Reproduction et échanges génétiques horizontaux chez les champignons mycorhiziens à arbuscules

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) have a particular and complex genetic structure. Yet, many aspects of their genetics are still misunderstood and poorly documented. These organisms reproduce by asexual multinucleate spores. In this study, I investigated the mechanisms of genetic inheritance of nuclei through asexual reproduction in AMF. First, I determined the number of nuclei in mature and juveniles spores; I used statistical analysis to determine the relationship between the number of nuclei and the spore diameter. Four species from the genus Glomus were observed with a confocal microscope. The results showed that the number of nuclei has a significant positive relationship with spore diameter and more importantly, surprising heterogeneity in the number of nuclei among sister spores was found. To determine the number of nuclei in extraradical phases, three different structures from the mycelia were carefully examined with a confocal microscope. All the structures possessed more than one nucleus and showed that AMF probably lack a single-nucleus stage during their extraradical phases. To study the nuclei’s heritance, two different approaches were used: (i) Glomus irregulare was grown on medium complemented with aphidicolin to inhibit the mitosis. Observations with a confocal microscope permit to count the nuclei that come from the hyphae and not from the mitosis. The results showed that massive nuclear migration and mitosis are the mechanisms by which AMF spores are formed. (ii) The second approach confirm these results because with time-laps live cellular imaging of young spores of Glomus diaphanum it was possible to see many  nuclei to get in the spores. In a second part of this thesis, I studied horizontal gene exchanges among AMF isolates through anastomoses. Thus, four isolates of the species G. irregulare were used in in vitro crossing experiments, in total six combinations using two isolates per crossing experiment. These crossing co-cultures were maintained over two years by subculturing. Spores of two different isolates were confronted in vitro prior to observation of anastomoses. 13% of spores formed anastomoses suggesting the occurrence of genetic exchange between two isolates. A mitochondrial molecular marker referred as Indel 5, was used to genotype individual spores of crossing progenies. A 39 bp deletion occurs in the marker among different isolates and is clearly discriminated by PCR. PCR patterns showed that some spores seem to have both parental markers demonstrating that genetic exchange could occur between the two isolates used in crossing experiment. Even though hyphal fusions occur between germinating spores, subsequent research needs to be done to confirm genetic exchange among different isolates from different geographic areas. The finding that AMF lack a single nuclear stage in their extraradical phases and that mitosis and nuclear migration are the mechanisms by which AMF spores are formed reduce genetic drift that acts on these organisms during asexual reproduction. Anastomoses are likely a mechanism that maintains the genetic diversity in AMF. These genetic characteristics of AMF were very important during their evolution to maintain a high genetic variability that allows their adaptation to many different ecosystems.

Keyphrases: Anastomoses, Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, Genetic polymorphism, Horizontal genectic exchange, Asexual reproduction, Anastomoses, Confocal microscopy, Multinucleate and multigenomic organisms