Régulation de l’expression et de la localisation des ARN TLC1 et TERRA en réponse à différents stress génomiques chez la levure

Telomeres constitute the structure at the end of linear chromosomes which is essential to protect genome integrity. Due to the end-replication problem, telomeres get shorter with every cell division, leading to cell cycle arrest, senescence and cell death. To counteract telomere shortening, highly proliferative cells and most unicellular eukaryotes, like Saccharomyces cerevisiae, express telomerase, a ribonucleoprotein enzyme that elongates telomeres. Many regulatory pathways affect telomerase activity and recruitment to assure precise targeting of telomerase activity to its proper substrate, the telomeres. Impairing these pathways can lead to telomere shortening, end-to-end chromosome fusions and immortalization. Telomerase can also be recruited at double strand breaks (DSBs), where its activity leads to de novo telomere additions which induce genomic instability, loss of genetic information and possibly cell death. For this reason, telomerase recruitment and activity is strongly inhibited at DSB. However, the mechanisms behind this regulation are still poorly understood. Furthermore, many cellular stresses affect telomerase regulation at telomeres and DSBs. Our goal is to study the regulation of telomerase activity and the impact of cellular stresses on this regulation. In the first part of this thesis, we looked at the cell cycle localization of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae RNA subunit of the telomerase, TLC1 RNA. While TLC1 RNA is mostly in the nucleoplasm in G1/S, it accumulates in the nucleolus in G2/M. In yeast, the most common DSB repair pathway is homologous recombination (HR). As HR is mostly excluded from the nucleolus in G2/M, we propose that the accumulation of TLC1 RNA in the nucleolus in G2/M may represent a regulatory pathway that repress de novo telomere addition by physically separating telomerase from sites of DNA repair by HR. We aim to characterize the mechanisms by which TLC1 RNA localization is regulated and how the presence of DSB affects this trafficking. We were able to show that the nucleolar localization of TLC1 RNA is dependent on the Pif1 helicase and on the HR protein Rad52. Furthermore, we showed that the presence of DSBs and the absence of Rad52 alter the nuclear trafficking of TLC1 RNA. In these conditions, Rad51 favors the accumulation of Cdc13 at DSBs and promotes the nucleoplasmic accumulation of TLC1 RNA. This accumulation is dependent on the SUMO ligase Siz1 and leads to an increased addition of de novo telomere at DNA breaks. In order to identify de novo telomere addition events genome-wide, we developed an unbiased genome-wide technique based on Illumina sequencing of genomic DNA.  In the second part of this thesis, we studied another regulator of telomerase activity, the long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) TERRA (telomeric repeats-containing RNA), which is transcribed from subtelomeric regions through the telomeric tracts. In S. cerevisiae, TERRA expression is controlled at the transcriptional level by the SIR complex and its degradation by the exonuclease Rat1. Nevertheless, short telomeres escape transcriptional inhibition and degradation to express TERRA at higher levels. TERRA serves as a regulator of telomerase, allowing the concentration and the targeting of telomerase activity to short telomeres. While studying TERRA expression, we observed that TERRA-expressing telomeres display a premature S-phase loss of cohesion. We propose that cohesin and telomere cohesion are regulators of TERRA expression. In addition, other groups have shown that TERRA expression was regulated in response to different cellular stress. This regulation seems to be independent from telomere length. In these contexts, we propose that oxidative stress and metabolic changes induced during the diauxic shift affect TERRA expression. We aim to study how the diauxic shift affects TERRA expression and study the role of cohesin in regulating TERRA expression. We were able to show that telomere cohesion inhibits TERRA expression and that short telomeres display a premature loss of cohesion to allow TERRA expression. This loss of cohesion is dependent on Sir4 and probably on Sir4-mediated telomere anchoring at the nuclear membrane. Additionally, we showed that TERRA transcription is increased during the diauxic shift, when yeast cells switch from fermentative glycolysis to oxidative respiration. Yeast cells in this phase also display a cytoplasmic accumulation of TERRA molecules.  Altogether, the articles presented in this thesis explore the interplay between cellular stresses such as DNA damage, telomere shortening, oxidative stress and respiratory metabolism, and their roles in the regulation of the localisation and expression of TLC1 RNA and TERRA.

Keyphrases: Saccharomyce cerevisiae, TERRA, DNA damage, TLC1 RNA, diauxic shift, long non-coding RNA