NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
Medical Officers of the Army of India.
53
This snake was observed every hour during the day and seemed to be
unaffected.
Next day. —Active and well. Very fierce when disturbed.
3 r d
t o 9
t h
d a y .
— A c t i v e a n d w e l l . V e r y f i e r c e w h e n d i s t u r b e d . I t w a s t a k e n
out of its cage on the fifth and ninth days and bit eagerly, yield
- i n g c l e a r v e n o m . O n t h e n i n t h d a y i t w a s k i l l e d a n d d i s s e c t e d .
Post-mortem Examination. —The skin over site of injection slightly dry and
wrinkled, but no subjacent exudation or softening of tissues—only a faint capil
-lary staining subcutaneously at seat of injection. Organs strictly normal in
appearance.
To test the activity of the venom used in Experiment IV the following two
experiments were made:
—
EXPERIMENT V.—Of the remainder of the solution used in Experiment IV,
8 minims were injected subcutaneously into thigh of a chicken weighing 14 ozs.
1 0 - 1 8 A . M . — T i m e o f i n j e c t i o n .
10-20 „ —Prostrate; beak resting on ground.
10-25 „ —Convulsions.
10-28 „ —Dead.
EXPERIMENT VI.—Of same solution as used in last experiment 4 minims
were injected into thigh of a chicken weighing 10 ozs.—
1 0 - 2 1 A . M . — T i m e o f i n j e c t i o n .
10-28 „ —Convulsions.
10-32 „ —Dead.
EXPERIMENT VII.—A monocellated cobra (' Adyat ki-otíá ') , measuring 43
inches in length, yielded about 12 minims of venom. This was diluted with an
equal volume of water, and at 10-45 A.M., 12 minims were injected hypodermi
-cally into this same cobra, as in Experiments I and IV.
During the day no effect was observable, and the snake remained well and
active up till the ninth day, when it was killed and dissected.
Post-mortem Examination. —Wound healed, no softening of tissues or exu
-dation, very slight capillary staining limited to track of syringe-needle. Organs
strictly normal.
To test the activity of the venom used in Experiment VII the following
two experiments were made:
—
EXPERIMENT VIII.—Of the remainder of the solution used in last experi
-ment No. VII, 8 minims were injected subcutaneously into thigh of a chicken
weighing 14 ozs.—
10-51 A.M.—Time of injection.
1 1 - 1 0 „ — C o n v u l s i o n s .
11-23 „ —Dead.
Scientific Memoirs by
EXPERIMENT IX.—Of the same solution as was used in last experiment 4
minims were similarly injected into a chicken weighing 13 ozs.—
10-53 A.M.—Time of injection.
11-11 „ —Convulsions.
11-30 „ —Dead.
EXPERIMENT X.—A small binocellated cobra (' Kálá Gokhura'), measuring
34 inches in length, yielded about 10 minims of venom. This was mixed with
double its bulk of water, and 15 minims of this solution injected into this same
cobra. The injection appeared to be without effect. The snake was observed
several times during that day and following days, and found at all times to be
actively on the alert.
On the fifth and ninth days following injection, it bit eagerly, yielding clear venom.
On the ninth day it was killed and dissected.
Post-mortem Examination.—Wound healed, no exudation, softening, of
staining of the tissues at seat of injection. Organs strictly normal.
To test the activity of the venom used in Experiment X, the following two
experiments were made immediately thereafter:
—
EXPERIMENT XI.—Of the remainder of the solution used in Experiment X,
8 minims were hypodermically injected into a chicken weighing 14 ozs.—
11-28 A.M.—Time of injection into thigh of chicken.
1 1 - 3 7 „ — C o n v u l s i o n s .
11-42 „ —Dead.
EXPERIMENT XII.—Of the same solution as was used in last experiment
4 minims were similarly injected into a chicken weighing 10 ozs.—
1 1 - 3 0 A . M . — I n j e c t i o n i n t o c h i c k e n ' s t h i g h .
11-36 „ —Convulsions.
11-43 „ —Dead.
Second Series of Cobras.
EXPERIMENT XIII.—A very large binocellated cobra, measuring 59½ inches
in length, yielded about 9 minims of straw-coloured clear venom. This was mixed
with an equal quantity of water, and of this solution 15 minims were injected
hypodermically about middle of back.
During that day the snake appeared unaffected, and no change was noted
during the subsequent fourteen days. On the fifteenth day after injection, the
snake was active and furious, it bit vigorously, yielding a small amount of clear
venom—the greater portion escaping into snake's mouth. It was immediately
thereafter killed and dissected. Temperature during its captivity ranged between
65° and 78° Fah.
Post-mortem Examination.—No morbid appearances externally over site of
injection. Subcutaneously slight limited swelling about size of small split-pea
54
Second Series of Cobras.
Medical Officers of the Army of India.
55
beneath fascia, which had been pricked by injection needle, but no softening or
exudation. Viscera strictly normal in appearance.
To test the activity of the venom used in Experiment XIII, the following
experiment was made :-
EXPERIMENT XIV.—The remaining 3 minims of the solution used in ex
- p e r i m e n t X I I I w e r e i n j e c t e d h y p o d e r m i c a l l y i n t o i n n e r a s p e c t o f r i g h t t h i g h o f a
chicken weighing 15 ozs.—
1 1 - 9 A . M . — T i m e o f i n j e c t i o n .
„ —Head drooping.
—Lying on side paralysed.
—Convulsions.
—Nearly dead.
„ —Dead.
EXPERIMENT XV.—A large binocellated cobra (' Káiá Gokhura'), measuring
4 7 3 / 4 i n c h e s i n l e n g t h , y i e l d e d a b o u t 1 2 m i n i m s o f l i g h t s t r a w - c o l o r e d c l e a r v e n o m .
This was mixed with an equal bulk of water, and of this solution 20 minims were
injected hypodermically about middle of back of this same snake. Temperature
as in Experiment XIII.
During that day no change was apparent. Nor was any change evident up
to the fifteenth day after injection, when the snake was taken out of its cage, and
it bit fiercely, yielding clear venom. It was immediately thereafter killed and
dissected.
Post-mortem Examination.— Slight wrinkling and dulness of skin over site of
injection. No exudation or staining or softening subcutaneously; but point of
needle had pricked the sheath of the spinal muscles, and sub-fascially around
site of puncture was a small inflammatory nodule about size of a small pea,
red on section, and of cheesy consistence. Viscera strictly normal in appearance.
To test the activity of the venom used in Experiment XV, the following
experiment was made:-
EXPERIMENT XVI.—The remaining 4 minims of the solution used in Ex
- p e r i m e n t X V w e r e i n j e c t e d h y p o d e r m i c a l l y i n t o t h i g h o f a f o w l w e i g h i n g
24 ozs.—
11-39 A.M.—Time of injection.
11-46 A.m.—Beak resting on ground.
1 1 - 5 3 A. m. —Ly i n g o n s i d e wi t h c o n v u l s i v e g a s p i n g s .
11-59 A.M.—Dead.
EXPERIMENT XVII.—A vigorous monocellated cobra (' Shankha mutiya
Ki-otiá'), measuring 463/4 inches in length, yielded about 15 minims of clear color
- l e s s v e n o m . T h i s w a s m i x e d w i t h a n e q u a l b u l k o f w a t e r , a n d 2 5 m i n i m s o f t h i s
solution were injected hypodermically about middle of back of this cobra.
11-17
11-20
11-22
11-33
11-35
56
Scientific Memoirs by
Temperature as in Experiment XIII. During that day it seemed unaffected. Nor
did it seem affected during the fourteen subsequent days. On the fifteenth day
after injection it was taken out of its cage and it bit fiercely, yielding clear venom.
It was immediately thereafter killed and dissected.
Post-mortem Examination. —No local signs whatsoever. Organs strictly
normal in appearance.
To test the activity of the venom used in Experiment XVII, the following
experiment was made:—
EXPERIMENT XVIII.—The remaining 5 minims of the same solution used in
Experiment XVII were injected hypodermically into the thigh of a fowl weighing
30 ozs.—
12 noon.—Time of injection.
12-4 P.M.—Sitting with beak resting on ground.
1 2 - 2 0 „ —Co n v u l s i o n s .
12-23 „ —Dead.
EXPERIMENT XIX.—A large binocellated cobra, measuring 513/4 inches in
length, had 7 grains of cobra venom (obtained from another cobra one month
previously and of ascertained activity1) dissolved in 15 minims of water injected
hypodermically about middle of back. Temperature as in Experiment XIII.
During that day it seemed to remain unaffected, and so it also remained
during the following fourteen days. On the fifteenth day following the injection,
the snake was taken out of its cage, and bit vigorously, yielding clear venom. It
was immediately thereafter killed and dissected.
Post-mortem Examination.— No local signs evident. Viscera generally
were slightly congested, but not otherwise abnormal in appearance, and no fluid
extravasation had occurred into any of the cavities.
Third Series of Cobras.
EXPERIMENT XX.—A large active binocellated cobra, measuring 58 inches
in length, yielded about 16 minims of clear venom. This was diluted with an
equal bulk of water, and of this solution 28 minims were injected hypodermically
about middle of back of this same cobra. Temperature 70° Fah.
During the day it seemed to remain unaffected, nor did it appear affect-
ed during the subsequent fifteen days.
On the fifteenth day it was killed and dissected.
Post-mortem Examination. —Skin slightly dry and wrinkled over seat of in-
jection, very faint localized staining subcutaneously at point where needle pene-
trated cuticle. The subjacent muscle here to extent of about size of split-pea semi-
diffluent, but free from purulent products. Viscera strictly normal in appearance.
1One and a half grains dissolved in water killed in 20 minutes a chicken weighing 16 ozs.
Medical Officers of the Army of India.
57
To test the activity of the venom used in Experiment XX the following
experiment was made immediately after injecting the cobra:—
EXPERIMENT XXI.—Two minims of the same solution as was used in
Experiment XX were hypodermically injected into thigh of a fowl weighing
31 ozs.—
8-25 A.M.—Time of injection.
8-50 „ —Drooping in sitting position.
9-5 „ —Beak resting on ground.
9-15 „ —Lying on side.
9-50 ,, —Dead.
Results of these experiments.
The results of these experiments unequivocally demonstrate that the cobra
is practically, if not wholly, insusceptible to the
toxic action of its own venom. In the first series, the
cobras were kept under observation for nine days, in the second series for
fifteen days, and in the third for fifteen days. And the fact that each series
of experiments was conducted under different conditions as to locality,1 elevation
above sea-level, temperature, and season, tended to eliminate local sources of
experimental error.
Review of Mitchell and Fayrer's
anomalous experiments.
In view of the absolute uniformity of results which has obtained throughout
these experiments, it becomes desirable to review
the details of those experiments by Mitchell and
Fayrer which seem to have been attended by exceptional or anomalous results, in
order to ascertain whether the seemingly anomalous results may not be attribut
-able to accident.
Fayrer's experiments on cobras
versus cobras.
The experiments recorded by Fayrer upon cobra-venom versus the cobra
are 23 in number, viz. 16 on cobras bitten by co-
bras and 7 in which cobra-venom was injected hypo
- d e r m i c a l l y i n t o c o b r a s . I n t h e s e 2 3 e x p e r i m e n t s t h e r e w e r e o n l y t h r e e d e a t h s .
Reviewing the particulars of these three fatal cases it is to be remarked in regard
to the first case, 2 t hat nop o s t - m o r t e m
e x a m i n a t i o n w a s m a d e t o a s c e r t a i n w h e t h e r
the needle had not entered a blood-vessel or viscus, or the non-existence of
any other obvious cause of death. Neither is it stated whether the snake was a
fresh or vigorous one. In six further experiments of a similar nature the cobras
are reported to have survived.
In regard to the second f a t a l c a s e 3 —a y o u n g c o b r a " 1 0 i n c h e s l o n g "
and "only 10 or 14 days old"—the marvel is that it survived so long (six days)
in captivity after having been wounded by biting.
In the third case 4 the cobra was reported next day "perfectly well," and it
seems to have lived for six days. The death may have been due to starvation,
1 Two of the places were about 200 miles apart.
2 loc. cit., p. 75.
3 loc, cit., p. 99.
4 idem, p. 120.
Medical Officers of the Army of India.
experiment. "The interior organs were healthy, and the heart contained loose
soft clots." In Experiment VII, the snake died on the seventh day and had
bloody extravasations into the peritoneal cavity, and the intestines were
spotted with ecchymoses. But such appearances are common to death from
septicæmia, and it is noted that the wound "penetrated the muscles, which
were dark and much softened."
Thus, taking this series of Dr. Mitchell's observations as a whole, and
keeping in view the above-noted sources of error to
which these experiments were especially subject, we
find that the results, far from "definitely" warranting the conclusion that the
rattlesnakes "really died from the venom," can more readily be interpreted as
supporting quite an opposite conclusion. And this opposite conclusion gains
from Dr. Mitchell further support from his observation1 that in the "numerous
instances in which I had wounded the mouths of rattlesnakes or torn the vagina
dentis while robbing them of poison, on none of these occasions have any serious
results followed the injury, even where the venom had fallen upon the abraded
surfaces in considerable amount."
Summarizing the results of all the foregoing observations, it will be seen
that, when the suspicious elements are eliminated
from the experiments of Mitchell 2 and of Fayrer, the
results are in accordance with those of the present series of experiments, and
also with the recorded rough experiments of Russell and of Richards upon
cobras biting each other; and, that they generally confirm and extend the prin-
ciple formulated by Fontana in regard to viper-venom, viz. " that the venom ..
. i s n e i t h e r a p o i s o n t o t h e s n a k e i t s e l f n o r t o t h o s e o f i t s o w n s p e c i e s . " 3
In inquiring into the cause of venomous snakes (all?) being immune to
their own venom or that of their species, it becomes necessary to ascertain the
effect of venom upon snakes of other species—venomous and non-venomous, as
well as upon other cold-blooded animals. As to warm-blooded animals, all
modern observers seem agreed in confirming the conclusion arrived at by Fontana
from experiment on all the available warm-blooded animals in Italy, viz., that
venom "is a poison to all warm-blooded animals."4
Part III.—Effect of Venom on Venomous Snakes of other Species.
For experiment under this head, only pit-vipers, three in number, were avail
-
able; my endeavours to procure other kinds of venomous snakes so late in the
season having proved unsuccessful.
1 l o c . c i t . , p . 6 3 .
2 Further experiments on rattlesnakes are desirable in order to remove all ambiguity.
3 l o c . c i t . , p . 3 4 .
4 loc. cit. p. 273. Certain American writers consider the pig immune to venom (New York Med.
Four., p. 54, 1834), but more authentic evidence on this point is needed.
2
59
Mitchell's inference from his ex-
periment scarcely warranted.
General conclusion on the auto-
toxicity of venom.
60
Scientific Memoirs by
Effect of cobra-venom on Tri-
meresuri .
Upon these three vipers the effect of cobra-venom was tried. The details
of the experiments are as follow:
—
EXPERIMENT No. XXII.—A newly caught vigorous large Trimeresurus
erythrurus, measuring 29½ inches in length, had, at 8-15 A.M., 4 grains of fresh
dry cobra-venom of ascertained activity dissolved in 12 minims of water, and
injected hypodermically about middle of back. Atmospheric temperature
82° Fah.—
8-15 A.M.—Time of injection.
8-18 „ —Actively crawling up sides of cage.
8-30 „ —Still active.
9 „ —Very quiet.
9-15 „ —Dead.
Post-mortem dissection. —Heart continued pulsating till 1-5 P.M. The
injection had been strictly hypodermic. Muscles not wounded, and only a
faint streak of capillary hæmorrhage at seat of injection. Viscera normal in
appearance.
EXPERIMENT NO. XXIII.—A newly caught very active small Trinzeresur
us erythrurus, me a s u r i n g 1 2 ¾ i n c h e s , h a d i n j e c t e d h y p o d e r mi c a l l y a b o u t mi d d l e
of back 8 minims of same solution of cobra-venom, of which 5 minims had
killed a chicken weighing 1lb in 20 minutes. Atmospheric temperature 85° Fah.—
II-17 A.M.—Injection.
11-19 „ —Actively moving.
11-25 „ —Scarcely able to move.
11-29 „ —When turned over on back, unable to regain position.
11- 36 „ —Exhi bi t s no movement unl ess pi nched, and t hen onl y f ai nt l y moves
the tail and neck.
11-42 „ —Dead.
Post-mortem dissection showed the injection to have been purely hypoder
-mic. The snake had been captured only a few minutes before, and was un
- i n j u r e d d u r i n g c a p t u r e , a n d d u r i n g i n j e c t i o n w a s n o t r o u g h l y h a n d l e d .
EXPERIMENT No. XXIV.—A freshly caught active Trimeresurus gra
- m i n e u s ,
measuring 27 inches long, had, at 8-45 A.M., 7 minims of fresh cobra-
venom, diluted with an equal bulk of water, injected hypodermically about middle
of back. Atmospheric temperature 82° Fah.
—
8-45 A.M.—Injection.
8-50 „ —Actively moving.
9-15 „ —Scarcely able to move.
9-25 „ —Almost dead.
9-32 „ —Dead.
Post-mortem dissection showed that the injection had been very slightly
intra-muscular as well as subcutaneous. Only faint streak capillary hæmorrh
- a g e l o c a l l y . V i s c e r a n o r m a l i n a p p e a r a n c e .
Medical Officers of the Army of India.
61
I here present a summary of all the published observations I can find,
relating to the toxic action of venomous snakes upon
each other. The snakes comprise the Cobra, Daboia ,
Bungarus fasciatus et cæruleus, and Echis carinata. And the toxic effect
was estimated by forcing one snake to bite another of a different species
—
Effect of Cobra, Daboia, Bunga-
rus and Echis biting each other.
NATURE OF OBSERVATION.
Serial
No.
of
Case.
Observer.
Page of
'Thana-
tophidinof
India
where re
ported.
Time under
observation
after bite.
Result.
REMARKS.
Cobra biting Daboia rus-
sellii.
1 Breton1
...
2 days
. " No effect."
2
Fayrer
73
5
,,
.
,, ,,
3
, ,
80
6 „
.
,,, ,,
4
, ,
85
Not stated . "Remained
well."
5
, ,
,,
,,
•
,, ,,
6 ,,
92
,, ,,, •
, ,
, ,
7
, ,
98
2½ days . "No change."
8
, ,
1 0 1
7 ,,
.
"
"
Cobra biting Bungarus
fasciatus.
1 Fayrer
74 2 9 hours . Died
. Had been twice bitten by a
large cobra.
2
,,
85
4 days
.
" .
"Lung and thorax filled with
blood," indicating visceral
or vascular lesion.
3
"
92
18½ hours .
" .
Been bitten three times.
4
"
100
5 days . " Well and
active."
Died thirteen days after bite.
5
"
107
1 day .
Died .
"Appears to have received
some injury about head and
neck."
6 "
1 0 8
2½, hours .
" .
Bitten twice ' near tail.'
7
,,
119
5 days .
„
. Day following bite "perfectly
well." When died "wound
had become putrid."
Cobra biting Echis carin-
ata.
1
Fayrer
140 20 hours . Died.
2
"
,,
1 day
.
"
Cobra biting Bungarus
cæruleus.
1
Fayrer
124 10 minutes Died
. "The fangs of the cobra were
heard to strike the krait's
spine."
2
Richards
125
1 day .
" Found
dead."
It is noted, " Death cannot be
attributed to rough hand-
ling."
3
"
127
1 hour
. Died
. The krait (Bungarus) was
only 1 foot 10 inches long,
and the cobra was full grown.
4
"
127
1½ days . " Quite well" Krait was 2½ feet long.
5
„
142
9 „ .
"No result "
Daboia russellii biting
Cobra.
1
Russell 2
...
Not stated . " No symp-
toms."
2
Breton 1
...
„ . Not affected.
3
Fayrer
8 0 6 days . " No effect."
4
"
83
1 day
. "No change."
5
"
„
44 hours . Died
. The cobra was ' full grown.'
No post-mortem examination
seems to have been made.
1 loc. cit., p. 175.
2 loc. cit., p. 85.
6 2 Scientific Memoirs by
NATURE OF OBSERVATION.
Serial
No. o
f
Case.
Observer.
Page of
'Thana-
tophidin of
India'
where re-
ported.
Time under
observation
after bite .
Result.
REMARKS.
Daboia russellii biting
Cobra—contd.
6
Fayrer
83
1½ days . Little, if any
effect.
7
, ,
„
1½ „
. "No effect."
8
, ,
85
2
„
. Little, if any
effect.
9
, ,
92
5
,,
. "Quite well."
10
, ,
99
4
,,
. Died
. Cobra was only " 10 or 14 days
old."
1 1
„
1 0 1
7
„
. "No change.”
12 Ricards
127
1 day
. Died
. Death "possibly from injury
done by the viper's enormous
fangs." But no post-mortem
examination seems to have
been made.
Daboia biting Bungarus
fasciatus.
1
Fayrer
100 13 days
. "Remained
unaffected."
Daboia biting Bungarus
cæruleus.
1
Fayrer
140
Not stated . "Unaffected"
Bungarus fasciatus biting
Cobra.
1
Fayrer
69
1 day
. " Well."
Bungarus cæruleus biting
Cobra.
1
Fayrer
120
2 days
. " Found
dead."
Morning following bite was
" unaffected."
2
, ,
133
7
,,
. " Not, nor
has been,
affected."
3
,,
134 32 minutes . Died
. Cobra was only 14 inches long,
and krait was 48 inches.
4
, ,
140
4 days
. "Quite well."
5 Richards
125
3
„ .
"Well."
.
6
, ,
127
1 day .
Died
. Cobra was of "small size."
7
,,
142
2 days .
,,
It is noted, "The death may
not be clue to the bite, as
many of the snakes are dying
at present."
Bungarus cæruleus biting
Echis.
1
Fayrer
138
Not stated "Not affect-
ed."
Echis
carinata biting
Cobra.
1
Fayrer
136
1½ days
Died
. During dayof bite " no effect
apparent."
Echis biting Bungarus
1 Fayrer
136
2 days .
" Quite well."
cæruleus.
2
, ,
138
Not stated " Not affect-
ed."
3
, ,
140
4 days
" No effect."
Own experiments with cobra-
venom.
Medical Officers of the Army of India.
63
In analyzing the experiments shown in the table, it is to be remembered
that they were subject to most of the experimental
errors already referred to in Part I, so that many
of the experiments must be eliminated. When the series is thus modified many
of the divergent results disappear; but much uncertainty must remain until more
exact experiments are forthcoming. At present the nett result of these experi
-ments may be stated as showing that—
(1) the Cobra-bite is inoperative on Daboia russellii, doubtfully operative on
Bungarus fasciatus and Bungarus cæruleus, and fatal to Echis carinata;
(2) the Daboia -bite is inoperative on the Cobra and Bungarus fasciatus and
Bungarus cæruleus; but the experiments with Bungarus being solitary
ones and merely by biting are inconclusive;
(3) the Bungarus cæruleus-bite is inoperative on the Cobra and doubtfully so
on Echis;
(4) the Bungarus fasciatus-bite is apparently inoperative on the Cobra;
(5) the Echis-bite is inoperative on Bungarus cæruleus.
My experiments showed that Cobra-venom is rapidly fatal to two species
of the green tree-viper ( Trimeresurus).
Part IV.—Effect of Venom on Innocent Snakes.
The results of my experiments upon the effect of venom on innocent
snakes—16 in number—are shown in the following
table. It is to be noted that all the snakes operat
-ed on had been newly caught, and, except where
otherwise stated, vigorous and uninjured; the solution of venom was freshly
made and subcutaneously injected about middle of back, and the activity of the
venom solution had in every case been ascertained by control experiments on
fowls. The snakes nearly always passed fæces during, or immediately after, the
operation; but this was also done occasionally by the cobras while being gently
manipulated and may be due to mere excitement. That the injection had been
purely subcutaneous was ascertained by post-mortem dissection in every case,
except where otherwise stated. The atmospheric temperature ranged between
80° and 86° Fah.
Analytic summary of results.