Immuno-oncology of human prostate cancer : 
phenotypical characterization and study of the tumor-derived, androgen-regulated immunosuppressive microenvironment

Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer in Canadian men and the third cause of cancer related death. When diagnosed at an early stage, prostate cancer can be effectively cured by surgery and radiotherapy. However, current therapies do not eradicate the advanced stages of the disease. Treatment of prostate cancer via chemotherapy or hormonotherapy remains palliative. It is thus essential to optimize novel therapies whose goal is to eliminate tumor cells in patients with advanced prostate cancer. One such approach is immunotherapy.  Cancer immunotherapy has made important strides in recent years. The encouraging progress observed in pre-clinical trials has nonetheless not translated to significant results in the clinical setting. Concerning prostate cancer, the limited clinical efficacy of current immunotherapeutic protocols could be explained by the lack of studies directly evaluating the immunological microenvironment in prostate cancer patients and not in animal models or in patients afflicted by other malignancies, such as melanoma. Thus, the fundamental goal of this Ph.D. thesis is to study the immunological microenvironment in prostate cancer patients in order to better understand the impact of the tumor on the development of the anti-tumoral immune response. To realize this project, we established two main working objectives: (i) to precisely characterize the immune cell populations in tumor draining lymph nodes (LNs) and in the primary tumor of prostate cancer patients; (ii) to identify and to study the immunosuppressive pathways expressed by prostate cancer cells. The results detailed in this thesis demonstrate that prostate cancer progression is associated with the development of an immunosuppressive microenvironment, which is regulated, in part, by the presence of androgens. The initial study was based on the characterization of the immunological microenvironment of tumor draining LNs of prostate cancer patients. The results presented in chapter III allowed us to demonstrate that metastatic lymph nodes displayed cellular and histopathological evidence associated with a reduced immunological reactivity. This LN immunosuppression seemed to be dependant on the presence of metastatic cells as we noted significant immunological differences between non-metastatic and metastatic lymph nodes of the same patient. Prostate cancer progression was thus associated with the development of an immunosuppressive state, which affected tumor-draining lymph nodes. Next, we studied the impact of androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) on the immunological microenvironment of the primary tumor. Following ADT, there is a marked augmentation in intra-prostatic inflammation. Immunotherapeutic protocols currently evaluated in clinical trials are targeted at hormone refractory patients, which have received and failed ADT. However, very little information is available regarding the nature of the post-ADT immune infiltrate. Thus, it becomes essential to understand whether this post-ADT infiltrate could positively react to immunotherapy. In chapter IV, I present the results of the quantification of the immune cell abundance within the primary tumor. In patients who have received ADT prior to surgery, there was an elevated density of CD3+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes as well as CD68+ macrophages compared to control patients. We also observed an inverse correlation between the NK cell density and the risk of disease progression (biochemical recurrence). Conversely, an elevated macrophage infiltration was associated with a higher risk of progression. Furthermore, for this study, we developed a novel computerized approach allowing for the standardization of the quantification of immune cell infiltrate. This approach could facilitate the interpretation of results from independent studies on the density of immune cells within pathological specimens. This study confirmed that the pro-inflammatory impact of androgen deprivation therapy in prostate cancer patients target specifically the T lymphocyte and macrophage populations. The interesting hypothesis arising from this study was that androgens could positively regulate the expression of immunosuppressive pathways within the primary tumor. In chapter V, we evaluated the immunosuppressive mechanisms expressed by prostate cancer cells and regulated by androgens. Our analysis demonstrate that androgens increase the expression of molecules with immunosuppressive properties, such as arginase I and arginase II in an androgen receptor dependent manner. This androgen regulated expression of arginase II was also observed in prostate cancer patients treated by ATD. We observed that arginase I and arginase II participate in prostate cancer cell proliferation as well as in their immunosuppressive potential. Finally, we discovered that interleukin-8 expression was also regulated by androgens. Moreover, interleukin-8, independently of androgens, increased the expression of arginase II. Altogether, these results confirmed that androgens participate in the development of an immunosuppressive microenvironment in prostate cancer by regulating the expression of arginase I, arginase II and interlukin-8.  In conclusion, the results presented in this thesis attest to the unique character of the immunological microenvironment in prostate cancer patients. Our work has also allowed to establish novel software-based analysis methods in order to better understand the dialogue between the tumor and the immune system. Further understanding of the regulatory pathways involved in the immunological microenvironment will allow for the optimization of immunotherapies better suited to eradicate prostate cancer.

Keyphrases: Immunosuppression, Arginase, Prostate Cancer, Immunology, Immunosuppression, Androgens, Arginase, Immunohistochemistry, Lymphocytes