Molecular characterization of the contribution of autophagy to antigen presentation using quantitative proteomics

Autophagy is a highly conserved lysosomal-mediated protein degradation pathway that plays a crucial role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and contributes to antigen processing and presentation. The emerging roles of autophagy in both innate and adaptive immunity underpin novel immunological paradigms that may provide opportunities for the development of new therapies where impaired autophagy is associated with autoimmune diseases. However, the in vivo study of autophagic response is challenging in view of the limited number of analytical approaches that can provide a dynamic definition of the key proteins involved in this pathway. Accordingly, we developed an integrated proteomics research program to unravel the molecular machines associated with autophagy and to decipher the fine details of the molecular mechanisms governing the functions of the autophagosome in antigen presentation using a systems biology approach. To study how autophagy and antigen presentation are actively modulated in macrophages, we first conducted comprehensive, global proteomics studies under different conditions known to stimulate autophagy. Autophagy is modulated by cytokines as well as by viral infection in various ways. TNF-alpha is one of the major proinflammatory cytokines that mediate local and systemic responses and direct the development of adaptive immunity. Label-free quantitative proteomics analysis of membrane extracts from TNF-alpha activated and resting macrophages revealed that TNF-alpha activation led to the downregulation of mitochondrial proteins and the differential regulation of several proteins involved in vesicle trafficking and immune response. Importantly, we found that the downregulation of mitochondria proteins occurred through Atg5-dependent mitophagy, and was specific to TNF-alpha. Furthermore, using a novel antigen presentation system, we observed that the induction of mitophagy by TNF-alpha enabled the processing and presentation of mitochondrial antigens at the cell surface by MHC class I molecules, suggesting that TNF-alpha induced mitophagy contributes to the modification of the MHC class I peptide repertoire. These findings highlight an unsuspected role of TNF-alpha in mitophagy and expanded our understanding of the mechanisms responsible for MHC class I presentation of self-antigens.  A complex interplay also exists between viral infection and autophagy. Recently, our lab provided the first evidence that macroautophagy can contribute to the presentation of viral proteins on MHC class I molecules during Herpes Simplex Virus type 1 (HSV1) infection. HSV1 are among the most complex and widespread human viruses. While the composition of viral particles has been studied, less is known about the expression of the whole viral proteome in infected cells. To comprehensively characterize the system, we analyzed the proteome of the prototypical HSV1 in infected macrophages by LC-MS/MS. We achieved a very high level of protein coverage and identified a total of 67 structural and non-structural viral proteins (82% of the HSV1 proteome) using LC-MS/MS on a LTQ-Orbitrap instrument. We also obtained a comprehensive map of 90 novel phosphorylation sites and ten novel ubiquitylation sites on different viral proteins. Interestingly all ubiquitylated proteins could either localize to the nucleus or participate in membrane fusion events, suggesting that ubiquitylation of viral proteins might affect their trafficking. Treatment with inhibitors of DNA replication induced changes of both viral protein abundance and modifications, highlighting the interdependence of viral proteins during the life cycle of the virus. Given the importance of expression dynamics, ubiquitylation and phosphorylation for protein function, these findings will serve as important tools for future studies on herpes virus biology. Interestingly, HSV1 infection in macrophages triggers a novel form of autophagy which remarkably differs in many ways from macroautophagy. This process, referred to as nuclear envelope-derived autophagy (NEDA), leads to the formation of 4-membrane layered vesicles originating from the nuclear envelope where some viral protein such as glycoprotein B are highly enriched. To which extent this process differs from macroautophagy and participates in the pathogenesis of HSV infection is still largely unknown. Using a novel antigen presentation assay we could show that NEDA is an Atg5-independent pathway that participates in the capture of viral proteins, and their processing and presentation on MHC class I molecules. To understand the involvement of NEDA in antigen presentation it is crucial to characterize the autophagosomal proteome in HSV1 infected macrophages. We developed a novel isolation method based on the loading of the lysosomal compartment with latex beads, a unique tool to obtain very pure cell extracts, upon autophagy induction. The transfer of HSV1 antigens into autophagosomes was monitored using quantitative proteomics. Nuclear enveloped-derived proteins were preferentially transferred to the autophagosome during HSV1 infection. Detailed proteomics characterization of autophagosomes formed during NEDA and macroautophagy led to the discovery of mechanisms that play a key role in glycoprotein B immunodominance during HSV1 infection. These analyses also revealed that various autophagic pathways can be induced to promote the capture of selective sets of viral proteins, thus actively shaping the nature of the immune response during infection.    In conclusion, the application of quantitative proteomics methods played a key role in identifying and quantifying important regulators of autophagy in macrophages and allowed us to identify changes occurring during the remodeling of autophagosomes in response to disease and inflammatory conditions such as viral infections. Furthermore, our systems biology approach that combined mass spectrometry-based quantitative proteomics with functional screens such as antigen presentation assays revealed novel biological insights on the molecular mechanisms governing the functions of autophagy in antigen presentation. Harnessing the contribution of autophagy in antigen presentation has the potential to minimize the deleterious effects of immunodominance in viral infection and cancer by shaping an appropriate immune response.

Keyphrases: TNF-alpha, Macrophages, Autophagy, Antigen presentation, Quantitative proteomics, Mass spectrometry, TNF-alpha, Macrophages, Herpes Simplex Virus