A comprehensive and multi-modal approach to studying neural and social outcomes after pediatric traumatic brain injury

Pediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI; sustained between birth and 18 years) is one of the leading causes of death and disability among children and adolescents worldwide. During development, cognitive, affective and social functions emerge gradually, supported by rapid brain maturation and the establishment of complex neural networks. TBI sustained during childhood or adolescence can therefore cause damage to the immature brain and lead to difficulties in these domains. Clinical presentation and environmental factors vary greatly, rendering it difficult to identify who will recover well and who will experience persistent sequelae. Although research has identified several factors that contribute to recovery after pediatric TBI, including injury, child-related, and family-environmental variables, existing prediction models are not always comprehensive, and they do not account for genetic factors which could contribute to prognosis. Among all consequences associated with pediatric TBI, social problems (e.g., reduced social participation, maladaptive social behaviours) may be the most debilitating, and can considerably affect quality of life (QoL). These social difficulties can stem from a disruption of underlying socio-cognitive skills, but the exact mechanisms and neural bases of such problems are still unknown. In particular, current knowledge of how pediatric TBI affects connections between brain regions during development remains limited.  Considering these gaps in the pediatric TBI literature, this thesis aimed to 1) determine factors that contribute to social competence in early childhood (i.e., between 18 and 60 months) in order to establish normative avenues for understanding the emergence of social problems following pediatric TBI, 2) establish a comprehensive prognostic model of outcome (assessed by QoL) after early mild TBI (mTBI), and 3) examine the impact of pediatric moderate to severe TBI on structural and functional brain networks, notably those underlying social and cognitive functioning. In order to meet these objectives, data from two longitudinal cohorts were analyzed and are presented in the form of four scientific articles. The first article aimed to empirically validate the “SOCIAL” model (Beauchamp & Anderson, 2010) to identify factors that contribute to social competence. This theoretical model posits that internal (child-related), external (environment-related) and cognitive (attentional-executive, communicative and socio-cognitive) factors determine a child's social competence. The results of a regression model analyzed in a sample of neurotypical children aged 18 to 60 months indicate that internal, external and cognitive factors all contribute significantly to a child’s social competence. Internal variables, executive functions, and socio-cognitive factors play a particularly important role. Indeed, children with lower levels of negative affect, fewer executive difficulties, greater non-verbal communication and better theory of mind had better social competence.  The objective of the second article was to examine which factors predict QoL six and 18 months following early mTBI sustained between 18 and 60 months of age. Several potential predictors from four domains (biology, environment, injury and behaviour/cognition) were entered into a hierarchical regression model. The results indicate that a genetic factor, the Val66Met polymorphism of the gene coding for the BDNF protein (Brain-Derived Neuroptrophic Factor), positively contributes to QoL six months after TBI, while a year later, lower parental distress predicts better child QoL.   The aim of the third article was to study the functional organization of the brain network supporting social skills (the social brain) in children and adolescents who sustained moderate to severe TBI between nine and 15 years of age. Participants completed a protocol for the acquisition of functional resting magnetic resonance images 24 months post-injury. In two independent samples, the results indicate altered functional connectivity between frontal brain areas and bilateral fusiform gyrus in the TBI group (positive connectivity) compared to the control group (negative connectivity).  The fourth article explored long-term changes in the brain’s structural covariance networks (i.e., brain regions that are structurally connected) following pediatric moderate to severe TBI sustained between nine and 14 years of age. The aim was to investigate differences in structural covariance within three core cognitive networks (i.e., default-mode [DMN], central executive [CEN], salience [SN]) between children with TBI and typically developing controls, three and 24 months post-injury. No group difference was found after three months. However, at 24 months post-injury, the TBI group showed reduced structural covariance within the DMN and the CEN compared to the control group.  Taken together, these findings suggest that comprehensive models including a wide range of factors from several domains of functioning are essential for understanding the elements that put a child at risk for poor recovery after TBI. They also highlight the importance of considering, among potential predictors, genetic factors involved in mechanisms of neuroplasticity, and confirm the role of parental factors, in particular parent mental health for post-TBI recovery in young children. In addition, the results show that moderate-severe pediatric TBI can induce long-term alterations in neural networks underlying social and cognitive functions. These findings provide insights into how pediatric TBI affects brain circuits during development, and may help to elucidate the neural underpinnings of social problems after pediatric TBI. Finally, the findings and implications from the thesis support the notion that several injury, child-related, family-environmental as well as genetic factors should be considered for diagnosis, prognosis, and recovery after TBI sustained during childhood or adolescence.

Keyphrases: BDNF, Longitudinal, Traumatic Brain Injury, Child, Social Competence, Genetics, Brain Networks, Functional Connectivity, Structural Covariance, Longitudinal