Impact de l'haploinsuffisance du gène Sim1 sur le développement et la fonction du noyau paraventriculaire de l'hypothalamus

Obesity arises from imbalance of the energy homeostasis processes. Multiple anatomical and physiological evidence demonstrate the involvement of the hypothalamus in the regulation of energy homeostasis, i.e. appetite and energy expenditure. In particular, the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus plays a critical role in these important homeostatic processes. The PVN integrates multiple signals that come from the central nervous system and/or the periphery to control energy homeostasis. It regulates these processes through projections to the dorsal vagal complex (DVC), which includes the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (X) (DMV) and the adjacent nucleus of the solitary tract (NST), located in the brainstem.    A cascade of transcription factors involved in the specification of the PVN neurons has been described. One component of this cascade, the bHLH-PAS transcription factor SIM1, is required for the development of all neurons of the PVN. Mice homozygous for null alleles of Sim1 die shortly after birth, presumably because of the lack of PVN. In contrast, Sim1 heterozygous mice survive but show early-onset obesity. Interestingly, the number of PVN cells is reduced by 24% in Sim1+/- mice, suggesting that developmental defects may cause PVN dysfunction and, thus, contribute to the obesity phenotype.   In order to explore this hypothesis, we studied the impact of Sim1 haploinsufficiency on: 1) the development of the PVN and it efferent axonal projections; 2) energy homeostasis; and 3) neuronal pathways regulating energy homeostasis.    We used: 1) stereotaxic injections and immunological techniques to determine the impact of Sim1 haploinsufficiency on PVN, and it efferent axonal projections, development; 2) the pair-feeding paradigm to determine the impact of Sim1 haploinsufficiency on energy homeostasis; and 3) intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) and intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of pharmacological agents, melanotan II (MTII), leptin and cholecystokinin (CCK), to determine the impact of Sim1 haploinsufficiency on the neuronal pathways regulating energy homeostasis.     First, we noted that the expression of oxytocin (Ot) and argenin-vasopressin (Vp) mRNA is reduced by 61% and 65%, respectively, in the PVN of Sim1+/- E18.5 embryos. Furthermore, the number of OT- and VP-producing cells was found to be decreased by 84% and 41%, respectively, in Sim1+/- adult mice. Analysis of the retrograde axonal labelling of PVN neurons after stereotaxic injection of latex beads into the DVC of Sim1+/+ and Sim1+/- mice, showed a 74% reduction of PVN neurons projecting to the DVC. However, the molecular composition of the cells affected by a decrease of Sim1 remains unknown. These results indicate that Sim1 haploinsufficiency: i) specifically interferes with the development of OT- and VP-producing cells; and ii) abolishes the development of a subset of parvocellular neurons that project to the DVC. These observations therefore raise the possibility that developmental defects contribute to the obesity phenotype of Sim1+/- mice.   Second, we observed that pair-fed Sim1+/- mice do not gain more weight than littermate controls from 4 to 16 weeks of age. Moreover, qualitative and quantitative analyses showed significant increases of lean and fat mass, with hyperplasia of white adipose tissue and hypertrophy of brown adipose tissue, in Sim1+/- mice, but not in pair-fed animals. Additionally, at 16 weeks of age, insulin levels as well as liver and adipose tissue triglyceride content were not significantly different between Sim1+/+ and Sim1+/- pair-fed, but were significantly increased in Sim1+/- fed ad libitum. These results suggest that hyperphagia is the main if not the sole contributor to the obesity of Sim1+/- mice. They indicate that: i) Sim1 haploinsufficiency affects mainly food intake with no effect on energy expenditure; ii) food intake and energy expenditure are regulated by divergent pathways within the PVN; and iii) Sim1 haploinsufficiency specifically affects the feeding pathway without interfering with the thermogenesis pathway.   Third, we found that, in both mice genotype, injection of MTII, leptin or CCK induces a significant decrease in cumulative food intake. In fact, MTII i.p. injection decreases cumulative food intake of Sim1+/- and Sim1+/+ mice by 37% and 51% respectively, when compared to saline injection. Leptin i.c.v. injection reduces cumulative food intake by 47% and 32% in Sim1+/- and Sim1+/+ mice, respectively. Finally, CCK i.p. injection decreases food intake of Sim1+/- and Sim1+/+ mice by 52% and 36%, respectively. All in all, the results of these latter studies suggest that Sim1 haploinsufficiency diminishes the activity of neuronal pathways regulating energy homeostasis, in particular of pathways controlling food intake.   In conclusion, our work has shown that Sim1 haploinsufficiency affects several developmental processes of the PVN. These developmental defects may cause the dysfunction of physiological processes regulated by the PVN, including the control of food intake, and thus contribute to the hyperphagic obesity phenotype.    Sim1 heterozygous mice represent an interesting animal model of obesity in which hyperphagia is the main, if not the sole mechanism of their obesity. These mice could therefore represent a unique opportunity to investigate cellular and molecular mechanisms in control of food intake.

Keyphrases: Paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, Sim1 gene, Development, Obesity