NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
ABSTRACT
Waldmann Vaccine for Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Liberated Italy, 1944. R. W. RUSH-
MORE (1945). Bull. U. S. Army Med. Dep. 89, 94-97.
T ECHNIQUE is given of preparation and dosage of a modified Waldmann's vaccine. Production
is in three stages, (a) preparation of virus, (b) preparation of aluminium hydroxide solution, (c)
facture of vaccine.
(a) Infective epithelium from guinea pigs is ground finely in buffer solution pH 7.6 and paper
filtered. The filtrate is diffused under the dorsal lingual epithelium of susceptible cattle. After
24 hours the whole epithelium over the inoculated area is pelled off and placed in a freezer. When
frozen solid, it is passed through a fine meat grinder, freshly distilled water is added in amount of
three to one, and the mixture centrifuged at 1500 r.p.m. for 5 minutes. After drawing off the super-
natant, distilled water equal to four times the original amount of epithelium is added to the sediment
and the mixture is ground. This process is repeated once. The resulting solution of virus in the
amount of eleven times the quantity of original epithelium is passed through Seitz Filters, first
size 5 and then size 6.
(b) To prepare 20 litres of hydroxide solution, (1) 20 litres of water are warmed to 63°C. and
880 gm. of ammonium sulphate added. (2) 1500 gm. of aluminium ammonium sulphate are dissolved
in 4 litres of water. (3) Solutions of steps (1) and (2) are mixed and 2 litres of cold ammonia added.
(4) After 50 litres of water are added to the solution of step (3), the mixture is stirred for 15 minutes,
and the supernatant fluid is drawn off by centrifuge extractor. (5) To the sediment of step (4) 60
litres water with 10 c.c. of ammonia are added, the mixture centrifuged. and the fluid drawn off.
(6) This washing is repeated five times. (7) The solid portion is collected in 20 litres water— the
mixture sterilized immediately at 105°C. for 30 minutes and allowed to stand for six days. Pre-
paration of aluminium hydroxide to the point of placing it in the sterilizer must be finished within
two hours' time.
(c) The following are first mixed in the order mentioned : 5 parts, aluminium hydroxide solu-
tion ; 4 parts, sterile buffer solution consisting of 0.2 per cent sodium hydroxide and 0.5 per cent
glycocoll solutions ; 1 part, virus solution. After mixing the aluminium hydroxide and buffer solu-
tions the container is evacuated and the virus is allowed to run in slowly and with constant agita-
tion for 30 minutes. Formalin is added to a concentration of 0.05 per cent and the mixture agitated
for further 30 minutes. The vaccine is first kept at 25°C. for 48 hours and then at 5°C. for 96 hours.
A safety test is made by injecting then susceptible bovines each with 60 c.c. of this vaccine before
use. The vaccine must be kept stored at 3°-7° C.
Dosage of the vaccine subcut. is 50 c.c. for adult bovines, 20-35 c.c. for calves, 5 c.c. for sheep
and goats and 5-15 c.c. for swine. Revaccination every six months is recommended. [M.M. Huq.]
145
MGIPC—M—III-1-4—1-6-48—520.
ORIGINAL ARTICLES
BRUCELLOSIS IN INDIA*
By J. B. POLDING, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar-Kumaon, U. P.
(Received for publication on 8 May 1947)
(One text-figure)
I N INDIA, as in other countries, brucellosis usually exists within a herd in the form of a con-
tinuous infection punctuated by sporadic abortions occurring singly or in groups. Such low-
grade enzootics are seen in nearly all Indian farms and many villages of the peninsula and usually
produce an unending trickle of abortions of 1 to 5 per cent in the year. From time to time, how-
ever, these infections exacerbate to 5 to 15 per cent within a few months. In special circumstances
major enzootics occur where the annual incidence of abortion may amount to 20 per cent during
several years, whilst, when newly introduced to a susceptible herd, the disease can be severe enough
on occasion to produce abortion rates of 20 to 40 per cent of pregnant cattle within a few months.
Thus, brucellosis in India, while not dissimilar to the disease in other countries, probably shows
greater extremes than elsewhere and attempts are made in this and the following paper to illustrate
the way in which environment dominates these contrasts.
Fig. 1. Distribution of Brucellosis in India
*The data given in this paper were collected during a survey of brucellosis in India conducted under the auspices of
the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
J. B. POLDING
149
be reasonable to assume that most village infection would lie adjacent thereto. A glance at the
map (Fig. 1) shows that such is not the case, and indeed, village infection is commonest where farms
are least numerous and vice versâ. Moreover, as shown elsewhere [Polding, in press] all Brucella
strains so far isolated from these villages, differ in their typing characteristics from the Br. abortus
strains found on farms. It seems, therefore, that village infection, occurring as it does almost ex-
clusively on the Indian peninsula, has not been imported from Europe viâ the farms, but is an in-
digenous Indian infection whose distribution may prove to be of epidemiological significance. In-
deed, inspection of Table I and the map (Fig. 1) reveals a curious position. Infection, as far as it
has been discovered, lies mainly in the tri-seasonal rainfall area of the peninsula south-east of the
thick line on the map. It has, however, advanced as far as, and follows with considerable accuracy
the limits of the bi-seasonal rainfall area south-east of the thin line. Conversely, the minimum
village infection seems to be in the arid north-west. It must be admitted, however, that owing
to the difficulties of obtaining sufficient truly representative blood samples for testing, the final pre-
cise position in north-western villages is not yet fixed, but, so far as tests have been made, the re-
actor incidence is negligible.
In the south, the position is more exactly known and the incidence of agglutinin-positive village
cattle runs between 10 and 50 per cent in villages where abortions occur, but is negligible where
abortions are not remarked. In Table III some relevant clinical conditions are correlated with the
reactor incidence in village animals of the south.
TABLE II
Above average abortion rates occurring in the wetter Military Farms
—
Farm A
Cows
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Buffaloes
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Farm B
Cows
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Buffaloes
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Farm C
Cows
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Year
1940
1941
1942
1940
1941
1942
1940
1941
1942
1940
1941
1942
1939
1940
1941
1942
Herd
strength
129
134
118
178
232
397
137
124
96
225
327
432
26
30
32
36
Abortions
Actual
13
16
7
3
9
12
17
6
19
6
10
52
3
3
2
4
Per cent
10.0
11.9
5.9 Mean = 9.3
1.7
3.9
3.0 Mean = 2.9
12.4
4.8
19.8 Mean = 12.3
2.7
3.1
12.0 Mean = 5.9
11.5
10.0
6.3
11.1 Mean=9.7
TABLE III
Relation between Brucella reactors and disease in south-Indian village cattle
Serum reaction
Positive
.
.
.
.
.
Doubtful
.
.
.
.
.
Negative
.
.
.
.
.
Totals .
Abortion
113
(66 per cent)
14
59
186
Synovial
enlarge-
ments
38
(49 per cent)
7
39
84
Retention
of the
placenta
1
(10 per cent)
4
9
14
Sterility
18
(16 per cent)
8
92
118
Healthy
32
(10 per cent)
32
274
338
Totals
202
65
473
740
150
Brucellosis in India
SUSCEPTIBILITY
Inextricably entangled as it is with many little-understood features of disease transmission,
susceptibility per se is an imponderable attribute. Further, the only available data on the subject
often concern as in this case, statistically unsuitable populations. Hence it becomes necessary to
make the best of the available information.
TABLE IV
Mean incidence of abortion among various classes of stock
Class
European zebu
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Indian zebu, cohabiting with crosses .
.
.
.
Buffaloes . . . . . . . .
Indian zebu, not cohabiting with crosses . . .
No. of herds
observed
15
13
15
11
Population
observed
1,337
164
1,880
4,495
No. of
aborters*
observed
273
12
110
167
Incidence
per cent
20.4
7.3
5.0
3.7
*Aborters=animals with history of abortion at the time of a single random observation
TABLE V
Recurrence of abortion among various classes of stock
Class
European (European re-
cords)
.
.
.
European zebu crosses .
Indian zebu, cohabiting
with crosses
.
.
Buffaloes . . .
Indian zebu, not cohabit-
ing with crosses .
.
Popula-
tion
observed
..
309
8
205
134
Abortion
Once
68.76
per cent
71.2
per cent
75.0
per cent
92.0
per cent
94.0
per cent
Twice
..
25.2
per cent
12
per cent
8
per cent
5
per cent
Thrice
..
3.2
per cent
1.2
per cent
0
per cent
1
per cent
Four times
..
0.4
per cent
0
0
0
Mean expectation of
calf loss
Per
aborting
cows*
..
1.3
1.3
1.08
1.07
Per life time
of 100
random
stock†
..
26.5
9.5
5.4
3.9
*Calculated from actual recurrence of abortions in the populations observed
†Figures obtained in* multiplied by the average incidence of abortion per cent
TABLE VI
Pregnancy at which abortions occur in various classes of stock
Class
European zebu, crosses . . .
Non-cohabiting zebu .
.
.
.
Buffaloes
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
34
46
16
2
27
26
39
3
12
13
17
4
9
9
10
5
8
3
6
6
2
2
6
7
<1
<1
2
8
<1
<1
<1
9
<1
<1
<1
10
..
..
..
11
..
..
..
12
..
..
..
Population
observed
228
180
130
Figures=abortion per cent occurring at the pregnancy shown
152
Brucellosis in India
It must be noted that all the animals considered in the foregoing sketch are kept in somewhat
similar conditions and that their standards of life are good, many of the pure-bred zebu herds in
particular living under semi-ranch conditions in a favourable climate. But severe epidemics of
abortion can occur, even in non-cohabiting zebu situated in good climates. Tables IX and X give
data of one such outbreak. Ninety-five per cent of the aborted animals on this farm were Brucella-
positive and if the annual abortion rate during the period of this epidemic be assessed at 25 per cent
—a conservative estimate—the susceptibility figure of the herd works out at 11.1, i.e., more than
tenfold the average for this class of stock. A possible explanation of this anomaly is given in the
next section.
TABLE IX
Abortion rate during an exceptional Brucella epidemic in indigenous cows
Year
1941
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1942
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Not known, believed 1942
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Total breeding
stock
(approximate)
50
50
50
Number of
aborters
16
9
16
Abortions
per cent
32
18
32
Breeding herd total at the time of observation (1943)
Total aborters
„
„
„
„
„ percent
„
„
= 52
= 40
= 77
TABLE X
Incidence of repeated abortions during an exceptional Brucella epidemic in indigenous cows
—
Actual
.
.
.
.
.
Per cent
.
.
.
.
.
Numbers stated to have aborted
Once
19
49
Twice
16
40
Thrice
5
12
Mean expectation of calf loss
Per aborting
cow
..
1.65
Per lifetime of
100 random
animals
..
41.25
As with cows, so with buffaloes there are exceptional rates of abortion. These abnormal rates
occur in two forms, viz., as severe epidemics, of which brucellosis is almost certainly the cause, and
as exceptional epidemics, mostly in. villages and about which little is known. The former, though
perhaps getting more frequent, are not very common. The latter will be discussed in another paper.
In the absence of records, it is impossible to give figures illustrating the susceptibility of village
stock, but it seems probable that they do not deviate much from the foregoing estimates for zebu
cattle.
During five years of investigation not a single abortion in sheep has been attributable to bru-
cellosis, nor can a significant incidence of reactors in these animals be recalled where sheep were
aborting or where they were in contact with Brucella-infected cattle. It must be supposed, there-
fore, that the susceptibility of Indian sheep to brucellosis is slight.
The goat, on the other hand, seems to be rather more susceptible, for, although during this survey
brucellosis has not been diagnosed in cases of clinical abortion among village goats, in two old-estab-
lished goat farms, the disease has undeniably co-existed with abortions. Nevertheless, goat brucel-
losis in India is in no way comparable with that of the Mediterranean area.
During blood-testing work in slaughter houses, occasional isolated reactors have been encountered
among goats and more rarely in sheep. It is noteworthy that these have occurred only in south
158
Indian Species of Brucella
TABLE I
Origin and classification of Indian Brucella strains
Origin
Ahmednagar . . .
Ambala
.
.
.
.
Bombay .
.
.
.
Cuttack .
.
.
.
Ghoom .
.
.
.
Hissar
.
.
.
.
Jarsugudda . . .
Jubbulpore . . .
Kirkee .
.
.
.
Lahore .
.
.
.
Lucknow .
.
.
.
Meerut .
.
.
.
Mukteswar . . .
Mysore .
.
.
.
Patna
.
.
.
.
Poona
.
.
.
.
Rapur (Madras) . .
Razmak . . . .
Sialkot .
.
.
.
Totals
. . . .
Br. abortus
Host
Farm
cow
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
1
11
Farm
buff
7
2
1
1
1
1
1
14
Horse
1
1
Br. melitensis
Host
Farm
cow
1
1
Goat
1
1
Mare
1
1
Unclassified
Host
Farm
cow
3
1
1
6
1
12
Farm
buff
2
2
Village
cow
1
1
1
3
6
Total : Br. abortus = 26, Br. melitensis = 3. unclassified = 20. Grand total = 49 strains.
TABLE II
Classification of Indian melitensis strains
Strain
Abortus control . . .
Suis control . . .
Melitensis control
I .
Indian-melintensis
I .
Do.
.
.
II .
Do.
.
. III .
CO 2 requirements
at isolation
CO 2
. . .
air/CO 2 . .
air/CO 2 . . .
air/CO 2 . . .
air/CO 2 . . .
air/CO 2 . . .
Excretion
of H S on
successive
days
+
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+
+
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
nil
nil
nil
nil
Growth on
thionin
—
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
fuchsin
+
+ +
+
—
+
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
Agglutination with
mono-A serum
+ + + 1/320
+ 1/20
strain rough, test
not possible
do.
+
+1/320
mono-M
serum
+1/20
+ +
+1/640
+ +1/160
J. B. POLDING
159
from a naval rating in Poona hospital, and, whilst it was able to grow in air and failed to produce
H 2 S, it grew but weakly on thionin and its antigenic structure appeared to be more abortus than
melitensis. The reason for the appearance of these strains is obscure, but it is possible that the third
at least was brought from overseas.
The twenty strains termed 'unclassified' all differed from true Br. abortus types in one main
characteristic, i.e. they grew both on thionin and fuchsin. Also the majority, although undeniably
abortus antigenically, showed a slight tendency not to differentiate so sharply as pure abortus types
on serological tests against monospecific sera, whilst two were distinctly melitensis in this respect.
One strain isolated from Patna and one from Mukteswar, whilst conforming to the above grouping,
also grew in air at isolation.
Table III illustrates the typing results of some of these unclassified strains ; those not shown in
the Table were unexceptional in their behaviour and are typified by the Madras or Orissa village
strains of the Table. Such strains will be referred to as " abortus/melitensis", or A/M for short.
TABLE III
Unclassified Indian Brucella strains
Origin of strain
Lucknow (farm) . . .
Jubbulpore (farm) . . .
Hissar (farm) . . .
Mukteswar (farm) . . .
Do. . . . .
Kanara
District,
Bombay
(village).
Orissa (village) . .
Madras (village) . . .
Bihar (farm) .
.
.
.
Atmospheric
requirements
at isolation
CO 2 . . .
CO 2 . . .
CO 2 .
.
.
CO 2 . . .
CO 2 /air . .
CO 2 . . .
CO 2 . . .
CO 2 . . .
CO 2 /air . .
H 2 S
Secretion
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+
+ + +
+ +
+
+
+ + +
+ +
+
+
+ + +
+ +
+
+
+ + +
+ +
+ +
— + + +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+
+ + +
+
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
Growth on
thionin
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
fuchsin
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
Agglutination with
mono-A
serum
1/160
Negative
1/1280
1/640
1/320
1/160
1/320
1/320
1/320
mono-M
serum
1/5120
1/3560
1/80
1/80
1/80
Negative
1/80
1/80
1/40
The + signs are purely comparative estimations of degrees of reaction. In the H 2 S column the reaction was registered
over five successive days.
C 2
J. B. POLDING
161
TABLE IV
Antigenic sensitivity of Indian Brucella strains
Strain
F 39
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
F40
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
F41A
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
F41B
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
F42
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
F43
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
F44
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
F45
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
F46
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
F47
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
F48
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Control (European) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A = Br. abortus
Type
A/M
A/M
A/M
A/M
A/M
A.
A/M
A.
A/M
A/M
A/M
A .
Titre
+1/1120
+
+1/1280
+1/1280
+1/1120
+1/1280
+1/1120
+
+1/1120
+ + 1/1120
+ + +1/1120
+
+1/1120
+
+1/1280
++1/1280
A/M=Br. abortus/melitensis
TABLE V
Virulence of Indian field strains
Strain
F.46 Indian CO 2 A/M
.
.
.
.
.
F.45 Indian CO 2 A
.
.
.
.
.
F.41 Indian CO 2 A/M
.
.
.
.
.
F.40 Indian CO 2 A/M . . . . .
F.36 Indian CO 2 A/M
.
.
.
.
.
F.34 Indian M
.
.
.
.
.
.
A.1 European A
.
.
.
.
.
.
M.1 Malta M
.
.
.
.
.
.
V.1 Cotton's 19
.
.
.
.
.
.
V.4 McEwen's 45(6)
.
.
.
.
.
V.5 McEwen's 45(20)
.
.
.
.
.
Bacterial doses
16×10 9
5
2
2
8×10 9
4
1
5
4 × 10 9
4
4
5
5
5
5
3
5
1
1
2
2 × 10 9
3
2
5
3
4
5
1
3
1×10 9
2
0
2
0
4
4
0
1
0.5 × 10 9
3
1
2
1
1
4
1
1
Numbers=dead mice out of 5.
A=Br. abortus M=Br. melitensis A/M=Br. abortus/melitensis CO 2 =CO 2 sensitive
The Indian strains tested were recently isolated and, except the melitensis strain, were CO 2
sensitive. As might be expected, the order of virulence proved to be : melitensis most virulent
abortus-melitensis of intermediate virulence, and abortus least virulent. As repeated sub-culturing
is supposed to lead to loss of virulence, a comparison with the overseas type-specific strains must
be made with caution. It is to be remembered that the Maltese strain was isolated six years pre-
viously and the English abortus strain must be many years old. After making due allowance for
this, however, the experiment suggests little difference between Indian and overseas species. To
check up this suggestion, in Table VI a comparison is shown between the Indian strains and an
average result of four recently isolated English Br. abortus strains typed by Priestley and McEwen
[1938]. If it can be believed that tests done by different persons are comparable, the foregoing
conception of virulence seems to be substantiated.
DISCUSSION
The apparent rarity of melitensis strains in India is note-worthy, for while corroborating the
belief of most contemporary observers, it accords ill with the early history of human infection, which
for this reason merits a brief scrutiny. From the year of Wright and Smith's [1897] demonstration
166
Experiments on the transmission of Surra
Group VII. 2 September About 135 ticks fed as above, but kept in incubator at 25ºC.
The object of keeping a proportion of the ticks in the incubator was to determine the effect, if
any, of a relatively high temperature on the viability of the trypanosomes after being ingested by
these ticks, this possibility, as already mentioned, having been suggested by Yorke and Macfic. The
infectivity of ticks taken from each of these seven groups was later tested at various intervals on
healthy rabbits, a note being taken of the actual number of ticks fed on each occasion in order that,
in the event of the result being positive, some indication might be obtained as to the minimum number
of ticks necessary to produce infection. The experimental rabbits were observed for about three
weeks and the results of these experiments are summarized in Table I.
TABLE I.
Result of experiments with ticks to produce infection
Group No.
VI . . . . . . .
VII . . . . . . .
IV . . . . . . .
V . . . . . . .
I . . . . . . .
II . . . . . . .
III . . . . . . .
I . . . . . . .
VI . . . . . . .
VII . . . . . . .
I . . . . . . .
VI . . . . . . .
VII . . . . . . .
I . . . . . . .
Total . .
Number of ticks
fed
30
30
30
30
5
30
30
5
33
35
5
32
33
5
333
Interval between infective and 'heal-
thy' feed
48 hours .
.
.
.
.
.
48 „ . . . . . .
7 days „ . . . . . .
7 „ . . . . . .
20 „ . . . . . .
21 „ . . . . . .
21 „ . . . . . .
30 „ . . . . . .
34 „ . . . . . .
34 „ . . . . . .
40 „ . . . . . .
48 „ . . . . . .
48 „ . . . . . .
50 „ . . . . . .
Result
Negative
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
It will be seen from the foregoing Table that a total of 14 trials, involving the use of 333
ticks, were carried out and the interval between the infective and the 'healthy' feed ranged from
48 hours to 50 days, this range, in view of the observations recorded by Cross and Abdulla Khan
[1923], being considered sufficiently long and varied to allow for the reproduction of the disease in
experimental animals. The results, however, were of an entirely negative order and were, therefore,
in accord with those recorded by Yorke and Macfie.
SUMMARY
The tick, Ornithodoros tholozani, was incapable of transmitting surra, under experimental con-
ditions, from infected guinea-pigs to healthy rabbits.
REFERENCES
Cross, H. E.' and Patcl, P. G. (1921). Dept. Agric. Punjab Vet. Bull. 6, 1-3
Cross, H. E., and Khan Abdulla (1923). Dept. Agric. Punjab Vet. Bull. 12, 1-11
Singh, Kahan (1925). Dept. Agric. Punjab Vet. Bull. 16, 1-8
——(1926).
Dept. Agric. Punjab Vet. Bull. 16, 1-20
Yorke, W., and Macfie, J. W. S. (1924). Ann. Trop. Med. & Parasit. 18, 125-126
J. A. IDNANI AND C. SEETHARAMAN 169
3. A susceptible bird contracts the disease when exposed for three hours or more to an infected
one at a distance of not more than two feet under conditions suitable for the play of air currents.
REFERENCES
Dobson, N. (1939). Proc. 7th World's Poult. Congr., 250-53, Washington, D. C.: U. S. Dep. Agric.
Doyle, T. M. (1927). J. Comp. Path. 40, 144-69
Farinas, E. C. (1930). Philippine J. Agric. 1, 311-64
Komarov, A. (1940). Palestine Vet. Bull. 6, 107-11. [Orig. not seen]
Stover, D. E. (1942). Am. J. Vet. Res. 3, 239-41