Santé reproductive et santé mentale des femmes qui ont subi la violence sexuelle en temps de conflit armé : cas de la République Démocratique du Congo

Background: Since nearly two decades, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is ravaged by an armed conflict which, according to the International Rescue Commitee, have caused more than 3 million deaths and as many internally displaced persons. Several reports also denounce the numerous cases of sexual violence (rape, mutilation, sexual slavery, exploitation, etc.) committed against girls, women, and to a lesser extent against men. Even if there is a consensus on the barbaric nature of conflict-related sexual violence acts, few studies have assessed its effects on survivors’ reproductive health especially in terms of issues such as fistulas, chronic pelvic pain (CPP), desire for sex, desire for children, and desire to interrupt pregnancy resulting from rape. Moreover, even if the mental health of populations in conflict zones is a topic of interest, the specific impact of conflict-related sexual violence on the survivors’ mental health has not been much studied. In addition, most studies research the effects of conflict-related sexual violence on mental health and on reproductive health separately without assessing the relationships that can exist between these two dimensions which, however, influence each other. Also, the social impact of conflict-related sexual violence, and the contribution of sociocultural norms to the survivors’ struggles, has not been much studied. Nevertheless, the social impact of conflict-related sexual violence may help in understanding how the experience of such act can affect mental health. Finally, no study has investigated the effects of conflict-related sexual violence by comparing it to non-conflict- related sexual violence (NCRSV). However, it is recognized that, in many respects, conflict- related sexual violence is very different from NCRSV since it is committed with the intent to create the most adverse effects on the victims and their community. Objectives: The objectives of this thesis aimed at: 1) assessing the effects of conflict- related sexual violence on reproductive health; 2) evaluating the effects of conflict-related sexual violence on mental health in terms of severity of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, severity of psychological distress symptoms, and the likelihood of suffering from common mental disorders (CMD); 3) assessing the contribution of adverse reproductive health issues, particularly fistula and chronic pelvic pain (CPP) to the effect of conflict-related sexual violence on mental health; 4) assessing the contribution of mental health state to the effect of conflict-related sexual violence on desire for sexual intercourse, and desire for children; and 4) studying the social impact of conflict-related sexual violence as well as the contribution of sociocultural norms to its adverse consequences, and how these effects could in return affect women’s health and their relationship with their rape-conceived children. Methodology: A convergent mixed design allowed collection of quantitative data from all participants (cross-sectional study) and qualitative data on a smaller number of women (phenomenological study). A population-based cross-sectional study was conducted between July and August 2012 among 320 women, aged 15 to 45, living in four (4) neighbourhoods of the city of Goma, province of North Kivu in the DRC. Participants were recruited through announcements made by those responsible for literacy and conflict-resolution programs implemented in different neighbourhoods by the Collectif Alpha Ujuvi, a local NGO2. Reproductive health outcomes assessed are: fistulas, CPP, desire for sex, desire for children and desire to interrupt pregnancy resulting from sexual violence. The mental health outcomes of interest were: severity of psychological distress symptoms, severity of PTSD symptoms, and likelihood of suffering from CMD. For analyses, exposure was defined in three (3) categories according to past experience of sexual violence: women who experienced conflict-related sexual violence, those who experienced NCRSV, and those who reported never having been victim of sexual violence in their lifetime. Potential confounders assessed were: age, marital status, number of children, highest education level reached, and occupation. Measures of association were assessed using simple and multiple logistic and linear regression models. Multiplicative interaction tests and stratified analyzes were also conducted to identify the potential modification effect of the variables age, marital status and number of children on the association between sexual violence and reproductive health or mental health. Those tests were also used to assess the contribution of reproductive health or mental health to the effects of sexual violence on the other aspect of health of interest in this study. In the meantime, a phenomenological study was conducted among 12 women who experienced conflict-related sexual violence, had a rape-conceived child, and participated in the quantitative part of the study. Topics explored include: perception of the act of conflict- related sexual violence and the daily life by the victims; perception of the act of rape by the victims’ family and entourage and their reaction after the aggression; perception of pregnancy resulting from sexual violence by the victim; perception of the rape-conceived child by the victim and her entourage; social consequences of experiencing conflict-related sexual violence, and victims' needs for rehabilitation. A thematic analysis with open coding has highlighted the key themes of the participants’ stories. Thereafter, a grounded theory approach was used to induce a framework outlining the social impact of experiencing conflict-related sexual violence along with the contributing factors. Results: The first article of this thesis shows that, compared to women who have never experienced sexual violence, women who experienced conflict-related sexual violence have a higher probability to have fistula (OR=11.1, 95% CI [3.1-39.3]), CPP (OR=5.1, 95% CI [2.4- 10.9]), an absence of desire for sexual intercourse (OR=3.5, 95% CI [1.7-6.9]), and an absence of desire for children (OR=3.5, 95% CI [1.6-7.8]). Compared with the same women, those who have experienced NCRSV are more likely to have CPP (OR=2.3, 95% CI [0.95-5.8]), and an absence of desire for children (OR=2.7, 95% CI [1.1-6.5]). Compared with women who have experienced NCRSV, those who experienced conflict-related sexual violence also have higher odds for fistula (OR=9.5, 95% CI [1.6-56.4]), CPP (OR=2.2, 95% CI [0.8-5.7]), and absence of desire for sexual intercourse (OR=2.5, 95% CI [1.1-6.1]). Regarding pregnancy resulting from sexual violence, in comparison to women who experienced NCRSV, a higher proportion of those who experienced conflict-related sexual violence were willing to abort (55% vs. 25% for those who experienced NCRSV). They are also more likely to admit that they would have done so, if proper care was available (39% vs. 21% for those who experienced NCRSV). The second article shows that, compared to women who have never experienced sexual violence, those who experienced conflict-related sexual violence have more severe symptoms of psychological distress (respective score means 8.6 and 12.6, p<0.0001) and PTSD (respective score means 2.2 and 2.6, p<0.0001), and are more likely to be probable CMD case (30% vs. 76%, p<0.0001). Moreover, compared to women who experienced NCRSV, those who experienced conflict-related sexual violence have more severe symptoms of psychological distress (respective score means 10.1 and 12.6, p<0.0001) and PTSD (respective score means 2.2 and 2.6, p<0.0001), and are more likely to be probable CMD case (48% vs. 76%, p<0.0001). The lowest and highest scores of severity of psychological distress symptoms are 0/12 in the category of women who never experienced sexual violence, 4/19 in the category of women who experienced NCRSV and 5/18 in the category of women who experienced conflict-related sexual violence. Regarding the severity of PTSD’s symptoms, the lowest and highest scores are respectively: 0.36/3.22, 0.41/3.41 and 0.95/3.45. Suffering from fistula or CPP increases the strength of the association between sexual violence and mental health. Women who experienced conflict-related sexual violence and suffered fistula, compared to those who experienced conflict-related sexual violence and did not suffer from fistula, have more severe symptoms of psychological distress and PTSD. Results were similar for women who experienced conflict-related sexual violence and have CPP. Complementary results suggest that the marital status modifies the association between sexual violence and severity of psychological distress symptoms, divorced/separated and widowed being those who have the highest score means (respectively 11.3 and 12.1 vs. 9.26 and 9.49 for singles and married women). Furthermore, the severity of psychological distress symptoms changes the association between conflict-related sexual violence and desire for children. The third article shows that, on the social front, experiencing conflict-related sexual violence also results in serious consequences. All women who experienced this type of act describe their life of survivor and mother of a child born from rape as difficult, oppressive, made of worries and sorrows, and worthless. Several factors influence the description that victims of conflict-related sexual violence make of their daily lives, and they are all related to socio-cultural norms which consider women as second class citizen, do not make any difference between rape and adultery, condemn rape victims rather than the perpetrators, reject and stigmatize raped women and rape-conceived children. In response to the rejection and lack of consideration, survivors of conflict-related sexual violence tend to isolate themselves to avoid insults, and keep quiet about the aggression they suffered. In addition, the reactions of their entourage/community tend to revive memories of the aggression they suffered, all of which may impair their rehabilitation. Other results show that children resulting from conflict-related sexual violence are also rejected by their communities, as well their adoptive family and their mother’s partner and this hurts the victims. With their mothers, relationships developed range from rejection, resignation to affection. Nevertheless, these relationships are often more likely to be strained because of the stigma of the community. Conclusion: Conflict-related sexual violence has adverse effects on reproductive health and mental health. It is also associated with adverse social consequences. Those three dimensions are far from being isolated because this study demonstrated that they do influence each other. This suggests that intervention programs for victims of conflict-related sexual violence should not only focus on one aspect of health but take into account all the dimensions of a woman to provide holistic and more appropriate support which will be more effective in the long term.

Keyphrases: Sexual violence, armed conflicts, reproductive health, mental health, social impact, socio-cultural norms, Democratic Republic of Congo