin reduction. The value of the test for drawing attention to
serious cases of mastitis in a herd and for detecting admixture of colostral, late lactation and mastitis
milks in the supplies has also been pointed out.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Acknowledgements are due to the late Dr E. V. Seshacharyulu, who planned the programme
of work and gave guidance and advice in carrying out the investigation, and also to the Director of
Dairy Research for his keen interest in the work.
REFERENCES
Barrett et al (1937). J. Dairy Sci. 20, 705
Davis (1939). Food Manufacture 14, 196
—
(1942). ibid. 17, 308
Davis et al (1943). Dairy Ind. 8, 115
—
(1939). Welsh J. Agric. 15, 181
Davis (1943). Dairy Ind. 8, 167
Davis and Newland (1944). ibid. 9, 339
Ministry of Agric. & Fisheries, London, (1934), Bull. 46
Ramsdell et al (1935). J. Dairy Sci. 18, 705
Thomas and Davis (1940). Welsh J. Agric. 16, 231
—
(1943). ibid. 17, 117
—
and Bowie (1944). Dairy Ind. 9, 335
Verma et al (1944). Indian J. vety. Sci. 14, 223
Wilson et al (1935). Med. Res. Counc. Spec. Rep. 206
Indian J. vet. Sci., Vol. XVI, Part IV]
PLATE
XI
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Trichomonas gallinae (×2250)
FIG. 1. 1. Blepharoplast at anterior end.
2. Three free flagella.
3. Fourth flagellum bordering the undulating membrane.
4. Undulating membrane.
5. Besal fibre.
6. Nucleus.
7. Cytoplasm containing granular substance.
FIG. 2. Two flagellates multiplying by longitudinal fission.
S. NURUL MOHTEDA
255
disease. This would involve laboratory and clinical research, which might be undertaken on the
lines suggested by Brocklehurst [1944]. She recommends the detection of carrier birds by examining
scrapings from the oesophageal mucosa for flagellates and those found infected could be treated with
1 per cent trypaflavine. Hinshaw [1937] states that of the treatments tried, the substitution of
a 1 to 2000 solution of copper sulphate, prepared with soft water in an earthenware vessel, for the
drinking water was the only successful one. This mixture should be kept before the birds for two
or three days and the procedure repeated after a few days. During treatment, the birds should
have access to no other water supply. This treatment was recommended for the trichomonas which
invade the upper digestive tract while those which are found in the lower digestive tract, Olsen and
Allen [1940] have attained success in treating the disease by the use of fever therapy, which is
accomplished by placing the infected birds for one to two hours in a thermostatically controlled cabinet
in which the internal temperatures of the birds were raised from 2º to 6ºF. above normal by main-
taining the temperature of the chamber at approximately 104°F. with a relative humidity of 60 to
70 per cent. Three treatments at intervals of every other day were sufficient to check the disease
in most cases. To control the disease Oehlkers [1937] suggests elimination of carriers and the use of
only healthier birds for hatching and rearing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The writer is indebted to Dr H. N. Ray, for examining the material and for identifying the para-
site. The coloured diagrams shown in this article were drawn by him. My thanks are also due to
Mr. M. Mahmoodullah, Director, Civil Veterinary Department, Hyderabad-Deccan, for his keen
interest and valuable suggestions in preparing this article for publication.
REFERENCES
Brocklehurst, F. B. (1944). J Army vet. Corps. 16, 130
Hinshaw, W. R., (1937). Bull. California Agric. Exp. Sta. 613, 1
Levine, N. D. and Brandly, C. A. (1940). Poultry, Sci. 19, 205
Martin, C. H. and Robertson, M. (1911). Quart. J. Micro. Sci. 57, 53
Mohteda, S. N. (1946). Ann. Report. Animal Disease Investigation Officer (Poul), Hyd-Dn. for 1946-47
Oehlkers, H. (1937). Inaug. Diss., Hanover, quoted from Rev. in Vet. Bull. 14, 1944
Olsen, M. W. and Allen, E. A. (1940). Proc Soc. Exp. Biol. and Med. 45, 375
Abstracts.
259
FIRST INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF PHYSIO-PATHOLOGY OF ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
AND OF ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
THE First International Congress of Physio-Pathology of Animal Reproduction and artificial Insemination will
take place in Milan from 9th to 15th April of 1948. This initiative has been promoted by the " Instituto
Sperimentale ltaliano-Lazzaro Spallanzania per lo studio della fisio-patologia della riproduzione e par la fe con-
dazione artificiale degli animali " and it will take place under the protection of the milan University.
The scientific work of the Congress has been divided into the following sections: (1) General Biology;
(2) Applied Genetics; (3) Morphology and Physiology of Reproduction; (4) Pathology of Reproduction; (5) Arti-
ficials Insemination ; (6) Breeding and Feeding of Reproducers; (7) Economic, Organizing and Legislative
Problems.
These arguments which are main objects of the Congress, are of the greatest interest to all countries of the
world on account of the importance of modern studies of genetics and reproductive biology and the necessity of
improving animal value with regard to quantity and quality.
The general Standing Committee is composed of the most well-known Italian and foreign biologists, genetists,
pathologists, human and veterinian gynaccologists, zootcchnologists and economists.
As Presidents have been nominated: Prof. Angelo Cesara Bruni (Anatomist), Prof. Luigi Loinati
(Anatomist-Pathologist), Prof. Silvio Ranzi (Genetist), Prof. Filippo Usuelli (Physiologist and Zootechnologist),
Prof. Gunn of the University of Sydney, Prof. Hammond of the University of Cambridge, Prof. Lagerlof of
the University of Stockholm Datt. Tyler of the Pasadena Institute, California, have been asked to accept such
charge.
Prof. Telesforo Bonadoua, Director of " Istituto-L. Spallanzani", has been nominated as General
Secretary of the Congress.
The Secretary's office has been settled at the " Instituto L. Spallanzani" (via Bronzetti 17, Milano, Italy
tel. 576527).
MGIPC—M—III-1-12—3-12-47—520.
Vol. XVII, Part I
March 1947
The
Indian Journal of Veterinary Science
and
Animal Husbandry
Issued under the authority
of
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Annual subscription
Rs. 6 or 9s. 6d.
Price per part
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PUBLISHED BY THE MANAGER OF PUBLICATIONS, DELHI.
PRINTED BY THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA PRESS, CALCUTTA
1948
ICAR.6, XVI I . 1 / 520