NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
INVESTIGATIONS ON FAMINE RATIONS—ENTRAILS AS A PROTEIN SUB-
STITUTE FOR CATTLE
By N. D. KEHAR AND R. CHANDA, Animal Nutrition Section, Imperial Veterinary Research Institute,
Izatnagar
(Received for publication on 4 November 1946)
E VERY attempt at increasing the productive capacity of livestock in India is stifled by the quan-
titative shortage and qualitative deficiency of animal feed. According to a recent estimate the
available concentrates are sufficient only for 29.1 per cent. of the adult cattle population. This
does not take into account the requirement of goats, sheep, equines and the poultry, nor even the
growth and productive requirements of bovines. Efforts have been made to meet this quantitative
shortage by exploiting hitherto unutilized sources of food. The observations reported in this article
relate to the use of entrails as a source of protein for cattle.
Although by-products of slaughter houses, like tankage, blood meal and fish meal, have been
used for feeding swine, poultry and cattle, we have not come across any reference from the available
literature where entrails have been used as a part or total substitute of protein in the ration of cattle.
As observed by us in most of the small and average sized slaughter houses in this country entrails
are regarded as waste material.
EXPERIMENTAL
The entrails of healthy animals consisting of the entire gastro-intestinal tracts of buffaloes, cows
and bullocks were collected, washed of their contents and salted. The material was then heated in
an autoclave for six hours between 115-120ºC. at 15 lb. pressure. It was minced and dried for 24
hours in an electric oven at 80ºC., cooled and then crushed to the size of a pulse grain and stored.
The chemical composition (on dry matter basis) of the entrails along with that of other slaughter
house by-products is given in Table I for comparison.
TABLE I
Chemical composition of entrails and other slaughter house by-products
Material
Entrails
.
.
.
.
Tankage or meat meal (best
grade)
Blood meal .
.
.
.
Fish meal (best grade) . .
Crude
protien
76.13
66.50
90.12
72.10
Ether
extract
13.78
9.55
1.32
7.35
Fibre
1.03
1.50
1.43
0.76
Nitrogen-
free extract
1.49
1.63
2.96
3.90
Total
ash
7.57
20.82
4.17
13.89
Ca
0.162
6.74
0.362
4.58
P
0.396
3.71
0.285
3.31
In feeding this material to cattle it was found that unless the animals were very hungry they
were not attracted by it. Entrails were then mixed with the oil cake and grain mixture in the ratio
of 1 to 5 and gradually the quantity of entrails was increased. In this way the entire concentrates
were replaced by entrails in about a month's time. The material was then fed to the experimental
animals as a sole source of digestible protein for 10 weeks. The experimental ration consisted of
40 gm. of dry entrails and 2 lb. of wheat straw per 100 lb. body weight. The effect of feeding entrails
on live-weight is given in Table II. It will be observed that the adult animals maintained their
weight as if they were on the Institute scheduled ration.
189
K
190
Investigations on Famine Rations
TABLE II
The effect of feeding entrails on live-weight
Date
8th September 1944 . . . .
15th September 1944
.
.
.
.
22nd September 1944
.
.
.
.
29th September 1944
.
.
.
.
6th October 1944 . . . .
13th October 1944 . . . .
20th October 1944 . . . .
27th October 1944 . . . .
3rd November 1944 . . . .
10th November 1944 . . . .
17th November 1944 . . . .
19th November 1944
.
.
.
.
29th November 1944 . . . .
6th December 1944 . . . .
Animal
No. 61
245
240
236
236
238
244
240
250
248
244
240
244
248
248
Animal
No. 193
318
312
290
294
290
290
308
308
304
318
318
312
316
316
Animal
No. 334
224
220
218
220
216
224
228
224
220
224
224
224*
222*
226
Remarks
30 gm. of entrails and
150 gm. of groundnut cake
50 gm. of entrails and
100 gm. of groundnut cake
75 gm. of entrails and
50 gm. of groundnut cake
Entrails only
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
* Metabolic experimental period.
A metabolism experiment was conducted during the latter part of the period of observations on
three Kumaoni bullocks by the procedure detailed in an earlier publication [Kehar, 1944]. The
digestibility coefficients of the whole ration and of entrails only are given in Tables III and IV res-
pectively. In Table V is set out Nitrogen, Calcium and Phosphorus balances.
TABLE III
Digestibility coefficients of whole ration (entrails and wheat straw)
Animal
No.
61
193
334
Mean
Dry
matter
51.7
51.8
59.1
54.2
Organic
matter
54.7
54.8
61.0
56.8
Crude
protein
47.2
45.8
48.5
47.2
Ether
extract
57.3
56.2
58.9
57.2
Fibre
61.3
61.2
68.0
63.5
Nitrogen-
free extract
48.9
49.3
55.8
51.3
Total carbo-
hydrates
55.2
55.4
62.0
57.3
TABLE IV
Digestibility coefficients of entrails
Animal No.
61
193
334
Mean
Crude proteiu
79.4
78.5
79.9
79.3
Ether extract
95.6
94.8
97.8
96.1
N. D. KEHAR AND R. CHANDA 191
TABLE V
Nitrogen, calcium and phosphorus balances
Animal No.
61
193
334
61
193
334
61
193
334
Intake from
entrails
(gm.)
11.94
15.19
11.94
0.16
0.20
0.16
0.39
0.49
0.39
Intake from
wheat straw
(gm.)
8.15
10.88
7.74
5.04
6.73
4.79
2.24
2.99
2.13
Total
intake
(gm.)
Faecal
excretion
(gm.)
Nitrogen
20.09
26.07
19.68
10.60
14.12
10.15
Calcium
5.20
6.93
4.95
4.82
6.08
3.94
Phosphorus
2.63
3.48
2.52
1.86
2.02
1.42
Urinary
excretion
(gm.)
3.58
6.48
4.76
1.01
1.34
1.18
0.01
0.02
0.01
Total
excretion
(gm.)
14.18
20.60
14.91
5.83
7.42
5.12
1.87
2.04
1.43
Balance
(gm.)
+5.91
5.47
+4.77
—0.63
—0.49
—0.17
+0.76
+1.44
+ 1.19
It will be observed from Table V that nitrogen and phosphorus are in positive balance. The
calcium balance is slightly on the negative side. If, however, we take into account the calcium intake
of the drinking water (about 10 litres per day with a calcium content of .05 gm. per litre), the small
negative balance is approximately made up.
The biological value, total digestible nutrients and starch equivalent of entrails (per 100 lb. dry
material) as compared to other concentrates are given in Table VI.
TABLE VI
The biological value, total digestible nutrients and starch equivalent of entrails as compared to other
concentrates
Material
Entrails . . . . . . . . . .
Tankage or meat meal (best grade) . . . . . . . . . .
Blood meal . . . . . . . . . .
Fish meal (best grade) .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Digestible
protein
(lb.)
60.4
61.2
77.5
57.5
Starch
equivalent
(lb.)
88.7
83.2
81.8
72.0
Total
digestible
nutrients
(lb.)
90.2
34.6
83.2
77.1
Biological
value
87.5
..
79.5
70.0
If, as given in Table VI, the digestible nutrients of entrails are compared with those of other
products of animal origin, it will be observed that its digestible protein is superior to the best grade
fish meal and equivalent to the best grade meat meal. In providing starch equivalent and total
digestible nutrients, it is superior to meat meal, blood meal and fish meal of the best grades. Its
biological value is superior to blood meal and fish meal of the best grade.
APPROXIMATE AMOUNT OF ENTRAILS AVAILABLE
It has been found that the dry material obtained from the entrails of an average sized cattle
amounts to about 2 lb., and from that of a sheep or a goat about 04 lb. It has also been estimated
192
Investigations on Famine Rations
that from the slaughter houses in India 13.1 million pounds of the dry material can be obtained from
cattle and 15.1 million pounds from sheep and goats annually. In addition 19.2 million fallen hides
are obtained from dead animals per year. If we consider that 50 per cent. of these animals were
disease free, we can get another 19.2 million pounds of the material from the dead animals. The
total yearly production of 47.4 million pounds of the material can be fed to 142.2 million animals
weighing 500 lb. for a day, as the total digestible protein supplement for maintenance. Expressed
in other words, approximately four hundred thousand animals can be provided with a rich source
of protein all the year round.
SUMMARY
Investigations have been carried out to find the possibility of feeding entrails as a total protein
substitute for livestock.
Entrails which are a rich source of protein and fat have been fed to Kumaoni bullocks as a sole
source of digestible protein for a period of 10 weeks. During the observation period the adult animals
maintained satisfactory health and live weights.
The high digestibility coefficients of protein and ether extract (78.3 and 96.1, respectively) and
the biological value, digestible protein and starch equivalent (87.5, 60.4 and 88.7, respectively)
warrant its value as a high grade concentrate.
It has been calculated that if all the waste from the healthy dead animals is utilized, the digestible
protein is sufficient to feed 142.2 million adult animals (500 lb.) for one day or approximately four
hundred thousand adult cattle for the whole year.
REFERENCES
Kehar, N. D. (1944). Indian J. Vet. Sci. 14, 40
198
Protective Inoculation with Dry Pigeon-Pox
TABLE I
Effect of vaccination in sheep and goats
Temperature
42ºF.
.
98.6 º F. . .
Duration of
storage of
vaccine
Immediate
test
within 96 hours
One month
Two months
Three months
Four months
Five months
Six months
One month
Two months
Vaccine
used
wet or dry
Wet .
Dry . .
Wet .
Dry . .
Wet .
Dry . .
Dry . .
Dry . .
Dry . .
Dry . .
Wet .
Dry . .
Wet .
Dry . .
SHEEP
Number
of
animals
tested
upon
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Result
of
test
in
pustules
+ +
—
+ + +
+ + +
—
—
+ + +
+ +
—
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Number
subjected
to
immunity
test,
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1(c)
2
2
Result
of
immunity
test in
pustules
—
— —
—
+ +
+ +
+
—
+ +
+
— +
+ +
—
—
—
—
—
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ +
+
—
Number
of
controls
used
2
2
2
2
9
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Reaction
in
controls
+ +
—
+ +
+
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
(a)
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ +
+
—
+ + +
+ + +
Number
of
animals
tested
upon
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
GOAT
Result
of
test
in
pustules.
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
—
— + + +
+ + +
—
—
—
(b)
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Number
subjected
to
immunity
test
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
(a)
1
(a)
2
Result
of
immunity
test in
pustules
+ +
—
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
(b)
—
—
—
—
—
+
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ +
Number
of
controls
used
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
No
control.
2
2
2
2
2
2
Reaction
in
controls
+ +
—
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+
+
—(b)
+ + +
+
—
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ +
+ + + Denotes several pustules
+ + Denotes few pustules
+
Denotes very few pustules
—Denotes no pustules
Thus the symbols — in a colunu denotes that one animal showed few pustules and the other no pustules
(a) and (b) mixed with contaminating organisms
(c) Died before test
198
Protective Inoculation with Dry Pigeon-Pox
TABLE II
Effect of vaccination in fowls and pigeons
Temperature
42ºF. . .
98.6ºF. . .
42. F
08.6ºF. . .
42ºF. . .
98º6ºF. . .
Duration of
storage of
vaccine
Immediate
test
within 96 hours
One month .
One month .
Two month .
Six months .
Vaccine
used
Dry . .
Dry . .
Dry . .
Dry . .
Dry . .
FOWLS
Number
of birds
tested
upon
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
Result of
test in
pustules
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
—
—
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Number
subjected
to immu-
nity test
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
Result of
immunity
test
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
+ +
—
+ + +
Number of
controls
used
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Reaction
in
controls
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
—
+ + +
—
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
PIGEONS
Number of
birds
tested
upon
3
3
3
3
3
8
3
Result of
test in
pustules
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
—
—
—
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
—
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
—
—
—
Number
subjected
to immu-
nity test
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
Result of
immunity
test
—
—
—
—
—
—
+ + +
—
+ +
—
+ +
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
+ + +
+ + +
Number of
controls
used
2
2
2
2
2
2
..
2
Reaction
In
controls
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ +Denotes inflammation and swelling of the feather follicles
+ + + Denotes vesicles, pustules, and scab formation
—Denotes no reaction
D.
A.
MUNRO
199
TABLE III
Effect of dry vaccine on sheep and goats
Temperature
42ºF.
.
42ºF. .
42ºF. .
42ºF. .
42ºF. .
Duration of
storage of
vaccine
One month
Two months
Three months
Four months
Five months
Vaccine
used
sheep or
goat Dry
Sheep .
Goat .
Sheep .
Goat .
Sheep .
Goat .
Sheep .
Goat
.
Sheep .
Goat .
SHEEP
Number
of
animals
tested
upon
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Result
of
test
in
pustules
+
+
++
+
+++
+++
+
+++
+
+++
+ +
—
—
++
++
+ +
++
Died
++
Number
subjected
to
immunity
test
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
(a)
Result
of
immunity
test in
pustules
—
—
+++
++
—
—
++
+++
—
++
+++
+++
++
—
—
—
—
Number
of
controls
used
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Reaction
in
controls
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
Not tested
++
Not tested
++
GOAT
Number
of
animals
tested
upon
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Result
of
test
in
pustules
+
+
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+ +
+++
+++
+++
—
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
Number
subjecte
to
immunity
test
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
Result
of
immunity
teat in
pustules
+
—
(a)
—
++
—
+++
+++
—
(a)
—
—
—
—
++
+++
—
—
Number
of
used
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Reaction
in
control
Not tested
+++
Not tested
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
++
++
++
++
+++
+++
+++
+++
Reading of notations same as Table I
(a) Died before test
200
Protective Inoculation with Dry Pigeon-Pox
has a seasonal incidence, inoculations may be carried out in good time beforehand, and not as an
emergency prophylactic measure. It may also be used in clean flocks where the disease tends to
linger on. On the other hand, inoculations are better not performed on healthy animals if there is
no immediate danger, for, as already mentioned, a benign form of the disease is set up after vaccina-
tion, and a sick animal is likely to spread the disease to other animals which have not been inoculated.
As for the fowl-pox vaccine, it should not be used in pigeons in a debilitated state, as the vaccine in
such cases is capable of setting up the disease in a generalized form.
SUMMARY
Sheep and goat-pox vaccines stored in the form of a dried powder remains potent for the purpose
of protective inoculation for not less than six months, and similar results were obtained with a dried
pigeon-pox vaccine. When stored in wet suspension, sheep and goat-pox vaccines lose their potency
within a month. Sheep-pox vaccine has not proved to be a dependable agent for protecting goats,
and goat-pox vaccine for protecting sheep.
REFERENCES
Angelofl, (1934). Berl. tierarztl. Wschr. 50,189-191
Basset, J. (1935). Rev. Vet. Toulouse 87, 553-559. (Abstract in Vet. Bull. 6, 426)
Blane, G. and Martin, L. A. (1937). Arch. Inst. Pasteur, Morocco, 721-764. (Abstract in Vet. Bull., 9 624-625
1939)
Borrel, A. (1930). Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 17, 123-137
Bridrè, J. and Boquet, A. (1913). Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 27, 797-827
—(1933).
Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 51, 761-762
Beller, K. (1931). Berl. tierarztl. Wschr. 47, 615-618
Bierbaum, K. (1935). Z. Infektkr Haustiere, 47, 147-160. (Abstract in Vet. Bull. 5, 425, 1935)
Brunett, E. L. (1933). J. Amer. Vet. Med. Ass. 83, 774-786
Chadha, ,S. R. (1939). Indian J. Vet. Sci. 9, 81-85
Doyle, T. M. (1935). 12th Int. Vet. Congress (1934), 3, 206-218
Donation, A. and Lestoquard, F. (1941). Arch. Inst. Pasteur Alg. 19, 304-307
Glover, R. E. (1931). Abstract in Vet. Bull. 3, 191, (1933)
Graham, R. and Barger, E. H., Vet. Med. 31, 78-81
Goodpasture, E. W., and Anderson, K. (1940). Arch. Path. 30, 212-225
James, W. A. (1931). Vet. Med. 26, 273-274
Johnson, E. P. (1932). North Amer. Vet. 13. (3), 47-48
Kolyali, C. Mavridis, N. and Ilhami, (1933). Rec. Med. Vet. 109, 920-932
Kolyali, C. and Mavridis, N. (1934). Rec. Med. Vet. 110, 669-673
Kligler, I. J., and Aschner, M. (1931). Brit. J. Path. 12, 35-42
Leyhausen (1938). Tierarztl Rdsch. 39, 194-196. (Abstract in Vet. Bull. 4,104-105, 1934)
Lubbehusen, R. E., and Ehlers, D. P., (1934). J. Amer. Vet. Med. Ass. 85, 324-341
Michael, S. J., (1932). Ibid. 81, 319-324
Picard, W. K. (1931). Med. Indisch. Blad. V. Diergenessk. 43, 417-458. (Abstract in Vet. Bull. 2, 497, 1932)
Srikantiah, G. N., (1936). Indian Vet. J. 12, 315-323
Suhaci, I. (1939). Rev. Med. Vet. Bucaresti, 51, 155-177. (Abstract in Vet. Bull. 12, 90, 1942)
Stafseth, H. J. (1931). Vet. Med. 27, 148-149
Viswanathan, G. R. (1939). Ann. Admin. Rept. Vet. Invest. Officer, Madras, 1938-39, 7
CEOGRAPHICAL AND SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF SURRA IN THE PUNJAB
By H. K. LALL, B.Sc., M.R.C.V.S., Assistant Animal Husbandry Commissioner with the Government
of India*
(Received for publication on 21 January 1947)
(with five text figures)
B ASU [1945] collected the data concerning surra in all species of animals under three headings, i.e.,
bovines, equines and others from the year 1942 to 1944 from various provinces and States, showing
the intensity of infection in the various areas. From his figures the Punjab seems to be the worst
affected area, followed by the United Provinces and Sind. In this note data for the last 14 years
(1932-44) has been collected from the five divisions of the Punjab (Lahore, Multan, Rawalpindi, Ambala
and Jullundur) and an effort has been made to work out correlation between rainfall (the average of
figures for last 14 years) and the incidence of surra, if any. Table I and Fig. 1* indicate that there
is no direct relationship between rainfall and the number of surra cases. The number of surra cases is
more or less constant. If anything there is a fall in the incidence** of the disease in heavy rainfall
years. No doubt there is a seasonal occurrence of the disease, i.e., there is increase just after the rainy
season, as can be seen from Fig. 2. The low incidence in heavy rainfall years may be due to the
washing away of eggs and larvae of the insect vectors. The abnormal fall in the number of surra
cases recorded in the years 1943 and 1944 is due to the fact that naganol was not available. This
point is discussed in detail later.
Fig. 1. Co-relation between rainfall and incidence of surra.
Seasonal incidence. The. figures for each month for the last 14 years have been computed and
the average calculated. It will be seen from Table II and Fig. 2 that the number of surra cases start
increasing in August and reach their zenith in October. The peak is reached in September in Ambala,
Multan and Rawalpindi and in October in Lahore and Jullundur (see Fig. 3A and Table II). The
figures available for Assam and the Central Provinces for the last two years also indicate a similar
seasonal curve. On the other hand, in the seasonal curve drawn by Basu (ibid) on the basis of total
figures, the peak is reached earlier in September then in our case, viz. in October. The separate
figures for horses and camels were available for Jullundur division only in which case a separate
figure has been drawn (Fig. 3B), which shows that the peak in the cases of the equines is reached in
201
M
202
Seasonal Incidence of Surra
October and in camels in September. These curves are similar to those for equines and others,
obtained by Basu (ibid.) According to Basu the peak in bovines is reached in August, while from the
data supplied by Zargar (personal communication) for the years 1940-1943, the peak in bovines in the
Central Provinces is reached in September. This may be due to variable climatic factors such as
earlier rainfall at one place as compared to the other.
Fig. 2. Seasonal incidence of surra.
TABLE I
The number of surra cases recorded and the average yearly rainfall in the Punjab from 1932-1944
Years
Number of recorded cases of surra in
the Punjab.
Number of recorded cases of surra in
Ambala Division.
Rainfall in inches .
.
.
.
1932
..
..
23.21
1933
2,824
..
33.70
1934
3,051
..
22.87
1935
1,638
..
25.80
1936
1,419
..
28.79
1937
1,933
977
22.93
1938
1,891
702
22.93
1939
2,270
773
20.06
1940
2,056
1,191
22.64
1941
2,208
593
24.31
1942
2,180
1,302
33.10
1943
1,206
435
22.57
1944
583
258
28.86
1945
..
327
..
H. K.
LALL
203
Fig. 3. Seasonal incidence of surra.
When the figures of incidence of surra are compared each year, it is seen that peak is reached in
the same month each year, with occasional minor variations. The average rainfall has also been
worked out monthwise on the basis of the rainfall figures of the last 14 years and plotted against
the number of average outbreaks each month. These figures show that surra has no direct relation
to rainfall as previously stated but its incidence is increased in the months usually after the summer
monsoons in the Punjab.
It is known that trypanosomes feed by osmosis on the glucose of blood which is naturally mobilised
from the store, i.e., the liver, and that there is hyperglycaemia in the early stages of trypanosome in-
fection and hyperglycaemia in the latter stages when the trypanosomes usually disappear. Ray
(personal communication) pointed out to the author that there is a seasonal variation in the blood
sugar of equines. The seasonal incidence of the disease and seasonal variation in the quantity of
blood sugar and the increase in the number of flies and other insects during the surra season throw
some light on the epizootology of the disease. It seems from the histopathology of the disease
studied on a few cases by Ray and Lall in 1944 (unpublished) that the lesions produced in chronic
cases of surra are pathogonomics of sugar-glycogen metabolic disorders and its further study—
specially of the endocrines—is likely to reveal some useful information.
Geographical distribution. A comparison has also been made on a geographical basis, i.e., the
number of outbreaks per total equine and camel population have been examined in the various divisions
of the Punjab, having different climatic conditions and rainfall. The number of surra centres, most
of which are along the courses of the rivers, varies in each division (see Fig. 5). This might have been
one of the reasons for variance in figures, but the analysis of outbreaks for each centre also shows the
same result as obtained on the basis of average population. It will be seen from Table III that the
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Seasonal Incidence of Surra
number of cases are fewer in the dry climate of Multan as compared to that of Ambala and Lahore
where the climate is more humid and there are extensive low lying areas. The last factor seems to
be the deciding factor, as far as surra is concerned. The total rainfall in Lahore and Rawalpindi
and Ambala divisions is approximately the same, but there is a difference in the number of cases
(on the average basis per 10,000 heads of equine and camel population) in each division. Jullundur,
having a much heavier rainfall, has more or less the same incidence as Rawalpindi. The peak is
reached in October in Lahore and Jullundur, in September in Ambala, Rawalpindi and Multan (see
Fig. 3A); this is very probably owing to the larger camel population in these divisions, because in the
case of camels peak is reached in September. In Ambala, which has proportionately a large camel
population, it is noticed from the records that the majority of the surra infected animals brought to
hospitals were camels. In the divisions where the camel population is considerable in proportion
to equines, the peak is not well defined. It is seen from the monthly rainfall curves (the average
of 1935—1943) of the various divisions (see Fig. 4) that the highest rainfall is in July in Ambala,
Jullundur and Multan and in August in Lahore and Rawalpindi. There seems to be no obvious con-
nection between the earlier period of rainfall and the peak period in this case. Winter rainfall due
to winter monsoons is maximum in Rawalpindi. It would seem, however, the winter rainfall has
no co-relation with the incidence of surra.
Fig. 4. Monthly rainfall for each division in the Punjab.