NationalLibraryOfScotland/medical-history-of-british-india huggingface dataset:
26
Scientific Memoirs by
pedicles with the same bed of small-celled fungal tissue from which the large
uredospores and teleutospores which they accompany arise. In order to dis-
tinguish them from the large uredospores they may be described conveniently
as microspores.
It is not for some time later, and only towards the close of the rains, that
teleutospores begin to appear. They appear first in the outer pustules of the
groups on the upper surfaces of the pinnules which have gradually replaced
the original isolated pustules. On the under-surfaces of the pinnules the
number of pustules remains throughout limited, and they do not here form
concentric groups, but either remain solitary or form small irregular patches.
This is probably due to the uredospores falling away from the pinnules,
and not remaining in the neighbourhood of the parent pustules to the same
extent which they do on the upper surfaces, and, correlated with it, we find
a much smaller development of teleutospores taking place. At first teleuto-
spores only appear in small numbers in pustules otherwise occupied by uredo-
spores, but a rapid increase takes place in their numbers in subsequently
developed pustules, and within a short time pure teleutosporic pustules, and
pustules containing teleutospores and microspores only, make their appearance.
Still later, very few uredosporic or microsporic pustules are developed on the
upper surfaces of the pinnules, while pure teleutosporic ones go on appearing in
constantly increasing numbers up to the time when the leaves fade and fall.
Uredosporic pustules continue, however, to form the characteristic feature on
the lower surfaces throughout.
During the earlier portion of the period in which teleutospores are
formed no less than six kinds of pustules are present in large numbers. These
are :—
1. Pustules containing uredospores.
2.
, ,
, ,
, ,
and microspores.
3 .
, ,
, ,
teleutospores.
4 .
, ,
, ,
, ,
and uredospores.
5 .
,,
, ,
, ,
, ,
microspores.
6.
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
and uredospores.
When occurring in mixed pustules teleutospores appear, on the whole, to be
more frequently associated with microspores than with uredospores.
As in the case of the uredosporic fructification the deep-seated mycelium
of the teleutosporic one is usually very difficult to demonstrate satisfactorily in the
pinnules. Where the pods are affected, however, excellent specimens can often
be obtained, showing jointed rnycelial filaments forcing their way between the
cells of the host and sending short-rounded haustoria into their cavities (Fig.
15, Plate I). A dense mass of small-celled fungal tissue is developed sub-
cuticularly at the site corresponding to each pustule, and at intervals this is
continued downwards between the cells of the epidermis to join the filamentous
Medical Officers of the Army of India. 3 5
us to understand how such great masses of cells as are present in such teleuto
-spores as those of R. sessilis, come to be connected with such slender stalks,
which remained an obscure point even when the complex nature of the stem was
recognised, but the spore-cells were regarded as taking origin directly from it.
Finally, it is clear that, in dealing with dried specimens of detached spores, the
presence or absence of cysts or stalks cannot be regarded as of specific import
-ance, seeing that in one and the same species cysts may be present at one time
and absent at another, and that stems of very considerable length may be
present without having any tendency to adhere permanently to the basal cells,
more especially in cases such as that of R. stictica, in which they remain through
-out buried among the tissues of the host.
D. D. CUNNINGHAM.
CALCUTTA;
23rd October, 1888.
F 2
i i
PLATE II—FIG. 4. Portion of a teleutosporic pustule of R. sessilis, showing develop-
ment of teleutospores and cysts, x 370.
„ 5. Teleutospores of R. stictica; a, upper surface; b, profile; c, sec
-
tional view, x 370.
„ 6. Under surface of teleutospore of R. stictica after disappearance
of basal cells, x 690.
„ 7. Uredospores, of R. stictica, x 690.
„ 8. Spermogonial patch of R. stictica, x 77.
„ 9. Vertical section through two spermogonia of R. stictica, showing
the bed of small-celled tissue from which they arise, x 370.
„ 10. Section of spermogonium of R. stictica, showing discharge of
spermatia, x 690.
„ 11. Uredosporic pustules of R. stictica surrounding old spermogonial
patch, x 50.
„ 12. Vertical section through a leaf of Pongamia glabra including a
young teleutosporic pustule of R. stictica, showing deep site
of sporogenic bed and of origin of stalks of teleutospores,
x 370.
„ 13. Young teleutospore of R. stictica , showing sporogenic bed,
stem cells, basal cells, and spore cells, x 690,
Description of the Plates.
PLATE I.—FIG. I. Fresh teleutospore of R. sessilis, with the cysts still persistent and
forming a fringe due to pressure, x 180.
" 2. Fresh teleutospore of R. sessilis in half profile view, x 360.
" 3. Fresh teleutospore of R. sessilis in profile view, x 360.
" 4. Second form of teleutospore of R. sessilis, x 690.
" 5. Portion of the under surface of a teleutospore of R. sessilis, show
-ing marginal tubercles, and cuticular ridges indicating the line
of attachment of the basal cells, x 690.
" 6. Teleutospore of R. sessilis after disappearance of the basal cells
viewed from below, x 690.
" 7. Diagram of structure of an attached teleutospore of R. sessilis,
showing stem cells, basal cells, and spore cells, and origin of
cysts.
" 8. A uredospore and two microspores of R. sessilis after treatment
with Spiller's purple, x 690.
" 9. Uredospores of R. sessilis; a, fresh and in air; b, after immersion
in alcohol and water, x 900.
" 10. Portion of a spermogonium, showing part of the wall and ste
-rigmata and spermatia projecting above it, x 690.
" 11. Vertical section through a spermogonium, x 370.
" 12. Section showing wall of spermogonium, x 370.
" 13. Patch of spermogonia of R. sessilis, x 50.
" 14. Pinnules of Albizzia Lebbek; a, spring leaf, with spermogonia and
uredal pustules; b, Rains' leaf, with uredal pustules. Natural
size.
" 15. Mycelium of R. sessilis in the tissue of a pod of Albizzia Lebbek,
x 660.
" 16. Pustule containing uredospores and microspores, x 150.
" 17. Portion of a young teleutosporic pustule, showing origin of stems
of spores, x 600.
" 18. Portion of a teleutosporic pustule, showing developing spore,
sporogenic bed, and hairs formed of stalks of detached spores,
x 660.
PLATE II.-FIG. 1. Vertical section through part of a pustule of R. sessilis, showing
uredospores and second form of teleutospores arising from
the same sporogenic bed, x 370.
" 2 . P o r t i o n o f a s e c t i o n o f a p o d o fA
l b i z z i a L e b b e k ,
s h o w i n g t h e
sporogenic bed of a teleutosporic pustule of R . s e s s i l i s detach
- i n g t h e c u t i c l e f r o m t h e e p i d e r m i s , x 6 6 0 .
„
" 3. A t el eut ospor e of R. sessi l i s st i l l at t ached t o t he spor ogeni c bed,
x 370
PLATE
I.
RAVENELIA SESSILIS.
Lithographed at the Survey of India Offices, Calcutta, July 1888.
PLATE. II.
FIGURES 1 - 4. RAVENELIA SESSILIS, B.
Lithographed at the Survey of India Offices, Calcutta, October 1888.
On the Life-history of a new Cæoma on Smilax aspera, Linn.;
BY
A. BARCLAY, M.B.,
BENGAL MEDICAL SERVICE.
My attention has been directed for some time past to an interesting
Uredine, which occurs on Smilax aspera, Linn., in Simla (North-West
Himalayas), but I have hesitated thus long in publishing a description of it,
because I hoped to have been able to complete some gaps in its life-history,
and because, for reasons which will presently appear, I felt some uncertainty as
to whether the aecidial form was really such, or only an abnormal uredo form.
My doubt on this latter point has, however, been removed since I had the
opportunity lately of consulting Professor R. Hartig of Munich upon it, and of
showing him my preparations, and I take this opportunity of expressing my
best thanks both to him and to his assistant Freiherr von Tubeuf, not only for the
kind interest they took in this research, but also for the extreme kindness and
courtesy with which they received me during my stay in Munich. Professor
Hartig quite agrees with me in regarding this hitherto somewhat doubtful form
as a true Aecidium, and it now only remains for me to explain why I do not still
delay publishing an account of it, until I have been able to clear up some
remaining doubtful points in the life-history of the parasite. I have determined
to delay no longer, because I cannot now foresee when I may he able to take
up the investigation again, and because the facts I have already obtained
appear to me to be sufficiently interesting to warrant a publication of them as
they are.
The features of special interest in this Uredine are, (a) that it is apparently
the first complete autœcious Cæoma yet described ; (b) the peculiar form of
germination exhibited by the teleutospores ; (c) the peculiar way in which the
aecidiospores are abstricted and shed ; and (d) the suggestive resemblance
exhibited by the teleutospores to the genus Gymnosporangium. But, before
entering into these points, it is necessary first to describe the fungus generally—
General characters and natural history of the Fungus.—It will be most
Medical Offcers of the Army of India.
45
Lastly, a few remarks with reference to new affinities suggested by the new
type of sporidial formation displayed. Had it not been for Prof. R. Hartig's
discovery of the life-history of C œ o m a P i n i t o r q u u m , i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
Melamp
- s o r a p o p u l i n a ,
t h e o n l y o t h e r C æ o m a , I b e l i e v e , w h o s e l i f e - h i s t o r y i s k n o w n , I
should naturally have been inclined to regard this new type of sporidial forma
- t i o n a s p r o b a b l y p e c u l i a r t o C æ o m a . I n t h e S i m l a r e g i o n w e h a v e , s o f a r a s I
know, only one Cæoma other than that on Smilax, namely, on the leaves of
Morus alba, Lin., var. serrata, and it is possible that the Uromyces I have
alluded to on Solidago verga-aurea, L., presenting the same type of sporidial
formation, may be connected with it. However, whether this be so or not,
Hartig's discovery shows that it is not a necessary characteristic of the
Cæomata.
Kienitz-Gerloff thinks that the somewhat similarly produced spores from
the promycelia of Gymnosporangium clavariœforme a r e i n n a t u r e u r e d o s p o r e s ,
but I do not think this view will be readily accepted. Looking at the three
forms, (1) Puccinia Berberidis, Montague, (2) Gymnosp. clavariœforme,a n d ( 3 )
Cœoma Smilacinis and the Uromyces on Solidago verga-aurea, it appears to be
more probable that we have here an evolution series, but in which direction,
whether from (1) to (3) or from (3) to (1) there are not sufficient data to
determine. As the process of sporidial formation is simpler in Cœoma Smila
-cinis, as I propose to call this fungus, and in the Uromyces on Solidago verga
-aurea than in other cases, these may probably represent the earliest stages in
development towards the usual mode. It is conceivable that the earliest teleu
-tospores were hardier uredospores, which tided the fungus over unfavourable
seasons, and then germinated as usual, throwing out a germ tube which directly
penetrated the host (autœcious). From this might be evolved a form like C œ o ma
Smilacinis, and through this the usual form with sporidia at the ends of sterig
-mata. In such case Gymnosporangium clavariœformew o u l d r e p r e s e n t a f o r m
still retaining traces of a former stage of development.
The 14th July 1888.
Description of the Plates.
PLATE I.—1. a lower and b upper surface of leaf attacked by aecidial form; natural
size.
2. Lower surface of leaf gathered in spring with uredo and teleutospore
- pustules, showing circular arrangement; natural size.
3. Transverse section of leaf through spermogonium x 350.
4. „ through aecidium, x 150. Fig. 5 is drawn from
the same section at an unattacked part.
5. Transverse section of normal leaf, x 150.
6. „ leaf through uredo-bed, x 150
PLATE II.-7. Portion of transverse section of leaf through an aecidial patch, showing
mycelium between spongy cells, x 350.
8. Group of aecidiospores from dried specimen, moistened in water, x 350.
9. Group of uredospores, also from dried herbarium specimen, moistened,
in outline only, x 350.
10. Aecidiospore showing commencing germination; only one germ tube,
x 350.
11. Aecidiospore showing two germ tubes, x 350.
12. Fresh uredospore, in water, x 350.
13. Teleutospore in outline, showing young, still undivided promycelia
from each cell, x 300.
14. Upper ends of two promycelia from same spore just before division,
x 350.
15. The same from another spore: a , three sporidia have been formed, one
of which has thrown out a germ-tube (or abnormally a sterile sterig
ma?); b, two sporidia are ripe and ready to be cast off; c, one spori-
dium ripe and about to be cast off, while two others are still im-
mature, x 350.
16. Uromyces (teleutospore) from leaf of Solidago Vergaa-urea, x 350.
17. „ ;
a, showing promycelium still undivided; b, showing upper
end of another promycelium consisting of four cast-off sporidia, still
however attached to one another, two of which have thrown out germ
tubes, x 350.
18. Section showing portion of aecidium to illustrate the manner in which
aecidiospores are formed, x 350.
19. Portions from other similar sections to illustrate more clearly the
same thing, x 350.
PLATE. I.
A. Barclay, del,
CAEOMA SMILACINIS.
Lithographed at the Survey of India Offices, Calcutta, September 1888.
A. Barclay, del,
CAEOMA SMILACINIS.
PLATE. 11
Lithographed at the Survey of India Offices, Calcutta, September 1888.
47
Are Venomous Snakes auto-toxic?
AN INQUIRY INTO THE EFFECT OF SERPENT-VENOM UPON THE SERPENTS THEMSELVE
S.
BY
SURGEON L. A. WADDELL, M.B.,
DEPUTY SANITARY COMMISSIONER, BENGAL.
INTRODUCTORY.
An interesting question which presents itself in studying the phenomena of
serpent-poisoning is that which refers to the insus-
ceptibility or otherwise of a serpent to its own
venom, or that of its fellows. And this question is not without a practical
bearing upon the treatment of snake-bite: for, were such immunity proved to
exist, a study of its conditions might possibly afford indications for combating
the action of the venom on man.
That an animal should be subject to poisoning by one of its own normal
secretions, must, primâ facie, seem improbable, as this
would prove detrimental to the individual and to the
species. And especially so, when, as in the present case, the exposure to poison-
ing would be habitual: for snakes are frequently receiving accidental injuries to
the mouth, with abrasion of the mucous membrane of the buccal cavity, and
thus, not unfrequently, must absorb some of their own venom.1
Should, on the contrary, snakes be proof against poisoning by their own
venom, then the problem presents itself of how to account for the organism of
the serpent being able to resist a chemical poison which is so deadly to most
other animals.
As to whether such insusceptibility really exists, authorities differ widely in
opinion.
On the one hand are those who assert the existence of this insuscep-
tibility
: —
Fontana, in 1765, experimenting on the European Viper ( Viper aspis?) con-
cluded that "the venom of the viper is neither a
poison to the viper itself, nor to those of its own
species."2
1 This fact was pointed out long ago by FONTANA in regard to the Viper (' Treatise on the Venom of
the Viper, &c.,' Skinner's transl. London, 1795, Vol. 1, p. 274).
2 loc. cit. p. 34. His experiments on this head, over twenty in number, were admirably conceived and
carried out.
Practical bearing of inquiry.
Seeming anomaly of subject.
Conflict of opinion on question.
Favouring view of insuscepti-
bility.
Medical Officers of the Army of India.
clusions states at one place definitely and unreservedly,1 that "the poisonous
snakes are not affected by their own poison," yet, he notes on the following
page that, although "in many of the various experiments I have performed,
the Cobra, Daboia, and Krait did not appear able to poison themselves or each
other, some of the experiments render this doubtful. "
And Richards, although noting2 that "I believe one cobra cannot poison
another" and3 "I am quite satisfied the cobra cannot kill another cobra;"
and recently4 he relates how healthy cobras, which he kept together in captivity,
would "very often on the slightest provocation begin to fight in a most savage"
fashion, biting each other fiercely, with the result that "neither of the combat
- a n t s e v e r s e e m e d a n y t h e w o r s e f o r t h e f i g h t . " Y e t , h e n o t e s , 5 " I c a m e t o t h e
conclusion, after numerous experiments, that one species of snake could kill
another" (by the context) venomous snake of the same species.6
Such conflict of opinion upon so elementary a point rendered a further
investigation of the subject desirable—especially,
as the methods adopted by several of the foregoing
experimenters, to elucidate the point at issue, were open to objection.
Part I.—Working Scheme adopted.
The inquiry resolves itself into a consideration of the effect of venom
(1)upon the serpent itself and its own species, (2)upon
venomous snakes of other species, (3)upon innocent
snakes, (4)upon other reptiles and cold-blooded animals, (5)upon warm-blooded
animals; and of the topics arising out of the results of the above investigations.
It is claimed for the present series of experiments that they have avoided
many of the sources of experimental error to which
those of former observers were liable:—
The method usually employed to ascertain the toxic effect of snake-venom
upon snakes had been to force one snake to bite
another, or its own tail. In this way, however, there
is always a probability that the spine or viscera of the bitten snake were crushed,
or otherwise grossly injured during the act of biting.7
Again, in employing biting as a means of introducing venom, there is un-
certainty as to the amount of venom introduced;
and in some cases uncertainty as to whether any
venom at all has been injected—owing to the want of anatomical continuity
loc. cit., p. 64. 2 idem, p. 126. 3 idem, p.127.
4 Landmarks of Snake-poison Literature. 2nd Ed. Calcutta, 1886, p. 12.
5 idem, p. 12. 6 No details of the experiments are given.
7 In Fayrer's series of cobras-bitten-by-cobras no post-mortem examination appears to have been made
to ascertain whether any such fatal injury had been inflicted.
49
Desirability of further investiga
-tion.
Scope of inquiry defined.
Sources of experimental error.
Injury to viscera, &c., during
infliction of bite.
Uncertain introduction of venom
by biting.
H
Medical Officers of the Army of India.
51
Part II.—Effect of Venom upon the Serpent itself, or its own Species.
The Experiments.
The experiments under this head were confined to the cobra (Naja tripu
- dians), as, with the exception of tree-vipers, other
species of venomous snakes were not available.
And the experiments, with one exception, dealt with the strictly auto-toxic aspect
of the subject. Concerning the ability of one venomous snake to poison another
individual of the same species, the one experiment (No, XX) here afforded
seems almost sufficient when taken in connexion with the numerous experiments
recorded by Fayrer 1 and others, 2 in which one cobra was forced to bite another
cobra. Moreover, snake-venom (e.g., cobra or crotalus venom), from whatever
individual derived, is found to possess for each species such constant and well
defined properties, that it may well be regarded as a specific chemical poison;3
and as such it is highly probable that the venom shall act upon another snake
of the same species in an identical manner to its action upon the owner of the
venom.
General arrangements.
The number of cobras operated on was nine, in three series of four, four, and
one respectively. I had hoped to operate on a larger
number, but failed to procure more by my unaided
private efforts within the limited time at my disposal.
The first series of experiments was conducted at the end of August of the
current year, the temperature of the room in which the snakes were kept, ran-
ging from 81º to 86° Fah. The second series was conducted at the beginning of
October, the temperature ranging between 65° and 88° Fah. And the third
series at the beginning of November, the temperature ranging between 54° and
78° Fah.
The serpents operated on were all healthy, and had been caught within the
previous two to seven days.
In the experiments the venom was extracted in the usual Indian way by
causing each cobra to bite through a strip of dried palm leaf 4 stretched across a
spoon or valve of a mussel-shell. For injecting the venom an ordinary hypoder
- m i c s y r i n g e w a s u s e d . A n d d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f i n j e c t i o n t h e s e r p e n t w a s
secured by a noose around the neck after the manner recommended by Mitchell.
Details of the Experiments.
First Series of Cobras.
EXPERIMENT I.—A binocellated cobra (' Gokhura '), measuring 53 inches in
length, was made to disgorge its venom. About 18 minims of clear venom were
The results of these scattered experiments are collected and analyzed at p. 57 (q. v.)
2 RUSSELL and RICHARDS, loc. cit.
3 For evidence on this head vide Part VI.
4 Borassus flabelliformis.
H 2
52
Scientific Memoirs by
obtained. This venom was mixed with an equal bulk of water, and at 9-15 A.M.'
25 minims of this solution were injected hypodermically (and very slightly supra-
muscularly) about the middle of the back of this cobra—the same which had
yielded the venom. Atmospheric temperature 82° Fah.
This snake was observed every hour during the day and seemed unaffected.
Next day.—Active and well. Fierce when disturbed.
3rd „
Ditto.
4th „
Ditto.
5th „
Ditto.
Taken out of its cage it bit eagerly, yielding about
9 minims of clear venom.
6t h „ Di t t o.
7th „
Ditto.
8th „
Ditto.
9th „ Ditto.
Taken out of its cage it bit vigorously, yielding
about 4 minims of slightly cloudy venom. It was
immediately thereafter killed and dissected.
Post-mortem Examination. —Wound healed, and at site of injection no stain
-ing or softening of tissues. All organs strictly normal in appearance.
To test the activity of the venom employed in Experiment I the following
two experiments were made immediately after injecting the cobra:
—
EXPERIMENT II.—The remainder of the same venom solution as was used in
Experiment I was diluted with an equal volume of water, and of this solution
6 minims were injected hypodermically into inner side of thigh of a chicken
wei ghi ng 14½ ounces . At mos pher i c t emper at ur e 82° Fah.
9 - 1 9 A . M . — T i m e o f i n j e c t i o n .
9-22 „ —Unable to stand, beak resting on ground.
9-23 „ —Convulsions; passing fæces.
9-30 „ —Almost dead.
9-33 „ —Dead.
EXPERIMENT III.—Nine minims of same solution as used in last Experiment
(II) were injected hypodermically into thigh of chicken weighing 15 ozs. At
- m o s p h e r i c t e m p e r a t u r e 8 2° F a h .
9 - 2 4 A . M . — T i m e o f i n j e c t i o n .
9-28 „ —Drooping.
9-30 „ —Convulsions.
9-35 „ —Almost dead.
9-41 „ —Dead.
EXPERIMENT IV.—A very fierce monocellated cobra ('Shánkha mutiyá
Ki-otíá') measuring 53½ inches in length, was made to disgorge its venom—
yielding about 20 minims. This venom was diluted with an equal bulk of water,
and at 10-5 A.M., 25 minims were injected hypodermically about middle of back
of this same cobra which had yielded the venom.