Mechanosensitive ATP release in the lungs

ATP is widely known to be an energy carrier within cells, but outside of the cell, it acts as an extracellular signaling molecule. Upon binding to purinergic receptors, extracellular ATP initiates the purinergic signaling to regulate certain physiological and pathophysiological processes. In the lungs, ATP stimulates surfactant secretion and promotes mucociliary clearance. Given the critical role of extracellular ATP in the lungs, it is important to understand the mechanism of cellular ATP release — the first step of purinergic signaling. Because mechanical forces constitute the primary trigger of ATP release, this thesis aims to investigate the physiological mechanism(s) and cellular sources of such mechanosensitive ATP release. This work is divided into three parts: 1) To study the spatial and temporal characteristics of ATP release, I developed a highly sensitive imaging technique based on luciferin-luciferase bioluminescence coupled with a custom-designed lens system, which combined a wide field of view (WFOV) and high light-gathering power. To evaluate our imaging approach, I subjected A549 cells, derived from human lung adenocarcinoma, to stretch or 50% hypotonic shock to trigger ATP release. I demonstrated that our technique allows us to precisely quantify the amount and the rate (or efflux) of ATP escaping from cells. The WFOV constitutes an essential tool used in the studies described in this thesis to determine the mechanism and cellular source of ATP release in the alveolus. 2) To examine the physiological mechanism of stretch-induced ATP release in primary alveolar cells, I determined the individual contributions of alveolar type 1 (AT1) in comparison with alveolar type 2 (AT2) cells. To this end, freshly isolated AT2 cells from rat lungs were seeded on a flexible silicone chamber and were cultured for up to seven days, which allowed AT2 cells to progressively transdifferentiate into AT1-like cells. The ratio of alveolar cells (AT2:AT1), being 4:1 on day 3, became 1:4 on day 7. The quantity of released ATP decreased with the decreasing numbers of AT2 cells, implicating them as the main source of ATP release in response to stretch. While pharmacological ATP channel modulators, carbenoxolone and probenecid, did not diminish the amount of ATP release, BAPTA, an intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) chelator, significantly reduced it. Likewise, these three modulators had similar effects on intracellular calcium responses measured by Fura-2, suggesting a connection between ATP release and [Ca2+]i levels. 3) To explore the role of membrane viscoelastic properties in mechanosensitive ATP release, I demonstrated that a 30% strain induced transient ATP release that was accompanied by uptake of propidium iodide (PI) in AT2 cells. This is consistent with a strain-induced transient membrane rupture, big enough for the passage of ATP and PI. ATP efflux also increases with strain rate, and hold time prolongs the half-life of ATP release. Thus, these results provide clues on how stretching of the viscoelastic membrane may lead to ATP release via an alternate mechanism involving transient mechanoporation of the cell membrane. Overall, these findings demonstrate that stretch-induced ATP release does not occur through ATP-conducting channels but rather a transient membrane mechanoporation. Further studies on membrane injury induced by strain are needed to better understand its contribution to mechanosensitive ATP release and [Ca2+]i signaling. Such studies will elucidate purinergic signaling in organs that are constantly exposed to physical stresses. This could suggest novel therapeutic targets/approach to modulate the negative impacts of excessive ATP release observed under certain pathological conditions, such as ventilator-induced lung injury.

Keyphrases: Alveolar cells, ATP imaging, ATP release, Luciferin-luciferase bioluminescence, Mechanical stress, Mechanoporation, Membrane viscoelasticity, Purinergic signaling, Ventilation-induced lung injury