NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
INHERITANCE AS A FACTOR IN POULTRY DISEASE
177
As pointed out by Cole, if it proves impracticable to develop high resistance
in commercial flocks by selection, the same general result might be attained by
developing special resistant flocks in which most of the genes had been made
homozygous by selection and inbreeding. Such flocks could furnish sires to com-
mercial poultrymen to be used for top-crossing on their stock. Such a pro-
gramme should raise the general level of resistance in flocks. As the general
level of resistance rose the need for treatment and other protective measures
would be correspondingly lessened.
The present commercial set-up in poultry with the wide distribution of chicks
through hatcheries should furnish ample opportunity for the development of such
a programme. Of course, any attempt to develop disease-resistant lines should
first be made for those diseases which cannot easily be brought under control
by other means, or in which the seriousness of the disease would justify large
efforts on all methods of control.
DISEASES
OF
UNCERTAIN
ETIOLOGY
Neurolymphomatosis, the etiology of which is still undetermined, is un-
doubtedly the disease of greatest economic importance in poultry, in which no
preventive or curative therapeutic treatment has been found. It would seem
from the studies of Biely and his co-workers [1932, 1933] that the breeding
method may be the most important means for controlling this disease. They have
demonstrated that the differences in incidence of paralysis in different groups and
families of chickens are highly significant, and in the later report they suggest
that the difference between resistance and susceptibility is possibly controlled
by one pair of genes. While such a conclusion is somewhat hazardous in view
of the difficulty of reproducing the disease, the results certainly point to the desir-
ability for further research.
The results of Kennard [1933] also suggest the probability of inherent
differences in resistance, and of the importance of selection against paralysis in a
flock. That strain differences in resistance occur is also recognized by pathologists
who have given much attention to this disease [see Patterson et al, 1932].
DISCUSSION
The examples cited in the foregoing pages clearly emphasize the potential
importance of the hereditary factor in disease.
While little of practical im-
portance in the way of disease control has been accomplished by use of the
genetic method, it need only be pointed out that little attempt has been made to
use this method in a systematic way. Further experimentation is greatly needed,
and it is unfortunate indeed that our laboratories of poultry research have so
generally overlooked this problem. The incomplete success of present methods
of disease control and the importance of the breeding method, at least for some
types of disease, certainly justify its inclusion in the research programme of many
institutions. What is badly needed is a concerted research programme which has
I
178 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [VI, II
as its aim the collecting of information and statistics on all phases of disease, and
in which all possible methods of disease control are given due consideration. Such
a programme obviously, is too large for any one institution, but is it too much
to hope that a co-ordinated programme can be evolved in which the workers of
many institutions will co-operate in the solution of the problems presented by
disease ? Certainly it would seem the industry is sadly in need of such a pro-
gramme.
Some possible steps that might be included in such a research programme
to throw further light on the use of the genetic method in disease control are as
follows:
A determination of the value of breeding only from hens, namely second year
and older birds, upon the basis of their pullet performance. Such hens not only
should have survived the pullet year with a good production record and a clean
bill of health, but they should come only from those families having the best
records in these respects. A breeding programme based upon this policy should
produce hardier and more disease-resistant progeny.
The careful collection of disease statistics upon many strains of birds. Meagre
studies indicate that marked differences in resistance to disease as well as in
general stamina are strain characteristics. At present our information on this
question is woefully inadequate..
Once desirable strains of birds are isolated, to test these strains in intercrosses
with the aim of combining the desirable traits of both strains in a new strain or
strains. Sufficient evidence is available to indicate that some crosses will produce
first-generation hybrids of high merit, both in production and in general stamina.
The development of inbred lines from the more desirable strains which can
be used to furnish sires for topcrossing and as foundation stock for intercrosses.
Such inbreds obviously should be free from undesirable defects and other physiolo-
gical weaknesses. From the top crosses and intercrosses continual effort should
be made to develop better inbreds.
A revamping of the objectives of our laying contests and R. O. P. programmes
with more emphasis on determining the inherent stamina of various strains, as well
as high production and other desirable characteristics. Properly conducted
laying contests should furnish a source of invaluable information on all phases of
disease, and upon the inherent potentialities of many strains of birds. The number
of such properly conducted tests should be increased.
Many of these suggestions, obviously, are suitable only for long-time pro-
grammes. However, the menace of disease to the success of the poultry industry,
and the apparent increase in the incidence of disease, in spite of sanitation and
the use of therapeutic measures, would indicate the need for the adoption of a
long-range programme, inclusive in its scope and vigorous in its prosecution.
INHERITANCE AS A FACTOR IN POULTRY DISEASE
179
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called range paralysis of the chicken. Jour. A. V. M. A. n. s. 81: 747—767.
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and Card, L. E. (1926). The inheritance of resistance to bacillary white
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Mimeo. Rpt., Poultry Dept. Extension Service Iowa State College.
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THE RELATION OF VITAMIN-D TO CALCIUM AND
PHOSPHORUS RETENTION IN
CATTLE AS
SHOWN BY BALANCE TRIALS
BY
G. CARROLL WALLIS, L. S. PALMER AND T. W. GULLICKSON, 1
Divisions of Dairy Husbandary and Agricultural Biochemistry, University of
Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota.
[Reprinted from the Journal of Dairy Science, Vol. XVIII, No. 4, April, 1935.]
The fact that a calf has a definite vitamin-D requirement and suffers from a
deficiency of this factor in its ration has been demonstrated by the published work
of Rupel, Bohstedt and Hart (1), Bechdel, Landsburg and Hill (2), Huffman (3),
and by unpublished work of Gullickson (4) in which experimental "rickets"
developed when vitamin-D was withheld and disappeared when this factor was
added to the ration. Rupel, Bohstedt and Hart (1), and Bechdel, Landsburg
and Hill (2) have reported an increased ash percentage in certain representative
bones, and an improvement in the concentration of calcium and inorganic phos-
phorus in the blood plasma following vitamin-D therapy of animals suffering from
experimental " rickets," which gives indirect evidence of a beneficial effect of vita-
min-D on the calcium and phosphorus retention, but studies to directly measure
this relationship have not been made.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Ten-day mineral balance trials were employed for directly measuring the
calcium and phosphorus retention. The mineral retention of normal calves was
obtained first to be used for comparative purposes. Young, growing calves were
then placed on basal experimental rations relatively low in calcium and phos-
phorus content, and deficient in vitamin-D. Prairie hay was used as roughage
for one group, and beet pulp for the other. The concentrates included corn, corn
gluten meal, oats, corn starch, and a little wheat bran. For some animals the
basal rations were supplemented with calcium, as calcium carbonate, and/or
phosphorus, as monobasic sodium phosphate, and /or vitamin-D, as viosterol (250
D), or sunshine. Balance trials were run periodically to follow any changes and to
note the effect of the various experimental schedules on the calcium and phos-
phorus retention of the calves. On all calves that developed a vitamin-D de-
ficiency as indicated by a rachitic syndrome and a subnormal concentration of
calcium and inorganic phosphorus in the blood plasma, particular attention was
paid to obtain a balance trial while the calf was still eating well, but after the
deficiency was well established. Vitamin-D was then added to the ration, and
after the lapse of a reasonable length of time, another trial was run.
Received for publication October 3, 1934.
1 The data presented are taken from the thesis by G. Carroll Wallis in partial ful-
filment of the requirements for the degree of Ph.D., University of Minnesota, 1934.
The problem was suggested by the late Dr. C. H. Eckles who acted as advisor during the
first part of the work. Published with the approval of the Director as Paper 1308,
Journal Series, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.
( 181 )
182 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
[VI, II
Except when the experimental schedule required exposure to sunshine the
animals were kept indoors in box stalls. A large indoor pen was available for
additional exercise. Feeding was done individually and an accurate record kept
of actual consumption. All feeds were analyzed for nutrient and calcium and
phosphorus content before they were included in the ration. Weights and measure-
ments of height at withers were taken periodically and the rations adjusted at
30-day intervals to furnish somewhat more than the nutrient requirements for
growth given by the Minnesota Standard published by Eckles and Gullickson (5).
The total calcium and inorganic phosphorus content of the blood plasma were
determined from successive 3-day composite samples at least once every thirty
days.
Standard methods were followed in conducting the balance trials. In order
to accommodate steers in the metabolism stall special equipment was designed, 2
as shown in Plate VI. A heavy rubber funnel was made from a large automobile
inner tube. The top was clamped between two tape-covered metal rings which
were then bolted together and bent somewhat to conform to the contour of the
animal's body. The funnel opening was held in place over the opening of the
animal's sheath by straps around the body. A small-bore, heavy-walled rubber
tubing connected to a stopcock cemented into the lower end of the funnel, served
to conduct the urine to the collecting pan. The calcium and phosphorus analyses
of the excreta and feedstuffs were carried out by the methods of Morris, Nelson,
and Palmer (6).
Vitamin-D assays using rats were made on the two lots of prairie hay and
the beet pulp used in the calf-feeding work. The method followed was that given
in U. S. P. X Interim revision for the assay of cod liver oil for vitamin-D.
OBSERVATIONS
The calcium and phosphorus retention of normal calves.—Three Holstein calves,
E-180, E-183 and 436 and one Jersy calf, E-181 were used in this work.
The ration included prairie hay and a concentrate mixture composed of the common
grains and grain by-products. The calves had been exposed to sunshine during
the summer and otherwise cared for in the customary manner. They appeared
normal and showed a normal concentration of calcium and inorganic phosphorus
in the blood plasma. During the balance trials the animals were exposed to
sunshine on favourable days. As shown in Table 1, these calves, seven to nine
months of age, retained an average of 4.17 grms. of calcium and 2.61 grms. of
phosphorus daily.
2 Credit is due to Mr. M. E. Mattison, Curator of the Biochemistry Division for
assisting in designing and making this device.
Ind. Jour. Vety. Sci. & Anim. Husb. Vol. VI, Pt.
2.
PLATE VI
E—201 in metabolism stall showing special equipment designed for collecting urine in balance trials.
RELATION OF VITAMIN-D TO CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS RETENTION IN CATTLE
183
TABLE I
The results of mineral balance trials showing the calcium and phosphorus retention of
four normal calves
Animal No.
E-180 . .
E-181 . .
E-183 . .
436
. .
Average (10
days).
Daily average
Age at
beginning
Days
290
288
220
269
...
...
Weight
lbs.
479
397
415
465
...
...
Total
Sunshine
hrs.
6
6
2
2
...
...
Blood Plasma
Total
Ca
Mgm. per
100 cc.
9.91
10.41
10.48
10.15
...
...
Inorganic
P
Mgm. per
100 cc.
7.46
7.32
7.43
7.17
...
...
Intake
gms.
108.4
95.6
119.1
132.5
...
...
Mineral Balance (10-Day Period)
Ca
Outgo
gms.
53.8
64.4
59.4
110.9
...
...
Balance
gms.
+54.6
+31.2
+ 59.7
+ 21.6
+41.7
+4.17
Intake
gms.
77.8
69.4
119.6
135.1
...
...
P
Outgo
gms.
44.9
47.9
91.1
113.4
...
...
Balance
gms.
+32.9
+21.5
+ 23.5
+ 21.7
+ 26.1
+ 2.61
184 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [VI, II
Experiments using hay as roughage.—As soon as the balance trials under normal
conditions had been completed, these calves and E-182, a grade Holstein, were
started on their respective experimental schedules. All the animals were given
an allowance of prairie hay which represented about the amount they would
consume ad libitum. E-180, E-181 and E-182 ran parallel on a basal ration ad-
justed to furnish 30 grms. of calcium and 15 grms. of phosphorus daily per 1,000
pounds of live weight. E-180 was kept indoors, E-181 was allowed sunshine
exposure on favourable days, E-182 was kept indoors but given a vitamin-D
supplement of 2 cc. of viosterol (250 D) daily. E-183 and 436 were paired on a
similar basal ration but with the phosphorus intake increased to 30 grms. daily
per 1,000 pounds of live weight. E-183 was kept indoors while 436 received sun-
shine exposure.
After about three months on the experimental programme, a series of balance
trials were run to note any possible effect of the various procedures on the reten-
tion of calcium and phosphorus although none of the animals were showing mani-
festations of a vitamin-D deficiency. The results of these trials given in Table
II show essentially normal retentions of calcium and phosphorus for all the calves.
The viosterol supplement of E-182 had not increased her mineral retention above
that of E-180, neither had the sunshine exposure of 436 made possible larger
retentions for this animal than for E-183 likewise the increased phosphorus in-
take of E-183 and 436 had not brought about an increased retention of this element
as compared with that of E-180 and E-182. As all of these animals continued
through the winter in essentially normal condition no further balance trials were
conducted on this group.
RELATION OF VITAMIN-D TO CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS RETENTION IN CATTLE
185
TABLE II
The results of mineral balance trials showing the calcium and phosphorus retention of calves receiving prairie hay as
roughage with and without mineral and vitamin-D
supplements
Animal
E-180 . .
E-182 . .
E-183 . .
436 . .
E-169 . .
E-169 . .
E-170 . .
E-170 . .
Average
(10
days).
Daily average .
Age at
begin-
ning
Days
431
394
318
364
610
680
592
662
...
...
Weight
lbs.
670
677
580
622
871
935
728
787
...
...
Supplements
Mineral
None . .
None . .
Phosphorus .
Phosphorus .
None . .
None . .
Calcium
Calcium
...
...
Vitamin-D
None .
Viosterol 1 .
None . .
Sunshine 2 .
Viosterol .
None 3 . .
None . .
Viosterol 4 .
...
...
Blood Plasma
Total
Ca
mgm. per
100 cc.
10.84
10.68
9.51
10.46
9.98
9.61
9.45
10.62
...
...
Inorganic
P
mgm. per
100 cc.
5.85
7.09
8.03
7.72
8.13
7.30
5.85
4.98
...
...
Intake
gms.
210.3
210.7
179.8
190.3
113.5
132.7
573.6
664.7
...
...
Mineral Balance (10-day period)
Ca
Outgo
gms.
133.3
140.0
68.6
98.9
48.2
57.9
498.7
626.8
...
...
Balance
gms.
+77.0
+70.7
+111.2
+91.4
+ 65.3
+ 74.8
+ 74.9
+ 37.9
+ 75.4
+ 7.54
Intake
gms.
96.4
96.4
174.0
182.1
113.3
117.8
91.0
96.5
...
...
P
Outgo
gms.
57.1
53.2
128.6
150.2
78.0
79.9
66.3
72.5
...
...
Balance
gms.
+39.3
+43.2
+45.4
+31.9
+ 35.3
+37.9
+24.7
+24.0
+ 35.2
+ 3.52
1 Two cc. viosterol daily during entire experiment. 2 Sunshine exposure during entire experiment. 3 Viosterol removed 17 days previous to this trial.
4 five cc. viosterol daily added 17 days previous to this trial.
K
186 THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY [VI, II
The results obtained with E-169 and E-170, grade Holstein females, are
also given in Table II. These animals were available from another experiment
in which they had developed a rachitic syndrome on a low-calcium-low-phos-
phorus ration under indoor conditions. E-169 had been growing vigorously
throughout the summer after receiving a viosterol supplement with no further
change in her experimental schedule. E-170 had shown slow but persistent im-
provement after the addition of CaCO 3 to her ration. Both animals were receiving
prairie hay. The results from the first balance trial with each animal indicate
that the viosterol was enabling E-169 to retain adequate amounts of calcium
and phosphorus from her limited intake, and that E-170 was retaining adequate
amounts by virtue of the increased calcium intake without additional vitamin-D.
The viosterol was now removed from the ration of E-169 and added to that of
E-170 at the rate of 5 cc. daily. After seventeen days, balance trials were again
run. E-169 was still retaining approximately the same amount of calcium and
phosphorus. The added viosterol had not improved the mineral retention of
E-170, in fact, it was somewhat less but still within the limits of variations re-
ported for normal animals.
The results of the balance trials run on this group of calves receiving hay
as roughage are essentially normal in all cases. None of the calves showed the
characteristic symptoms of a vitamin-D deficiency. As E-180 and E-183 were
on the basal schedule without additional vitamin-D for six to seven months it
would seem that a reasonable length of time had elapsed in which to deplete the
possible vitamin-D stores of a young calf at weaning time, hence it seemed more
likely that all the animals were getting this factor from some other source. In
view of the fact that several investigators have found a varying, yet appreciable,
amount of vitamin-D in different kinds of hay, it seemed that the prairie hay
was the most likely source of an appreciable amount of this factor in the experi-
mental schedule of the control calves on the basal ration. To check this point
with approved methods, the prairie hays and beet pulp used as roughage were
subjected to vitamin-D assays by use of laboratory animals. Both lots of prairie
hay were found to carry appreciable amounts of vitamin-D which affords a logical
explanation for the essentially normal condition and normal mineral retentions
of the calves on the basal ration and the lack of any appreciable differences in
the retentions of those getting varying amounts of vitamin-D supplements from
different sources.
The vitamin-D assays with laboratory animals were designed to be qualitative
rather than quantitative. Preliminary tests indicated that rats would readily
consume the test diets containing 45 per cent of powdered prairie hay and 25
per cent of beet pulp which corresponded to the levels of these materials in the
calf rations. The calcium/phosphorus ratio of the rachitogenic diet was changed
but slightly when the test materials were added, the tendency being for a wider
ratio.