Biodisponibilité et effets transcriptomiques du cérium chez Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Due to their specific properties, rare earth elements (REEs) are metals that have become essential to the development of our modern society. With their increasing uses, significant modifications to the biogeochemical cycle of REEs are expected while little is known about their fate and their effects once released into the environment.  Cerium (Ce) has the particularity of being used in the form of salts or nanoparticles in various commonly used products (e.g. diesel additives, paints). Due to its particular redox reactivity, Ce is naturally poorly soluble in surface water and will therefore mainly be found in the sediments of these aquatic ecosystems. However, the physicochemical properties of the anthropogenic Ce can modify its transport and behavior. For example, engineered cerium oxide nanoparticles (Ce ENPs) are generally coated and thus may exhibit different colloidal stability from those naturally formed. Pelagic organisms in aquatic environments, including photosynthetic microorganisms, of interest in this project, could thus be exposed to new forms of Ce and at different concentrations.  As it is difficult to observe significant biological responses for environmentally relevant exposure concentrations (<1 µM Ce), the potential impacts of Ce on phytoplankton in realistic exposure scenarios are still poorly understood. Contradictory results have notably been reported with regard to the bioavailability of Ce ENPs for unicellular microalgae and the relationship between their surface properties (i.e. Ce(III)/Ce(IV) ratio, coating) and cellular responses. Quantitative data are thus always necessary for the evaluation of the potential risks of Ce for the Environment.  In this project, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii was selected as a model organism to represent microalgae in freshwater. Soluble salts of Ce, Tm, Y and three types of small Ce ENPs (<10 nm) with different coatings (i.e. uncoated, functionalized with citrate or coated with poly (acrylic acid) (PAA)) were injected into simplified aqueous media (i.e. without phosphates) at concentrations representative of those expected in contaminated environments. One of the advanced analytical techniques deployed in this project was inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry in single particle mode (SP-ICP-MS). It has made it possible to quantify the dissolved and nanoparticulate forms of Ce present in microalgae exposure media and to haracterize small Ce NMs at concentrations similar to those used to expose microalgae. Another emerging nano(eco)toxicology analysis used in this project is the whole transcriptome sequencing (RNA-Seq). RNA-Seq has permitted to identify genes and metabolic pathways that were regulated by C. reinhardtii cells when exposed to either Ce ENPs or to salts of REEs for exposure concentrations of 0.5 μM Ce, Tm or Y in controlled environments at pH 7.0.  C. reinhardtii cells were first exposed to soluble Ce salt and Ce ENPs in order to compare relative bioavailabilities of these anthropogenic Ce forms and their associated sub-lethal biological responses. The results revealed that Ce ENPs are bioavailable to C. reinhardtii but produce a manageable toward microalgae cells who seem to acclimatize for short-term exposures at environmentally relevant concentrations. Separate transcriptomic effects of Ce ionic and Ce ENPs have also been observed. The hypothesis that only the dissolution products of Ce ENPs are bioavailable for C. reinhardtii could therefore be rejected. Indeed, the microalgae exposed to the tested ENPs specifically modulated the expression of the genes involved in the ubiquitin-proteasome system and the structure of flagella. Despite these common effects between Ce ENPs, their bioavailability was mainly influenced by their coatings, and not by the Ce(III)/Ce(IV) ratio of surface atoms of ENPs. The coating of citrate has attenuated the transcriptomic effects of Ce ENPs on microalgae, probably due to the beneficial effects of the desorption of citrate on their surface.  The time-response (0 to 360 min.) and concentration-response (0 to 3 µM) profiles of specific Ce ENPs or ionic Ce genes were then analyzed to verify their potential use as biomarkers of exposure to ionic Ce. Due to their high specificity and the relative linearity of the expression of biomarkers as a function of both time and concentration, over a range of concentrations relevant to the environment (0,03 à 3 µM), four biomarkers (Cre17.g737300, GTR12, MMP6 and HSP22E) have been identified as being specific to the ionic Ce for C. reinhardtii. Much greater variability in mRNA levels was observed when the pH of the medium varied (5.0 to 8.0). This result probably reflects the complexity of the speciation of Ce resulting from the formation of metastable species even in simple aqueous media.  The transcriptomic effects of soluble Ce, Tm, Y salts applied individually or in the form of an equimolar mixture were characterized by RNA-Seq in order to determine the relative bioavailability of Ce compare to the one of other REEs for microalgae, due to Ce atypical behavior in solution. The microalgae exposed to Ce specifically modulated the expression of genes involved in glutamate metabolism and protein folding. However, competitive interactions have been identified between the REEs when applied as a mixture. These results suggest that the approach of government agencies to derive toxicity data from a single metal would be largely conservative for rare earth metals.  Throughout this project, the analysis of transcriptomic responses by RNA-Seq in C. reinhardtii made it possible to characterize the bioavailability of Ce and to identify transcriptomic biomarkers of exposure in microalgae in different contexts; in the presence of ENPs or other REEs. However, the integration of such biomarkers in the development of in situ bioassays seems limited.

Keyphrases: Transcriptome, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Rare earth elements, Engineered nanoparticles, Phytoplankton, RNA-Seq, Bioavailability, Exposure biomarkers